NED University of Engineering & Technology

Department of Petroleum Engineering

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS (CE-212)

CREDIT HOUR: 3 + 1

COURSE TEACHER:
MUHAMMAD YOUSUF IQBAL
PhD Scholar
ME & BE (CIVIL ENGINEERING), NEDUET
 Assessment

Sessional Assessment Distribution (40 Marks)

1. Pre-Mid Quiz + Assignment (10%)
2. Mid-Term (50%)
3. Post-Mid Quiz + Assignment (10%)
4. CEP (30%)
 Some suggestion

1. Attend Lectures
It takes longer to understand from the
lecture notes and books

2. Develop good feel for the subject

It is practical, interesting and makes lot of sense
 Book(s) & Reference Material

1. Mechanics of Materials, 6th Edition, by RC Hibbler

2. Mechanics of Materials, 6th Edition, by James M. Gere
3. Lectures
 Course outline

1. Different stress states

a. Uniaxial state of stresses & strains,
b. relationship between elastic constants;
c. Responses of materials under different sets of monotonic loading;
d. normal & shearing stress & strains;
e. Gradually & suddenly applied loads;
f. Distributions of direct stress on uniform & non-uniform members;
g. thermal stresses & strain.
 Course outline (Cont..)

2. Bending theory
a. Theory simple bending,
b. position of neutral axis,
c. moment of resistance and section modulus;
d. bending & shearing stress distribution in beams;
e. Relationship between load, shear force & bending moment;
f. stresses in composite sections;
g. curvature, slope & deflections of beams using integration methods.
 Course outline (Cont..)

3. Biaxial state of stress

a. biaxial state of stresses,
b. resolution of stresses principal plane,
c. principal stresses & strains;
d. graphical representation of stresses & strain,
e. Mohr’s circle of stresses & strains
 Course outline (Cont..)

4. Theory of Torsion
a. theory of torsion of solid & hollow circular shafts,
b. shearing stress distribution & angle of twist,
c. strength & stiffness of shaft.
 Course outline (Cont..)

5. Cylinders
a. analysis of thin & thick cylinders.

6. Stability
a. struts & columns;
b. Euler, Rankin & other formula for bucking load of columns;
c. stability analysis of columns under eccentric loading.
1. Different stress states
1.1 Introduction to Mechanics of Solids
Mechanics of Materials
The branch of applied mechanics that deal with the behavior of solid bodies
subjected to various types of loading.

Principle Objective:
Stresses, Strains, and displacements in structures and their components
1. Different stress states

 Mechanical Behavior
Understanding of mechanical behavior is essential for the design of all types of
structures

 Physical Properties of the material and Theoretical Laws

Problems

 Understanding of the basic concepts

 Application of these concepts on practical situation

Normal Stress and strain
 Prismatic Member
Straight structural member having same cross-section through out its length.
 Axial Force
Load directed along the axis of the member, resulting in either tension or
compression in the bar.
Normal Stress and strain
 Let us Consider free-body diagram of Tow-bar
Stress: Force per unit area
𝑃
𝜎=𝐴

Tensile & Compressive Stress:

 When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the
stresses are tensile stresses.
 When the bar is compressed by the forces P,
the stresses are compressive stresses.

Figure:
(a) FBD, (b) segment of the bar before loading, (c)
segment of the bar after loading, and (d) normal
stresses in the bar
Normal Stress and strain
Normal Stress:
The stresses act in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface. Normal stresses
may be either tensile or compressive.
Unit:
psi, ksi, Pascal (N/m2) and MPa (N/mm2)

Limitation:
The equation P/A is valid only if the stress is uniformly distributed over the cross
section of the bar or the axial force P acts through the centroid of the cross-
sectional area.
Normal Stress and strain
Strain:
The elongation of a segment is equal to its length divided by the total length L
and multiplied by the total elongation 𝜹. Therefore, a unit length of the bar will
have an elongation equal to 1/L times 𝛿. This quantity is called the elongation per
unit length, or strain.
𝛿
𝜖=
𝐿
If the bar is in tension, the strain is called a tensile strain and if the bar is in
compression, the strain is a compressive strain
Normal Strain: Strain associated with normal stress
Uniaxial Stress and strain

 let p1 represent the point in the cross

section where the line of action of the
forces intersects the cross section.

Figure:
(a)axial forces P
(b)cross-section of the bar
Uniaxial Stress and strain

 Let p1 represent the point in the cross section where the line of action of the
forces intersects the cross section.

 The moments Mx and My of the force P about the x and y axes, respectively,
must be equal to the corresponding moments of the uniformly distributed
stresses.
Mx = Pതy My = − Pതx
Uniaxial Stress and strain
 The differential force acting on an element of area dA:
Force = σdA

 The moments of this elemental force about the x and y axes are:
σdA. y & − σdA. x

 The moments of the distributed stresses are obtained by integrating over the
cross-sectional area A:
Mx = න σydA & My = − න σxdA
Uniaxial Stress and strain
 Next, we equate the moments Mx and My as obtained from the force P to the
moments obtained from the distributed stresses:
𝑃𝑦ത = න σ𝑦dA & − 𝑃𝑥ҧ = − න σ𝑥dA

‫𝐴𝑑𝑦 ׬‬ ‫𝐴𝑑𝑥 ׬‬
𝑦ത = & 𝑥ҧ =
𝐴 𝐴
Conclusion:
In order to have uniform tension or compression in a prismatic bar, the axial force
must act through the centroid of the cross-sectional area.
Example-1
A short post constructed from a hollow circular tube of
aluminum supports a compressive load of 26 kips. The inner
and outer diameters of the tube are d1 4.0 in. and d2 4.5 in.,
respectively, and its length is 16 in. The shortening of the post
due to the load is measured as 0.012 in. Determine the
compressive stress and strain in the post. (Disregard the
weight of the post itself, and assume that the post does not
buckle under the load.)
Solution-1

Step-1
Area of the hollow circular tube,
𝜋
𝐴= (𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2 )
4

Step-2
Compressive stress,
𝑃
𝜎= 𝐴

Step-3
Compressive strain,
𝛿
𝜖= 𝐿
Example-2
A circular steel rod of length L and diameter d hangs in a mine
shaft and holds an ore bucket of weight W at its lower end.
(a) Obtain a formula for the maximum stress 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 in the rod,
taking into account the weight of the rod itself.
(b) Calculate the maximum stress if L=40 m, d=8 mm,
and W 1.5 kN. (Unit weight of steel = 77 kN/m3)
Solution-2

Step-1
Weight of the rod,
𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑑 = 𝛾𝑉 = 𝛾𝐴𝐿

Step-2
Formula for maximum stress,
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊+𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝑊
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = + 𝛾𝐿
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

Step-3
Insert values in the above formula
Mechanical Properties of materials
 Static Test
The load is applied slowly and the precise rate of loading is not of interest because
it does not affect the behavior of the specimen.

 Dynamic Test
The load is applied rapidly and sometimes in a cyclical manner. Since the nature of
a dynamic load affects the properties of the materials, the rate of loading must also
be measured.
Stress Strain diagram
 Structural Steel
Also known as low carbon steel or mild steel.
Stress Strain diagram
 From O to A
The relationship between stress and strain in this initial region is not only linear but
also proportional.
Proportional Limit: beyond A, the proportionality between stress and strain no
longer exists; hence the stress at A is called the proportional limit.

Modulus of Elasticity: The slope of the straight line from O to A is called the modulus
of elasticity.
Stress Strain diagram

 From B to C
Considerable elongation of the test specimen occurs with no noticeable increase
in the tensile force (from B to C). This phenomenon is known as yielding of the
material, and point B is called the yield point. The corresponding stress is known as
the yield stress of the steel.

Perfectly plastic: In the region from B to C, the material becomes perfectly plastic,
which means that it deforms without an increase in the applied load.
Stress Strain diagram
 From C to D
After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the
steel begins to strain harden.

Strain Hardening: During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its
crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistance of the material to further
deformation.

Ultimate Stress: The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the
corresponding stress (at point D) is called the ultimate stress.
Stress Strain diagram

 The yield stress and ultimate stress of a material are also called the yield strength
and ultimate strength, respectively.

 Strength is a general term that refers to the capacity of a structure to resist

loads.
Stress Strain diagram
 Necking: In the vicinity of the ultimate stress, the
reduction in area of the bar becomes clearly visible
and a pronounced necking of the bar occurs.
Stress Strain diagram

 Ductile: Metals such as structural steel that undergo large permanent strains
before failure are classified as ductile.

 Materials exhibiting ductile behavior are capable of absorbing large amounts

of strain energy prior to fracture.
Stress Strain diagram
 Offset Method
When a material such as aluminum does not have an
obvious yield point and yet undergoes large strains
after the proportional limit is exceeded, an arbitrary
yield stress may be determined by the offset method.
A straight line is drawn on the stress-strain diagram
parallel to the initial linear part of the curve but offset
by some standard strain, such as 0.002 (or 0.2%). The
intersection of the offset line and the stress-strain
curve (point A in the figure) defines the yield stress.
Stress Strain diagram
 Brittle Material
Materials that fail in tension at relatively low values
of strain are classified as brittle. Examples are
concrete, stone, cast iron, glass, ceramics, and a
variety of metallic alloys.

Where, for brittle material

A is the proportional limit
B is the fracture stress
Elasticity
Property of a material, by which it returns to its original
dimension during unloading, is called elasticity, and the
material itself is said to be elastic.

Note that the stress-strain curve from O to A need not be

linear in order for the material to be elastic.
Elasticity
Plasticity
The characteristic of a material by which it undergoes inelastic strains beyond the
strain at the elastic limit is known as plasticity.

Plastic Flow
When large deformations occur in a ductile material loaded into the plastic region,
the material is said to undergo plastic flow.
Creep
When loaded for long periods of time, some materials develop additional strains and
are said to creep.
Creep
Relaxation of the Material
With the elapse of time, the stress in the wire
gradually diminishes, eventually reaching a
constant value, even though the supports at
the ends of the wire do not move. This process,
is called relaxation of the material.
Creep

Points to Remember!
 Creep is usually more important at high temperatures than at ordinary
temperatures, and therefore it should always be considered in the design of
engines, furnaces, and other structures that operate at elevated temperatures
for long periods of time.

 However, materials such as steel, concrete, and wood will creep slightly even at
atmospheric temperatures. For example, creep of concrete over long periods
of time can create undulations in bridge decks because of sagging between
the supports.
Linear Elasticity

Linear Elastic
 When a material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear relationship
between stress and strain, it is said to be linearly elastic.

 This type of behavior is extremely important in engineering for an obvious reason

— by designing structures and machines to function in this region, we avoid
permanent deformations due to yielding.
Hook’s Law

The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or
compression is expressed by the equation:

𝜎 = 𝐸. 𝜖

Point to remember!
The modulus of elasticity has relatively large values for materials that are very stiff,
such as structural metals.
Poisson’s Ratio
The lateral strain 𝜖 ′ at any point in a bar is proportional to
the axial strain 𝜖 at that same point if the material is
linearly elastic. The ratio of these strains is a property of
the material known as Poisson’s ratio.

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖′
μ= − = −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖
Poisson’s Ratio

Points to remember!
 Always keep in mind that this equation apply only to a bar in uniaxial stress, that
is, a bar for which the only stress is the normal stress s in the axial direction.
 Its value remains constant only in linear elastic range.

Isotropic Material
Materials having the same properties in all directions (whether axial, lateral, or any
other direction) are said to be isotropic.

Anisotropic Material
If the properties differ in various directions, the material is anisotropic (or
aeolotropic).
 Example-03
A steel pipe of length L = 4.0 ft, outside diameter d2 = 6.0 in., and inside
diameter d1= 4.5 in. is compressed by an axial force P =140 k. The material has
modulus of elasticity E = 30,000 ksi and Poisson’s ratio = 0.30. Determine the
following quantities for the pipe:
(a)the shortening,
(b)the lateral strain,
(c) the increase d2 in the outer diameter and the increase ∆d1 in the inner
diameter, and
(d)the increase ∆t in the wall thickness.
Solution-3
Step-1
𝜋
Area of the hollow circular tube, 𝐴= 𝑑𝑜2 − 𝑑𝑖2
4

Step-2
𝑃
Compressive stress, 𝜎=− 𝐴

Step-3
𝜎
Compressive strain, 𝜖 = −𝐸

Step-4
Change in length, 𝛿 = −𝜖𝐿
Step-5
Lateral strain, 𝜖 ′ = −𝑣𝜖
Step-6
Increase in diameter/thickness, ∆𝑑 = 𝜖 ′ 𝑑