Module 1.

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Obtaining Data

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 Learning Objectives

• Understand the different methods of obtaining

data.
• Explain the procedures in planning and conducting
surveys and experiments.

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 RATIONALE
Probability theory and statistics equip an engineer to deal intelligently with
variation and risk. Little in life is certain, and ignoring variability leads to poorly
designed products, material failures, poor quality, missed schedules and poor
engineering-economic decisions. Probability theory enables students to both model
and to understand the effect of variation on engineering processes. Statistics are
specially important when trying to interpret the results of an experiment. It is one of
the most useful branches of mathematical sciences-it is the tool of choice for
research in most of the social sciences and engineering disciplines.
The goal of the course is to provide a comprehensive introduction of essential
concepts in probability for students to gain proficiency in applying these concepts to
data analysis through basic statistical tools and techniques. The focus is on
understanding and using statistical methods in research and applications.

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 Basic Concepts of Probability and Statistics

Probability is a branch of mathematics concerned with

theories of uncertainty, ways of measuring uncertainty
and the application of techniques involving uncertainty.

Statistics is a branch of mathematics that examine and

investigate ways to process and analyzed the data
gathered.

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 Nature of Statistics
Scores Frequency
70 4
TWO MAJOR AREAS 75 3
OF STATISTICS 80 5
85 4
90 2
1. Descriptive Statistics 95 2

- includes those methods Test Scores

concerned with collecting, 6
5
organizing, summarizing and

Frequency
4
presenting data without drawing 3
2
inference about a large group.
1
0
70 75 80 85 90 95
Scores
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 Nature of Statistics

TWO MAJOR AREAS

OF STATISTICS
2. Inferential Statistics - refers
to those methods concerned with
the analysis of a subset of data
leading to predictions and
inferences about the entire set of
data.
- also called Inductive Statistics
https://datatab.net/tutorial/descriptive-inferential-statistics
or Statistical Inference

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 Nature of Statistics
DESCRIPTIVE vs. INFERENTIAL
• Concerned with describing the • Make inferences from the sample
target population and generalize them to population.
• Organize, analyze and present • Compares, test and predicts
data in a meaningful manner future outcomes
• Final results are shown in form • Final result is the probability
of charts, tables and graphs scores
• Describes the data which is • Tries to make conclusions about
already known the population that is beyond the
data available
• Tools – mean, median, mode, • Tools – hypothesis tests, analysis
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range, standard deviation etc.
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of variance etc.
 Basic Concepts of Probability and Statistics
STATISTICAL TERMS
Population
- consist of the totality of the observations with which
we are concerned
Sample
- collection of some of the elements obtained from the
population
Parameter
- any numerical value describing a characteristics of a https://www.omniconvert.com/what-is/sample-size/

population
Statistic
- any numerical value describing a characteristic of a Different Symbol Used in Parameter and Statistic
sample Tools Statistic Parameter
(Sample) (Population)
Constant
- characteristics or properties whereby the members of Mean 𝑋ത 𝜇
the population are the same Standard 𝑠 𝜎
Deviation
Variable
- is a characteristics that changes or varies over time for Variance 𝑠2 𝜎2
different
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Batangas State University or objects under consideration
 Basic Concepts of Probability and Statistics
TYPES OF VARIABLES
1. Qualitative Variables - measure a quality or characteristic on each
experimental unit
Examples: eye color, gender
2. Quantitative Variables - measure a numerical quantity or amount on
each experimental unit
Examples: number of accidents, volume in a glass, weight of
package
a. Discrete variable - countable number of values
Example: number of family members
b. Continuous variable - uncountable number of values
Examples: time, distance, volume, height
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 Levels of Measurement
VARIABLES ACCORDING TO SCALE OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal - values represent categories with no inherent order
Examples: Gender, Civil Status
2. Ordinal - values represent categories with inherent order (ranking)
Examples: Educational background, Quality of Service, Grades
3. Interval - values represent ordered categories with equal intervals
between them.
Example: temperature
4. Ratio - comparing the z variables. Consists of equal, ordered
categories anchored by a zero point that is not arbitrary but meaningful
Example: employment size (discrete), length in cm (continuous)
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 Levels of Measurement
Items Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Sex

Height

Weight

Academic grades
Determine the level Level of Education
of measurement for
Temperature
each items.
Nationality

Smartphone

Satisfaction

Age in years

IQ Score

Political Party
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 Methods of Collecting Data

DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENTS

1. QUESTIONNAIRES
2. INTERVIEWS
3. EXPERIMENTS
4. OBSERVATIONS

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 Methods of Presenting Data

How to Present Data?

1. Graphs
2. Table charts

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 Methods of Presenting Data
Graphs for Qualitative Data
- what values of the variable have been measured
- how often each values has occurred
Three Measures available for this purpose
1. Frequency - the number of times a score or group of score (class)
occurs in a population or sample
2. Relative Frequency - the frequency of one score or group of scores
divided by the total frequency of all the observations
Relative Frequency = frequency/n
where n is the sum of frequencies
3.The percentage of measurement in each category
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 Methods of Presenting Data
Graphs for Qualitative Data
To display distribution of data:
Pie Chart - circular graph that shows how the measurements are
distributed among the categories
[one sector of a circle is assigned to each category; the angle of
each sector should be proportional to the proportion of
measurements (or relative frequency) in that category Angle =
relative frequency x 360°]
Bar Chart - the height of the bar measures how often a particular
category was observed
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 Methods of Presenting Data
Sample Problem
In a summary concerning public
education, 400 school US Education rating by 400 educators
administrators were asked to Rating Frequency
rate the quality of education in A 35
the United States. Their
B 260
responses are summarized as
follows: C 93

D 12
Construct both a Pie chart and Total 400
Bar chart to describe the data.
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 Methods of Presenting Data

Relative
Rating Frequency Percent Angle
Frequency

A 35 0.09 9% 32.4°

B 260 0.65 65% 234°

C 93 0.23 23% 82.8°

D 12 0.03 3% 10.8°

Total 400 1.0 100% 360°

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 Methods of Presenting Data

Pie chart Bar graph

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 Methods of Presenting Data
Graphs for Quantitative Data
- what values of the variable have been measured
- how often each values has occurred
Three Measures available for this purpose
1. Frequency - the number of times a score or group of score (class)
occurs in a population or sample
2. Relative Frequency - the frequency of one score or group of scores
divided by the total frequency of all the observations
Relative Frequency = frequency/n
where n is the sum of frequencies
3.The percentage of measurement in each category
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 Methods of Presenting Data
Graphs for Quantitative Data
*Describing data by the amount measured in each
category:
1. Pie Chart - displays how the total quantity is
distributed among categories
2. Bar Chart - uses the height of the bar to display the
amount in a particular category
*Describing data by time series:
1. Line Chart - when a quantitative variable is recorded
overtime at equally spaced intervals (such as daily,
weekly, monthly, quarterly), the data set forms a time
series. Time series data are most effectively presented
on a line chart with time as the horizontal axis.
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 Methods of Data Collection
• Collection of the data is the first step in conducting statistical inquiry.
• It simply refers to the data gathering, a systematic method of collecting and
measuring data from different sources of information in order to provide answers
to relevant questions.
• This involves acquiring information published literature, surveys through
questionnaires or interviews, experimentations, documents and records, tests or
examinations and other forms of data gathering instruments.
• The person who conducts the inquiry is an investigator, the one who helps in
collecting information is an enumerator and information is collected from a
respondent.

*
 Methods of Data Collection
• In the field of engineering, the three basic methods of collecting data are through
retrospective study, observational study and through a designed experiment.
• A retrospective study would use the population or sample of the historical data
which had been archived over some period of time.
• In an observational study, process or population is observed and disturbed as little
as possible, and the quantities of interests are recorded.
• In a designed experiment, deliberate or purposeful changes in the controllable
variables of the system or process is done. The resulting system output data must
be observed, and an inference or decision about which variables are responsible
for the observed changes in output performance is made

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 Planning and Conducting Surveys
• A survey is a method of asking respondents some well-constructed questions. It is
an efficient way of collecting information and easy to administer wherein a wide
variety of information can be collected. The researcher can be focused and can
stick to the questions that interest him and are necessary in his statistical inquiry or
study.
• Surveys can be done through face-to-face interviews or self-administered through
the use of questionnaires.

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 Planning and Conducting Surveys
• When designing a survey, the following steps are useful:
1. Determine the objectives of your survey: What questions do you want to answer?
2. Identify the target population sample: Whom will you interview? Who will be the
respondents? What sampling method will you use?
3. Choose an interviewing method: face-to-face interview, phone interview, self
administered paper survey, or internet survey.
4. Decide what questions you will ask in what order, and how to phrase them.
5. Conduct the interview and collect the information.
6. Analyze the results by making graphs and drawing conclusions.

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 Planning and Conducting Surveys
• In choosing the respondents, sampling techniques are necessary. Sampling is the
process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of
interest. Sample must be a representative of the target population. The target
population is the entire group a researcher is interested in; the group about which
the researcher wishes to draw conclusions.
• There are two ways of selecting a sample: the non-probability sampling and the
probability sampling.

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 Non-Probability Sampling
• Non-probability sampling is also called judgment or subjective sampling.
This method is convenient and economical but the inferences made based on
the findings are not so reliable. The most common types of non-probability
sampling are the
• In convenience sampling, the researcher use a device in obtaining the
information from the respondents which favors the researcher but can cause
bias to the respondents. e.g. Online Poll, surveying your friend.
• In purposive sampling, the selection of respondents is predetermined
according to the characteristic of interest made by the researcher. e.g.
interviewing group of ME students regaring ME course

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 Planning and Conducting Surveys
• There are two types of quota sampling: proportional and non proportional.
• In proportional quota sampling the major characteristics of the population by
sampling a proportional amount of each is represented.
• For instance, if you know the population has 40% women and 60% men, and that
you want a total sample size of 100, you will continue sampling until you get those
percentages and then you will stop.
• Non-proportional quota sampling is a bit less restrictive. In this method, a
minimum number of sampled units in each category is specified and not concerned
with having numbers that match the proportions in the population.

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 Probability Sampling
Sampling Method
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Stratified Random Sampling
3. Systematic Random Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Slovin’s Formula

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