1 Omar Chakhtoun

1 NYU SPS

Chapter 1: Functions
Spring 2024
Example (Plotting Points on Two Dimensional coordinate
System)
Plot the following ordered pairs on two dimensional coordinate
system

(0, 0), (5, 3), (0, 4), (−4, 2), (−5, 0), (−5, −3), , (0, −4), (3, −2)
Example (Plotting Points on Two Dimensional coordinate
System)
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Ordered pairs plotted on x-y coordinate system

Vocabulary ( Relation)
a. An equation in 2 variables defines a relation between the
two variables
b. A set of ordered pairs is also called a relation.
c. The Domain is the set of x-coordinates of the ordered
pairs. Each value in the domain is also known as an
input value, or independent variable, and is often labeled
with the lowercase letter x.
d. Range is the set of y-coordinates of the ordered pairs. Each
value in the range is also known as an output value,or
dependent variable, and is often labeled lowercase letter y .
Example (Relation)
Find the domain and range of the relation
n o
(4, 9), (−4, 9), (2, 3), (10, −5)

Solution:
n o
a. The Domain D is 4, −4, 2, 10
n o
b. The Range R is 9, 3, −5
Definition (Function)
A function is a set of order pairs in which each x-coordinate has
exactly one y-coordinate.
Example (Function)
Is the relation
n o
(4, 9), (−4, 9), (2, 3), (10, −5)

also a function?
Solution: Since each element of the domain is paired with only
one element of the range, it is a Function.
Remark (Characteristics of a Function)
1. Each element in the domain must be matched with an
element in the range.
2. Some elements in the range may not be matched with any
element in the domain.
3. Two or more elements in the domain may be matched with
the same element in the range.
4. An element in the domain cannot be matched with two
different elements in the range.
Definition (Four Ways to Represent a Function)
1. Verbally by a sentence that describes how the input
variable is related to the output variable.
2. Numerically by a table or a list of ordered pairs that
matches input values with output values
3. Graphically by points in a coordinate plane in which the
horizontal positions represent the input values (x − axis) and
the vertical positions represent the output values (y -axis)
4. Algebraically by an equation in two variables
Definition (Vertical Line Test)
If a vertical line can be drawn so that it intersects a graph more
than once, the graph is not the graph of a function.(If no such
vertical line can be drawn, the graph is that of a function.).
Example (Vertical Line Test for Functions)
6 y
5
4
3
2
y = 3x + 2
1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Since the vertical line intersects the graph of the equation of the
straight line y = 3x + 2 at exactly one point , it is a function
Example (Vertical Line Test for Functions)
6 y
5
4
3
2 y = x2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: This is a function since the vertical line intersects the graph of
the equation y = x 2 at exactly one point .
Example (Vertical Line Test for Functions)
y
2
y2 = x
1

x
1 2 3 4 5 6

−1

−2

Figure: The red vertical line intersects the graph of y 2 = x more than
once namely at (4, 2) and (4, −2). In others words the input 4 has two
outputs 2 and -2. Thus is not a function
Example (Vertical Line Test for Functions)
6 y
5
4
3
2 x =3
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: This is not a function since the vertical line intersects the graph
of the vertical line x = 3 at an infinit number of points.
Remark (Vertical Line Test)
Since the graph of a linear equation is a line, all linear equations
are functions, except those whose graph is a vertical line.
Thus, all linear equations are functions except those of the form
x = c, which are vertical lines
Example (Function)
Which of the following equations are functions?
a. y = 2x is a Function
b. y = −3x − 1 is a Function
c. y = 8 is a Function, which is a horizontal line
c. x = − is Not a Function, which is a vertical line line
Notation (Function Notation)
The variable y is a function of the variable x. For each value
of x , there is only one value of y . Thus, we say the variable x
is thethe independent variable because any value in the
domain can be assigned to x. The variable y is the the
dependent variable because its value depends on x.
We often use letters such as f, g, and h to name functions.
For example, the symbol f (x) means function of x and is read
“f of x.” This notation is called Function Notation.
We can use function notation to write the equation

y = −3x + 4 as f (x) = −3x + 2

Example (Evaluating a function)
Given the function defined by the equation f (x) = x 2 − 3x + 1.
Determine
1. f (0) = 02 − 3(0) + 1 = 1
2.f (1) = 12 − 3(1) + 1 = −1
3. f (−1) = (−1)2 − 3(−1) + 1 = 1 + 3 + 1 = 5
4. f (2) = (2)2 − 3(2) + 1 = 4 − 6 + 1 = −2
5. f (2a) = (2a)2 − 3(2a) + 1 = 4a2 − 6a + 1
6. f (x + 3)

f (x + 3) = (x + 3)2 − 3(x + 3) + 1 = 4x 2 − 6x + 1
= x 2 + 6x + 9 − 3x − 9 + 1 = x 2 + 3x + 1
Exercise (Evaluating a function)
Let h 6= 0
1. Determine g (x + h) where g (x) = −3x + 2
2. Determine f (x + h) where f (x) = −2x 2 + 1
Example (Finding an Equation of a Function)
Express the relationship 2n + 6p = 12 as a function p = f (n), if
possible.
Solution: We need to solve for the variable p. That is

2n + 6p = 12
−2n = −2n subtract −2n from both sides and
6p = 12 − 2n
6p 12 − 2n
= Divide both sides by 6 and simplify.
6 6
12 2n 1
p = − =2− n
6 6 3
Therefore we write
1
p = f (n) = 2 − n
3
Definition (Graphs of Equations)
A relationship between two quantities is always expressed as
an equation in two variables. For example, y = 7 − 3x is an
equation in x and y.
An ordered pair (a, b) is a solution or solution point of an
equation in x and y when the substitutions x = a and y = b
result in a true statement .
The graph of an equation is the set of all points that are
solutions of the equation.
Example (Graphs of Equations)
Determine whether (a) (2, 13) and (b) (−1, −3) lie on the graph
of y = 10x − 7
Solution:
(a)

y = 10x − 7
?
13 = 10(2) − 7
13 = 13 X

The point (2, 13) does lie on the graph of y = 10x − 7

because it is a solution point of the equation y = 10x − 7.
Example (Graphs of Equations)
(b)

y = 10x − 7
?
−3 = 10(−1) − 7
−3 6= −17

The point (−3, −1) does not lie on the graph of y = 10x − 7
because it is not a solution point of the equation y = 10x − 7
Procedure (The Point-Plotting Method of Graphing)
1. When possible, isolate one of the variables.
2. Construct a table of values showing several solution points.
3. Plot these points in a rectangular coordinate system.
4. Connect the points with a smooth curve or line.
Example (The Point-Plotting Method of Graphing)
Graph the equation y = |x|
Solution: We need to set up a table of values (solution points)

x y = |x| (x, y )
0 |0| = 0 (0,0)
−1 | − 1| = 1 (-1,1)
1 |1| = 1 (1,1)
−2 | − 2| = 2 (-2,2)
2 |2| = 2 (2,2)
−3 | − 3| = 3 (-3,3)
3 |3| = 3 (3,3)
Example (The Point-Plotting Method of Graphing)
y = |x|
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of the equation y = |x|

Definition (Difference Quotient)
Let f be a function and h 6= 0 a real number. The ratio defined by

f (x + h) − f (x)
h
is called a Difference Quotient of the function f .
Example (Difference Quotient)
Compute the difference quotient for f (x) = −7x + 3.
Solution: Let h 6= 0
Step 1 Compute f (x + h) = −7(x + h) + 3 = −7x − 7h + 3
Step 2 Compute the difference

f (x + h) − f (x) = −7x − 7h + 3 − (−7x + 3)

= −7x − 7h + 3 + 7x − 3
= −7h

Step 3 Compute the quotient

f (x + h) − f (x) −7h
=
h h
= −7
Example (Difference Quotient)
Compute the difference quotient for f (x) = −3x 2 + 4.
Solution: Let h 6= 0
Step 1 Compute

f (x + h) = −3(x + h)2 + 4 = −3(x 2 + 2xh + h2 ) + 4

= −3x 2 − 6xh − 3h2 + 4

Step 2 Compute the difference

f (x + h) − f (x) = (−3x 2 − 6xh − 3h2 + 4) − (−3x 2 + 4)

= −6xh − 3h2

Step 3 Compute the quotient

f (x + h) − f (x) −6xh − 3h2 h(−6x − 3h)

= =
h h h
= −6x − 3h
Example (Finding Domain and Range of a function)
1. The set of all first elements in the ordered pairs contained
within a function is called the domain of the function
2. The set of all second elements is called the range of the
function.
3. For example consider the function
f = {(−1, 2), (0, 7), (−2, 7), (4, 10)}

Df = {−1, 0, −2, 4} and Rf = {2, 7, 10}

4. When the correspondence of the function is given by an

equation, the domain is determined by examination of the
permissible values x. We also assume that only real numbers
are allowed in the domain. The range is often obtained from
the sketch of the graph.
Example (Finding Domain and Range Graphically)
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Df = [1, 4] and Rf = [−3, 3]

Example (Finding Domain and Range Graphically)
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Df = (1, 4] and Rf = [−3, 3)

Example (Finding Domain and Range Graphically)
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: f is not defined at x = −2 therefore Df = (−2, 2] and Rf = [−, 3]

Example (Finding Domain and Range Graphically)
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Df = [−1, 1) and Rf = [−4, 4)

Example (Finding Domain and Range Graphically)
f (x) = |x|
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Df = (−∞, ∞) and Rf = [0, ∞)

Example (Finding Domain and Range Graphically)
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Df = (1, 4) and Rf = (−3, 3)

Example (Finding Domain and Range Graphically)
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Df = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) and Rf = (0, ∞)

Example (Finding Domain and Range Graphically)
√
f (x) = x
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: It follows from the graph Df = [0, ∞) and Rf = [0, ∞). The
square root function is defined only on positive real numbers.
Example (Finding Domain and Range Graphically)
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: It follows from the graph Df =? and Rf =?.

Example (Finding the Domain of a function algebraically)
Determine the√domain and range of the function defined by the
equation y = 2x − 6.
Solution: The domain of this function are those real numbers
satisfying the condition 2x − 3 ≥ 0. Solving this linear inequality
give us the domain in interval form. That is

2x − 6 ≥ 0
2x ≥ 6
2x 6
≥
2 2
x≥ 3
h 
D = 3, ∞
Example (Finding the Domain of a function algebraically)
√
y = 2x − 6
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
h 
Figure: It follows from the graph Df = 3, ∞ and Rf = [0, ∞).
Example (Finding the Domain of a function algebraically)
Determine the domain of the function defined by the equation
1
y = x 2 −3x+2 .
Solution: The domain of this function are those real numbers
satisfying the condition x 2 − 3x + 2 6= 0. We instead solve the
quadratic equation x 2 − 3x + 2 = 0.

x 2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 1)(x − 2) = 0
x −1 = 0 or x − 2 = 0
x =1 = or x =2 Thus the domain is
D = {x|x 6= 1 and x 6= 2}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)
√
x−1
What is the domain of x 2 −3x+2
?
Definition (Piecewise functions)
A piecewise function is a function in which more than one
formula is used to define the output. Each formula has its own
domain, and the domain of the function is the union of all these
smaller domains. We notate this idea like this:

formula 1
 if x is in domain 1
f (x) = formula 2 if x is in domain 2

formula 3 if x is in domain 3


In piecewise notation, the absolute value function is

(
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0
Example (Writing a Piecewise Function)
A museum charges $5 per person for a guided tour with a group of
1 to 9 people or a fixed $50 fee for a group of 10 or more people.
Write a function relating the number of people, n, to the cost, C .
Solution: (
5n if 1 ≤ n < 10
C (n) =
50 if n ≥ 10
Example (Evaluating a Piecewise Function)
The function in the following example is defined by different
formulas(in different parts of its domain.
1 − x if x ≤ 0,
f (x) =
x2 if x > 0
(a) f (0) = 1 − 0 = 1
(b) f (2) = 22 = 4
(c) f (−3) = 1 − (−3) = 1 + 3 = 4
(d) Domain(f) = R = (−∞, ∞)
(e) Graph the function and state the range
Example (Graph of a Piecewise Function)
(
x if x ≥ 0,
f (x) =
6 y x2 if x < 0
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: It follows from the graph that the domain is (−∞, ∞) and range
is [0, ∞)
Example (Graph of a Piecewise Function)
(
1−x if x ≤ 0,
f (x) =
6 y x2 if x > 0
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: It follows from the graph that the domain is (−∞, ∞) and range
is (0, ∞)
Definition (The zeros of a function)
The zeros of a function y = f (x) are the x-values for which
f (x) = 0.
Example (The zeros of a function)
Find the zeros of the quadratic function f (x) = x 2 − 3x + 2
Solution: We solve for x :

f (x) = 0
2
x − 3x + 2 = 0
(x − 1)(x − 2) = 0
x −1=0 or x −2=0
x =1 or x =2

The Zeros of the function f are 1 and 2

Note that (2, 0) and (3, 0) are also called the x -intercepts of the
graph of the function f.
Example (The zeros of a function)
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The zeros of y = x 2 − 3x + 2 are just the x -intercepts (1, 0) and

(2, 0) of the parabola. The y -intercept is just (0, f (0)) = (0, 2)

.
Example (Zeros of a Rational Function)
2−4
Find the zeros the function h(x) = xx 2 +1 algebraically.
Solution: That is we solve for x the equation:

h(x) = 0
x2 −4
2
= 0
x +1
x2 − 4 = 0
(x − 2)(x + 2) = 0
x −2=0 or x +2=0
x =2 or x =2

The zeros of h are x = −2 and x = 2

Example (Zeros of a Rational Function)
6 y
5 x 2 −4
4
h(x) = x 2 +1
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
2
Figure: The zeros of h(x) = xx 2−4
+1 are just the x -intercepts (2, 0) and
(−2, 0) of the rational function. The y -intercept is just
(0, h(0)) = (0, −4)

.
Example (Zeros of a Cubic function)
Find the zeros of the polynomial function f (x) = x 3 − 4x.
Solution: That is we solve for x the equation by using a
factorization

f (x) = 0
3
x − 4x = x(x 2 − 4)
x(x − 2)(x + 2) = 0
x = 0 or x =2 or x = −2

The zeros of the function f are 0, −2 and 2 which means that the
graph of f crosses the x- axis at the points (−2, 0), (0, 0) and
(2, 0) .
Example (Zeros of a Cubic function)
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of f (x) = x 3 − 4x

Definition (Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Function)
A function f is increasing on an open interval when, for any x1
and x2 in the interval,

x1 < x2 implies f (x1 ) < f (x2 )

A function f is decreasing on an open interval when, for any x1

and x2 in the interval,

x1 < x2 implies f (x1 ) > f (x2 )

A function f is constant on an open interval when, for any x1 and

x2 in the interval,
f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
Example (Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Function)
6 y
5
4
f (x) = x 3 − 3x
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The function increasing on both intervals (−∞, −1) and (1, ∞)
and decreasing on the interval (−1, 1).
Example (Increasing, Decreasing, and Constant Function)
6 y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The function is increasing on the interval (−∞, 0) , constant on

(0, 2) and decreasing on the interval (2, ∞).
Definition (Relative Minimum and Relative Maximum)
A function value f (a) is a relative minimum of f when there
exists an interval (x1 , x2 ) that contains a such that

x1 < x < x2 implies f (a) ≤ f (x)

A function value f (a) is a relative maximum of f when there

exists an interval (x1 , x2 ) that contains a such that

x1 < x < x2 implies f (a) ≥ f (x)

Example (Relative Minimum and Relative Maximum)
6 y
5
4
f (x) = x 3 − 3x
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The function relative maximum occurs at the point (−1, 2) on

the interval (−∞, 0) and a relative minimum at the point (1, −2) on the
interval (0, ∞)
Definition (Average Rate of Change)
1. A rate of change describes how an output quantity
changes relative to the change in the input quantity. The
units on a rate of change are “output units per input units”.
2. The average rate of change between two input values is
the total change of the function values (output values) divided
by the change in the input values.

The Average rate of change of f from x1 to x2

change in y
=
change in x
∆y
=
∆x
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
=
x2 − x1
Example (Average Rate of Change)
Find the average rates of change of f (x) = x 3 − 3x (a) from
x1 = −2 to x2 = −1 and (b) from x1 = 0 to x2 = 1
Solution:
(a) The average rate of change of f from from x1 = −2 to
x2 = −1 is
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) f (−1) − f (−2) 2 − (−2)
= = = 4X
x2 − x1 −1 − (−2) 1

(b) The average rate of change of f from from x1 = 0 to

x2 = 1 is
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) f (1) − f (0) −2 − 0
= = = −2X
x2 − x1 1−0 1
Example (Average Rate of Change Interpretation)
6 y
5
f (x) = x 3 − 3x
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The secant line passing through the points (−2, −2) and (−1, 2)
has slope (rate) equal to 4.
Example (Average Rate of Change as Average Speed)
The distance s (in feet) a moving car is from a stoplight is given
by the function
√
s(t) = 20 x 3

where t is the time (in seconds).

a. Find the average speed of the car from t1 = 0 to t2 = 4
seconds
b. Find the average speed of the car from from t1 = 4 to
t2 = 9 seconds
Example (Average Rate of Change as Average Speed)
Solution:
a. The average speed of the car from from t1 = 0 to t2 = 4
seconds is
s(t2 ) − s(t1 ) s(4) − t(0)
=
t2 − t1 4−0
160 − 0
= = 40 feet per second
4
b. The average speed of the car from from t1 = 4 to t2 = 9
seconds is
s(t2 ) − s(t1 ) s(9) − t(4)
=
t2 − t1 9−4
540 − 160
= = 76 feet per second.
5
Definition (Tests for Even and Odd Functions)
1. A function y = f (x) is even if, for each x in the domain of f

f (−x) = f (x)

The graph of f has a symmetry with respect to the y -axis

2. A function y = f (x) is odd if, for each x in the domain of f

f (−x) = −f (x)

The graph of f has a symmetry with respect to the origin

Example (Odd Function)
The function defined by the equation y = f (x) = x 3 − x is odd.
Solution: First the domain of the function is all reals. That is
Df = (−∞, ∞)

f (−x) = (−x)3 − (−x)

= −x 3 + x
= −(x 3 − x)
= −f (x)

Thus the graph of f has a symmetry with respect to the origin

Example (Graph of an Odd Function)
6 y
5
f (x) = x 3 − x
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Odd function. The red piece is symmetric to the blue piece with
respect to the origin.
Example (Even Function)
The function defined by the equation y = g (x) = x 2 + 1 is even.
Solution: First the domain of the function is all reals. That is
Df = (−∞, ∞)

g (−x) = (−x)2 + 1
= x2 + 1
= g (x)

Hence the function is even and the graph of g has a symmetry with
respect to the y -axis
Example (Graph of an Even Function)
6 y
5
g (x) = x 2 + 1
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Even function. The points (1, 2) and (−1, 2) are symmetric with
respect to the y -axis
Library of some common functions

Definition (Linear Function)

When we say that f is a linear function of x , we mean that the
graph of the function is a line , so we can use the slope-intercept
form of the equation of a line to write a formula for the function as

f (x) = mx + b

where is m the slope of the line and (0, b) is the y -intercept.

A characteristic feature of linear functions is that they grow at a
constant rate.
Definition (Special Linear Functions)
1. A constant function has the form

f (x) = c

and has a domain of all real numbers with a range consisting

of a single real number c. The graph of a constant function is
a horizontal line.
2. The identity function has the form

f (x) = x

The identity function has a slope of m = 1 and a y -intercept

at (0, 0). The graph of the identity function is a line for which
each x-coordinate equals the corresponding y -coordinate.
Example (Constant Function)
6 y
5
f (x) = 3
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of constant function with domain D = (−∞, ∞) and

range R = {3}
Example ( identity function)
6 y
5
f (x) = x
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of identity function with domain (−∞, ∞) and range
(−∞, ∞)
Definition (The squaring function)
The graph of the squaring function

f (x) = x 2

is a U-shaped curve with the characteristics below

The domain of the function is the set of all real numbers.
The range of the function is the set of all nonnegative real
numbers.
The function is even.
The graph has an intercept at (0, 0).
The graph is decreasing on the interval (−∞, 0) and
increasing on the interval (0, ∞).
The graph is symmetric with respect to the y -axis.
The graph has a relative minimum at (0, 0).
Example (The squaring function)
6 y
5
f (x) = x 2
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of squaring function with domain (−∞, ∞) and range
[0, ∞)
Definition (The cubic function)
The graph of the cubic function

f (x) = x 3

is a curve with the characteristics below

The domain of the function is the set of all real numbers.
The range of the function is the set of all real numbers.
The function is odd.
The graph has an intercept at (0, 0).
The graph is increasing on the interval (−∞, ∞).
The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.
Example (The cubic function)
6 y
5
4
3
2
f (x) = x 3
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of cubic function with domain (−∞, ∞) and range
(−∞, ∞)
Definition (The square root Function)
The graph of the square root function
√
f (x) = x

is a curve with the characteristics below

The domain of the function is the set of all nonnegative real
numbers.
The range of the function is the set of all nonnegative real
numbers.
The graph has an intercept at (0, 0).
The graph is increasing on the interval (0, ∞).
Example (The square root Function)
6 y
5 √
f (x) = x
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of the square root function with domain [0, ∞) and
range [0, ∞)
Definition (The reciprocal Function)
The graph of the reciprocal function
1
f (x) =
x
is a curve with the characteristics below
The domain of the function is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
The range of the function is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
The function is odd.
The graph does not have any intercepts.
The graph is decreasing on the intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞).
The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin
Example (The reciprocal Function)
6 y
5 1
f (x) = x
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of the reciprocal function.

Definition (Vertical and Horizontal Shifts)
Let c be a positive real number. Vertical and horizontal shifts in
the graph of y = f (x) are represented as follows.
1 Vertical shift c units up: h(x) = f (x) + c
2 Vertical shift c units down: h(x) = f (x) − c
3 Horizontal shift c units to the right: h(x) = f (x − c).
3 Horizontal shift c units to the left: h(x) = f (x + c).
Example (Vertical Shifts)
6 y
5
y = x2
4
3
y = x2 + 2 2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of y = x 2 + 2 is obtained by shifting the graph of

y = x 2 two units upward
Example (Vertical Shifts)
6 y
5
y = x2
4
3
y = x2 − 4 2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: the graph of y = x 2 − 4 is obtained by shifting the graph of

y = x 2 four units downward
Example (Horizontal Shifts)
6 y
5
y = (x − 2)2
4
3
y = x2 2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Horizontal Shift: The graph of y = (x − 2)2 is obtained by

shifting the graph of y = x 2 two units to the right
Example (Horizontal Shifts)
6 y
5
y = x3
4
3
y = (x + 3)3 2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Horizontal Shift: The graph of y = (x + 3)3 is obtained by

shifting the graph of y = x 3 three units to the left
Example (Vertical and Horizontal Shifts)
6 y
5
y = x2
4
3
y = (x + 3)2 + 1 2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of y = (x + 3)2 + 1 is obtained by shifting the graph

of y = x 2 three units to the left and one unit upward
Example (Vertical and Horizontal Shifts)
6 y
5
y = x2
4
3
y = (x − 3)2 − 2 2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of y = (x − 3)2 − 2 is obtained by shifting the graph

of y = x 2 three units to the right and two units downward
Definition (Reflections in the Coordinate Axes)
Reflections in the coordinate axes of the graph of y = f (x) are
represented as follows.
1. The graph of y = −f (x) is obtained by reflecting the
graph of y = f (x) in the x-axis.
2. The graph of y = f (−x) is obtained by reflecting the
graph of y = f (x) in the y -axis.
Example (Reflections in x -axis )
6 y
5
y = x2
4
3
y = −x 2 2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Reflection: The graph of y = −x 2 is obtained from the graph of

y = x 2 by reflecting in the x -axis
Example (Reflections in y -axis )
6 y
5 √
y= x
4
√ 3
y= −x 2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
√
Figure:
√ Reflection: The graph of y = −x is obtained from the graph of
y = x by reflecting in the y -axis
Example (Reflection and shift )
6 y
5
y = x2
4
3
y = −x 2 + 4 2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of y = −x 2 + 4 is obtained from the graph of y = x 2

by first reflexing in the x- axis and then shifting four units upward
Definition (Sum, Difference, Product, and Quotient of
Functions)
Let f and g be two functions with overlapping domains. Then, for
all x common to both domains, the sum, difference, product, and
quotient of f and g are defined as follows

Sum: (f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x)

Difference: (f − g )(x) := f (x) − g (x)
Product: (f ġ )(x) := f (x) · g (x)
f  f (x)
Quotient: (x) := , g (x) 6= 0
g g (x)
Example (Sum, Difference, Product, and Quotient of
Functions)
Let f (x) = 2x + 3 and g (x) = x 2 + 4x + 4

(a) (f + g )(x) := f (x) + g (x)

= 2x + 3 + x 2 + 4x + 4
= x 2 + 6x + 7
(b) (f − g )(x) := f (x) − g (x) = (2x + 3) − (x 2 + 4x + 4)
= 2x + 3 − x 2 − 4x − 4
= −x 2 − 2x − 1
(c) (f · g )(x) := f (x) · g (x) = (2x + 3)(x 2 + 4x + 4)
= 2x(x 2 + 4x + 4) + 3(x 2 + 4x + 4)
= 2x 3 + 8x 2 + 8x + 3x 2 + 12x + 12
= 2x 3 + 11x 2 + 20x + 12
Example (Sum, Difference, Product, and Quotient of
Functions)

f  f (x)
(d) (x) := , g (x) 6= 0
g g (x)
2x + 3
= 2
, x 2 + 4x + 4 6= 0
x + 4x + 4
 
Therefore the Domain of gf (x) will be all real numbers except
those x 2 + 4x + 4 = 0. That is we need to solve the equation

x 2 + 4x + 4 = 0 is equivalent to (x + 2)2 = 0
x + 2 = 0 is equivalent to x = −2

Thus
D f = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, ∞)
9
Definition (Composition of Two Functions)
The composition of the function f with the function g is

(f ◦ g )(x) := f (g (x))

The domain of f ◦ g is the set of all x in the domain of g such that

g(x) is in the domain of f .
Example (Composition of Two Functions)
Find (f ◦ g )(x) and (g ◦ f )(x) where f (x) = 2x + 3 and
g (x) = x 2 + 1
Solution:

(f ◦ g )(x) := f (g (x))
= 2g (x) + 3
= 2(x 2 + 1) + 1
= 2x 2 + 2 + 3
= 2x 2 + 5
(g ◦ f )(x) := g (f (x)) = (f (x))2 + 1 = (2x + 3)2 + 1
= (2x)2 + 2(2x)(3) + 32 + 1 = 4x 2 + 12x + 10

with a domain all reals numbers R = (−∞, ∞).

Example (Composition of Two Functions)
Solution:

(g ◦ f )(x) := g (f (x))
= (f (x))2 + 1
= (2x + 3)2 + 1
= (2x)2 + 2(2x)(3) + 32 + 1
= 4x 2 + 12x + 10

with a domain all reals numbers R = (−∞, ∞).

Example (Composition of Two Functions)
x−3 1
Find the domain of f ◦ g when f (x) = x+2 and g (x) = x
Solution:

(f ◦ g )(x) := f (g (x))
g (x) − 3
= , x 6= 0 and g (x) + 2 6= 0
g (x) + 2
1
−3 1
= x1 , x 6= 0 and + 2 6= 0
x +2
x
x( x1 − 3) 1
= 1
, x 6= 0 and x 6= −
x( x + 2) 2
1 − 3x 1
= , x 6= 0 and x 6= −
1 + 2x 2

with a domain Df ◦g = (−∞, − 12 ) ∪ (− 12 , 0) ∪ (0, ∞)

Example (Decomposing a Composite Function)
Consider the function defined by the equation h(x) = (1 − 4x)27 ,
find f (x) and g (x) so that

h(x) = (f ◦ g )(x) = f (g (x)) = (1 − 4x)27

Solution: Consider g (x) = 1 − 4x as the inner function and

f (x) = x 27 the outer function. Then write

(f ◦ g )(x) = (1 − 4x)27
= (g (x))27
= f (g (x))
Definition (Inverse Function)
Let f and g be two functions such that

f (g (x)) = x for each x in the domain of g .

and

g (f (x)) = x for each x in the domain of f .

Under these conditions, the function g is the inverse function of

the function f . The function g is denoted by f −1 ( read“f -
inverse”). So

f (f −1 (x)) = x and f −1 (f (x)) = x

The domain of f must be equal to the range of f −1 , and the range

of f must be equal to the domain of f −1
Remark (Inverse Function)
1. If g is the inverse function of f , then f is the inverse
function of g .
2. The domain of f −1 = g is equal to the range of f , and the
range of f −1 = g is equal to the domain of f .
3. A function need not have an inverse function, but when it
does, the inverse function is unique
Example (Verifying Inverse Functions)
Show that the function g is the inverse function of each f where
√
f (x) = x − 1 and g (x) = x 2 + 1

Solution: Before Starting the computations, Notice that the

domain of the function f is[1, ∞) and with range [0, ∞) (why?
Think about its graph)
p
f (g (x)) = g (x) − 1
p
= x2 + 1 − 1
√
= x2
= x why?
g (f (x)) = (f (x))2 − 1
√
= ( x − 1)2 + 1
= x −1+1
= x
Example (Graphs of Inverse Functions)
6 y
5
g (x) = x2 +1
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 √
−2 f (x) = x −1
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graph of the inverse function g (x) is symmetric to the graph
of f(x) with respect to the dashed line y = x.
Example (Graphs of Inverse Functions)
6 y
1 5
g (x) = 2 (x + 3)
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5
−2 f (x) = 2x − 3
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graphs of f and g are reflections of each other in the line
y = x. So, f and g are inverse functions of each other.
Example (Graphs of Inverse Functions)
6 y
5
f (x) = x 2, x ≥0
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 √
−2 g (x) = x
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The graphs of f and g are reflections of each other in the line
y = x. So, f and g are inverse functions of each other.
Definition (one-to-one function)
A one-to-one function is a function in which each output value
corresponds to exactly one input value. Algebraically means that

If f (x) = f (y ), then x = y

Definition (Horizontal Line Test for one-to-one Function)

A function f is one-to-one function if and only if
no horizontal line intersects the graph of f at more than one
point.
Example (Horizontal Line Test for one-to-one Function)
6 y
5
f (x) = x 3 − 1
4
3
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: f is one-to-one on its domain (−∞, ∞) since its graph passes the
horizontal line test.
Example (Horizontal Line Test for one-to-one Function)
6 y
5
f (x) = x 3 − x + 1
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: The horizontal line intersects the graph of f more than once, so
it’s not one- to- one on its domain (−∞, ∞)
Definition
A function f has an inverse function if and only if f is one-to-one.

Definition (Horizontal Line Test for Inverse Functions)

A function f has an inverse function if and only if no horizontal
line intersects the graph of f at more than one point.
Example (Horizontal Line Test for Inverse Functions)
6 y
√ 5
g (x) = 3
x f (x) = x 3
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Because f√is one-to-one over its entire domain, it has an inverse
function g (x) = 3 x with a domain all reals
Example (Horizontal Line Test for Inverse Functions)
6 y
5
f (x) = x 2
4
3
2
1
x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6

Figure: Because f is not one-to-one, it does not have an inverse function

on its domain (−∞, ∞)
Procedure (Finding an Inverse Function )
1. Use the Horizontal Line Test to decide whether f has an
inverse function
2. In the equation for f (x), replace f (x) with y .
3. Interchange the roles of x and y , and solve for y .
4. Replace y with f −1 (x) in the new equation.
5. Verify that f and f −1 are inverse functions of each other
by showing that the domain of f is equal to the range of f −1 ,
the range of f is equal to the domain of f −1 , and
f (f −1 (x)) = x and f −1 (f (x)) = x.
Example (Finding an Inverse Function )
5−x
Find the inverse function of f (x) = 3x+2

5−x
f (x) =
3x + 2
5−x
y =
3x + 2
5−y
x =
3y + 2
x(3y + 2) = 5 − y
3xy + 2x = 5−y
3xy + y = 5 − 2x
y (3x + 1) = 5 − 2x
5 − 2x
y =
3x + 1
Example (Finding an Inverse Function )

5 − 2x
y =
3x + 1
5 − 2x
f −1 (x) =
3x + 1
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION!