ch08 Genius Education

Principles of Physics
Twelfth Edition
International Adaptation
Halliday/Resnick/Walker
Chapter 8
Potential Energy and Conservation of
Energy
Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Section 8.1 Potential Energy
Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2

Potential Energy Learning
Objectives
• Distinguish a conservative force from a non-conservative
force.
• For a particle moving between two points, identify that the
work done by a conservative force does not depend on the
path which particle takes.
• Calculate the gravitational potential energy of a particle
(or, more properly, a particle-Earth system).
• Calculate the elastic potential energy of a block-spring
system.

Potential Energy: Definition
• Potential energy U is energy that can be associated with
the configuration of a system of objects that exert forces
on one another
• A system of objects may be:
o Earth and a bungee jumper
o Gravitational potential energy transforms into kinetic
energy increase during the fall
o Elastic potential energy transforms into deceleration by the
bungee cord
• Physics determines how potential energy is calculated, to
account for stored energy
Potential Energy vs. Work Done
• For an object being raised or lowered:
∆U =−W . Equation (8.1.1)
• The change in gravitational potential energy is the

negative of the work done
• This also applies to an elastic block-spring system

Work of Forces Changing an Object’s
Potential Energy
Figure 8.1.2 Figure 8.1.3

Key Characteristics of Potential
Energy-Work on Objects
1. The system consists of two or more objects
2. A force acts between a particle (tomato/block) and the rest
of the system
3. When the configuration changes, the force does work W1,
changing kinetic energy to another form
4. When the configuration change is reversed, the force
reverses the energy transfer, doing work W2
Thus the kinetic energy of the tomato/block becomes potential

energy, and then kinetic energy again

Conservative vs. Non-Conservative
Forces
Conservative forces are forces for which W1 = −W2 is always
true
o Examples: gravitational force, spring force
o Permits relationship between work and potential energies
Nonconservative forces are those for which it is false
o Examples: kinetic friction force and drag force, where kinetic
energy of a moving particle is transferred to heat by friction
o Thermal energy cannot be recovered back into kinetic energy
of the object via the friction force
o Therefore the force is not conservative, thermal energy is not
a potential energy
Simplifications from Conservative
Forces
• When only conservative forces act on a particle, we find
many problems can be simplified:
The net work done by a conservative force on a particle
moving around any closed path is zero.
• A result of this is that:
The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving
between two points does not depend on the path taken by the
particle.

Path Independence Graphical View
Figure 8.1.4

Path Independence: Mathematical
Expression
• Mathematically:
Wab , 1 = Wab , 2 , Equation (8.1.2)
• This result allows you to substitute a simpler path for

a more complex one if only conservative forces are
involved

Equivalent Paths for Work Against
Gravitational Force
Figure 8.1.5

Potential Energy Checkpoint #1
The figure shows three paths connecting points a and b. A single force

F does the indicated work on a particle moving along each path  in the
indicated direction. On the basis of this information, is force F
conservative?
Answer:
No. The paths from a → b have different signs. One pair of paths allows
the formation of a zero-work loop. The other does not.

Calculating Potential Energy: Gravity
• For the general case, we calculate work as:
W = ∫ F ( x ) dx.
xf
Equation (8.1.5)
xi
• So we calculate potential energy as:
− ∫ F ( x ) dx.
xf
∆U = Equation (8.1.6)
xi
• Using this to calculate gravitational PE, relative to a reference

configuration with reference point yi = 0:
U ( y ) = mgy Equation (8.1.9)

Key Characteristic of Gravitational
Potential Energy
The gravitational potential energy associated with a
particle–Earth system depends only on the vertical
position y (or height) of the particle relative to the
reference position y = 0, not on the horizontal position.

Potential Energy from Spring Forces
• Use the same process to calculate spring PE:
1
( −kx ) dx =∫xi x dx = k  x  xi ,
xf xf
∆U =−∫ 2 xf
Equation (8.1.10)
xi 2
1 2 1 2
∆U
= kx f − kxi .
2 2
• With reference point xi = 0 for a relaxed spring:
1 2
U ( x ) = kx Equation (8.1.11)
2

Potential Energy Checkpoint #2
A particle is to move along an x axis from x = 0 to x1 while a conservative force,
directed along the x axis, acts on the particle. The figure shows three situations in
which the x component of that force varies with x. The force has the same
maximum magnitude F1 in all three situations. Rank the situations according to
the change in the associated potential energy during the particle’s motion, most
positive first.
(1) (2) (3)
Answer:
(3), (1), (2); a positive force does positive work, decreasing the PE; a negative
force (e.g., 3) does negative work, increasing the PE
Section 8.2 Conservation of
Mechanical Energy

Conservation of Mechanical Energy
Learning Objectives
• After first clearly defining which objects form a system,
identify that the mechanical energy of the system is the sum of
the kinetic energies and potential energies of those objects.
• For an isolated system in which only conservative forces act,
apply the conservation of mechanical energy to relate the initial
potential and kinetic energies to the potential and kinetic
energies at a later instant.

Mechanical Energy Conservation
Equations
• The mechanical energy of a system is the sum of its potential
energy U and kinetic energy K:
Emec= K + U Equation (8.2.1)
• Work done by conservative forces increases K and decreases U

by that amount, so:
∆K = −∆U . Equation (8.2.4)
• Using subscripts to refer to different instants of time:
K 2 + U 2 = K1 + U1 Equation (8.2.6)

Statement of Mechanical Energy
Conservation
In an isolated system where only conservative forces
cause energy changes, the kinetic energy and potential
energy can change, but their sum, the mechanical energy
Emec of the system, cannot change.

Relating Kinetic and Potential
Energies
• This is the principle of the conservation of mechanical
energy:
∆Emec = ∆K + ∆U = 0. Equation (8.2.7)
• This is very powerful tool:

When the mechanical energy of a system is conserved, we can relate the
sum of kinetic energy and potential energy at one instant to that at
another instant without considering the intermediate motion and without
finding the work one by the forces involved.
• One application:
o Choose the lowest point in the system as U = 0
o Then at the highest point U = max, and K = min

Mechanical Energy Conservation
Checkpoint #3
The figure shows four situations—one in which an initially
stationary block is dropped and three in which the block is allowed
to slide down frictionless ramps. (a) Rank the situations according
to the kinetic energy of the block at point B, greatest first. (b) Rank
them according to the speed of the block at point B, greatest first.
Answer:
Since there are no nonconservative forces, all of the difference in potential energy
must go to kinetic energy. Therefore, all are equal in (a). Because of this fact, they
are also all equal in (b).
Section 8.3 Reading a Potential
Energy Curve

Reading a Potential Energy Curve
Learning Objectives
• Given a particle's potential energy as a function of position x,
determine the force on the particle.
• Given a graph of potential energy versus x, determine the force on a
particle.
• On a graph of potential energy versus x, superimpose a line for a
particle's mechanical energy and determine kinetic energy for any
given value of x.
• If a particle moves along an x axis, use a potential energy graph for
that axis and use the conservation of mechanical energy to relate
energy values at one position to those at another.
• On a potential energy graph, identify turning points and regions
where the particle is not allowed due to energy requirements.
• Explain neutral, stable, and unstable equilibria.
Potential Energy Curve Mathematics
• For one dimension, force and potential energy are related (by
work) as:
dU ( x )
F ( x) = − Equation (8.3.2)
dx
• Therefore, we can find the force F(x) from a plot of the
potential energy U(x), by taking the derivative (slope)
• If we write the mechanical energy out:
U ( x) + K ( x) =
Emec . Equation (8.3.3)
• We see how K(x) varies with U(x):

( x ) Emec − U ( x ).
K= Equation (8.3.4)

Key Points of Potential Energy
Curves
• To find K(x) at any place, take the total mechanical energy
(constant) and subtract U(x)
• Places where K = 0 are turning points
o There, the particle changes direction (K cannot be negative)
• At equilibrium points, the slope of U(x) is 0
• A particle in neutral equilibrium is stationary, with
potential energy only, and net force = 0
o If displaced to one side slightly, it would remain in its new
position
o Example: a marble on a flat tabletop

Stable vs. Unstable Equilibrium
• A particle in unstable equilibrium is stationary, with
o If displaced slightly to one direction, it will feel a force
propelling it in that direction
o Example: a marble balanced on a bowling ball
• A particle in stable equilibrium is stationary, with
o If displaced to one side slightly, it will feel a force returning
it to its original position
o Example: a marble placed at the bottom of a bowl

Potential and Force Curves
Plot (a) potential U(x) vs. x Plot (b) force F(x) vs. x
Figure 8.3.1 (a) and (b)

Potential vs. Kinetic Energies for a
Given Total Mechanical Energy
Plot (c) define a constant Emec Plot (d) separate Emec into
potential and kinetic
Figure 8.3.1 (c) and (d)

Forbidden Positions vs. Total
Mechanical Energy
Plot (e) x< x1 forbidden for Emec Plot (f) allowable positions limited
for some Emec values
Figure 8.3.1 (e) and (f)

Reading a Potential Energy Curve
Checkpoint #4
The figure gives the potential energy function U(x) for a system in
which a particle is in one dimensional motion. (a) Rank regions AB,
BC, and CD according to the magnitude of the force on the particle,
greatest first. (b) What is the direction of the force when the particle
is in region AB?
Answer:
a) CD, AB, BC
b) to the right
Section 8.4 Work Done on a System
By an External Force

Work Done on a System by an
External Force Learning Objectives
• When work is done on a system by an external force with no
friction involved, determine the changes in kinetic energy and
potential energy.
• When work is done on a system by an external force with
friction involved, relate that work to the changes in kinetic
energy, potential energy, and thermal energy.

Work vs. Kinetic and Potential
Energies
We can extend work on an object to work on a system:
• Work is energy transferred to or from a system by means of an
external force acting on that system.
• For a system of more than 1 particle, work can change both K
and U, or other forms of energy of the system
• For a frictionless system:
W = ∆K + ∆U , Equation (8.4.1)
W = ∆Emec Equation (8.4.2)

Work of Lifting Force Changing
Kinetic and Potential Energies
Figure 8.4.2

Friction and Thermal Energy
• For a system with friction:

∆Eth =
fk d ( increasein thermalenergy bysliding ). Equation (8.4.7)
W = ∆Emec + ∆Eth Equation (8.4.8)
• The thermal energy comes from the forming and breaking

of the welds between the sliding surfaces

Sliding Friction Generating Thermal
Energy
Figure 8.4.3

Work Done on a System by an
External Force Checkpoint #5
In three trials, a block is pushed by a horizontal applied force across a floor that is
not frictionless, as in Figure 8-13a.The magnitudes F of the applied force and the
results of the pushing on the block’s speed are given in the table. In all three trials,
the block is pushed through the same distance d. Rank the three trials according to
the change in the thermal energy of the block and floor that occurs in that distance
d, greatest first.
Trial F Result on Block’s Speed
a 5.0 N decreases
b 7.0 N remains constant
c 8.0 N increases
Answer:
All trials result in equal thermal energy change. The value of fk is the same in all
cases, since μk has only 1 value.
Section 8.5 Conservation of Energy

Conservation of Energy Learning
Objectives
• For an isolated system (no net external force), apply the conservation
of energy to relate the initial total energy (energies of all kinds) to the
total energy at a later instant.
• For a nonisolated system, relate the work done on the system by a net
external force to the changes in the various types of energies within
the system.
• Apply the relationship between average power, the associated energy
transfer, and the time interval in which that transfer is made.
• Given an energy transfer as a function of time (either as an equation
or graph), determine the instantaneous power (the transfer at any
given instant).

Conservation of Energy Statement
• Energy transferred between systems can always be
accounted for
• The law of conservation of energy concerns
o The total energy E of a system
o Which includes mechanical, thermal, and other internal
energy
The total energy E of a system can change only by amounts of

energy that are transferred to or from the system.

Conservation of Energy Equation
Considering only energy transfer through work:
W = ∆E = ∆Emec + ∆Eth + ∆Eint , Equation (8.5.1)

Applying Conservation of Energy to
Isolated Systems
• An isolated system is one for which there can be no external
energy transfer
The total energy E of an isolated system cannot change.
• Energy transfers may happen internal to the system
• We can write:
∆Emec + ∆Eth + Eint =0 Equation (8.5.2)
• Or, for two instants of time:
E=
mec,2 Emec, 1 − ∆Eth − ∆Eint . Equation (8.5.3)

Simplifications for Isolated Systems
In an isolated system, we can relate the total energy at one
instant to the total energy at another instant without
considering the energies at intermediate times.

Conservation of Energy Example
External forces can act on a system without doing work:
Figure 8.5.2
• The skater pushes herself away from the wall

• She turns internal chemical energy in her muscles into kinetic energy
• Her K change is caused by the force from the wall, but the wall does not
provide her any energy

Power and Energy Definitions
• We can expand the definition of power

• In general, power is the rate at which energy is transferred by a
force from one type to another
• If energy ΔE is transferred in time Δt, the average power is:
∆E
Pavg = . Equation (8.5.6)
∆t
• And the instantaneous power is:
dE
P= . Equation (8.5.7)
dt

Chapter 8 Summary: Force
Conservation and Potential Energy
Conservative Forces
• Net work on a particle over a closed path is 0
Potential Energy
• Energy associated with the configuration of a system and a
conservative force
− ∫ F ( x ) dx.
xf
∆U = Equation (8.1.6)
xi

Chapter 8 Summary: Gravitational
and Elastic Potential Energies
Gravitational Potential Energy
• Energy associated with Earth + a nearby particle
U ( y ) = mgy Equation (8.1.9)
Elastic Potential Energy

• Energy associated with compression or extension of a spring
1 2
U ( x) = kx Equation (8.1.11)
2

Chapter 8 Summary: Total Mechanical
Energy and Potential Energy Curves
Mechanical Energy
Emec= K + U Equation (8.2.1)
• For only conservative forces within an isolated system,

mechanical energy is conserved
Potential Energy Curves

dU ( x )
F ( x) = − Equation (8.3.2)
dx
• At turning points a particle reverses direction
• At equilibrium, slope of U(x) is 0
Chapter 8 Summary: Conservation of
Energy and Work by External Forces
Work Done on a System by an External Force
• Without/with friction:
W = ∆Emec Equation (8.4.1)
W = ∆Emec + ∆Eth Equation (8.4.9)
Conservation of Energy
• The total energy can change only by amounts transferred
in or out of the system
W = ∆E = ∆Emec + ∆Eth + ∆Eint , Equation (8.5.1)

Chapter 8 Summary: Power
Power
• The rate at which a force transfers energy
• Average power:
∆E
Pavg = . Equation (8.5.6)
∆t
• Instantaneous power:
dE
P= . Equation (8.5.7)
dt

Biomedical Applications: Problem 61
When a click beetle is upside down on its back, it jumps upward by
suddenly arching its back, transferring energy stored in a muscle to
mechanical energy. This launching mechanism produces an audible
click, giving the beetle its name. Videotape of a certain click-beetle
jump shows that a beetle of mass m= 4.0x10-6 kg moved directly
upward by 0.77 mm during the launch and then to a maximum
height h = 0.30 m. During the launch, what are the average
magnitudes of (a) the external force on the beetle’s back from the
floor and (b) the acceleration of the beetle in terms of g?
Answer: (a) 1.5x10-2 N, (b) 3.8x102 g

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Principles of Physics

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3

• For an object being raised or lowered:

∆U =−W . Equation (8.1.1)

• The change in gravitational potential energy is the

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 5

Figure 8.1.2 Figure 8.1.3

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 6

Thus the kinetic energy of the tomato/block becomes potential

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 7

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 9

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 10

Wab , 1 = Wab , 2 , Equation (8.1.2)

• This result allows you to substitute a simpler path for

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 11

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 12

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 13

• For the general case, we calculate work as:

• So we calculate potential energy as:

• Using this to calculate gravitational PE, relative to a reference

U ( y ) = mgy Equation (8.1.9)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 14

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 15

• Use the same process to calculate spring PE:

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 16

(1) (2) (3)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 18

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 19

• Work done by conservative forces increases K and decreases U

• Using subscripts to refer to different instants of time:

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 20

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 21

• This is very powerful tool:

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 22

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 24

• We see how K(x) varies with U(x):

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 26

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Figure 8.3.1 (a) and (b)

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Figure 8.3.1 (c) and (d)

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Figure 8.3.1 (e) and (f)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 31

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W = ∆Emec Equation (8.4.2)

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 35

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 36

• For a system with friction:

W = ∆Emec + ∆Eth Equation (8.4.8)

• The thermal energy comes from the forming and breaking

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 37

Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 38

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Copyright ©2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 41

The total energy E of a system can change only by amounts of