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Linear and Nonlinear
System Modeling
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Linear and Nonlinear

Suman Lata Tripathi

System Modeling

Souvik Ganguli
Tamal Roy
Edited by

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Contents

Preface xi
1 Assessment of Faults in Hybrid System Connected
with Main Grid 1
Aveek Chattopadhyaya, Niladri Mukherjee
and Surajit Chattopadhyay
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Hybrid System Connected with Main Grid 3
1.3 FFT Results in Different Conditions, Respective Bar Diagram,
and Observations 4
1.4 Inter-Harmonic Group Analysis, Results, and Observations 4
1.5 Statistical Parameter Analysis Based on Discrete Wavelet
Transform, Results, and Observations 7
1.6 Algorithm to Determine Non-Identical Conditions 9
1.7 Specific Outcome of This Chapter 11
1.8 Conclusions 12
References 12
2 Diversified Harmonics Modeling for Power System
Stability Analysis 15
Tamal Roy, Debopoma Kar Ray and Surajit Chattopadhyay
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Classification 16
2.2.1 Steady-State Stability 16
2.2.2 Transient Stability 16
2.2.3 Dynamic Stability 17
2.3 Power Equation 18
2.4 Maximum Power 19
2.5 Nonlinearity and Harmonics 19
2.6 Active Power, Load Angle, and Reactance 20
2.7 Effects of Harmonics on Stability Model 21

v
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vi Contents

2.7.1 Harmonic Reactance 22

2.7.2 Harmonic Power Equation and Harmonic
Maximum Power 23
2.8 Harmonic Operating Point 25
2.8.1 Harmonic Power Versus Load Angle Characteristics 25
2.8.2 Harmonic Operating Point 25
2.8.3 Does HOP Hamper Overall Stability? 25
2.8.4 Importance of HOP 25
2.8.5 Steps for Determination of HOP 26
2.9 Case Studies 26
2.10 Conclusions 30
References 31
3 Comparative Study of Different Existing Standard
Microgrid Networks 33
Sagnik Datta, Aveek Chattopadhyaya, Surajit Chattopadhyay
and Arabinda Das
3.1 Introduction 34
3.2 Classification of Microgrid Networks 34
3.2.1 DC Microgrid Network 35
3.2.2 AC Microgrid Network 35
3.2.3 Hybrid AC/DC Microgrid Network 36
3.3 Modes of Operation 36
3.4 General Equipment of a Microgrid Network 39
3.5 Basic Control Structure of Microgrid Network 41
3.6 Existing Standard Models 41
3.6.1 IEEE 14 Bus Microgrid Network 42
3.6.2 IEEE 9 Bus Microgrid Network 43
3.6.3 IEC 61850-7-420 Standard Microgrid Network 44
3.7 Considerations for Designing of Protection Schemes 45
3.8 Conclusion 45
References 45
4 Application of Active Power Filter in the Hybrid Power System
to Regulate the Grid Voltage 49
Sarita Samal, Rudranarayan Dash, Arjyadhara Pradhan
and Prasanta Kumar Barik
4.1 Introduction 50
4.2 System Topology Description 51
4.2.1 Solar Photovoltaic System 52
4.2.1.1 SPV Modeling 52
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Contents vii

4.2.1.2 Maximum Power Point Tracking 52

4.2.1.3 Boost Converter 53
4.2.2 Wind Energy System 53
4.2.3 Modeling of Battery 55
4.2.4 Buck-Boost Converter 57
4.3 Series Active Power Filter Design 58
4.4 Simulation Results 60
4.4.1 Analysis Under Case 1 61
4.4.2 Analysis Under Case 2 61
4.5 Conclusion 64
References 64
5 Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control with MATLAB Simulation 67
Suman Lata Tripathi
5.1 Introduction 67
5.2 Tool Description 68
5.3 Methodology 69
5.4 Overview of the Drone Control System 70
5.5 Overview of the Drone Control System in MATLAB Simulink 71
5.5.1 Flight Command 71
5.5.2 Flight Control System 71
5.5.3 Simulation Model 72
5.5.4 Flight Visualization 72
5.5.5 Result and Discussion 72
5.5.6 Varying the Values of Thrust Parameter of the Drone
Flight Control 73
5.5.7 Varying the Values of Pitch Parameter of the Drone
Flight Control 75
5.5.8 Varying the Values of Roll Parameter of the Drone
Flight Control 77
5.5.9 Varying the Values of Yaw Parameter of the Drone
Flight Control 80
5.5.10 Varying the Values of Thrust, Pitch, Roll, and
Yaw Parameter of the Drone Flight Control 83
5.6 Applications 85
5.7 Conclusion 86
References 87
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viii Contents

6 Development of New Bioinspired Hybrid Algorithms for

Parameter Modeling of Photovoltaic Panels 89
Souvik Ganguli, Shilpy Goyal and Parag Nijhawan
6.1 Introduction 90
6.2 Problem Statement 91
6.3 Proposed Bioinspired Techniques and Methodology 94
6.4 Simulation Results and Discussions 95
6.5 Conclusions 106
References 106
7 Power Quality Improvement by Using PV-Integrated
DSTATCOM 109
Pushpanjali Shadangi, Sushree Diptimayee Swain
and Pravat Kumar Ray
7.1 Introduction 109
7.2 Photovoltaic (PV)-Based DSTATCOM Model 111
7.3 Controller Design and Control Algorithm 113
7.3.1 Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory (IRPT) 113
7.3.2 Modified Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory
(MIRPT) 115
7.3.3 Hybrid Synchronous Reference Frame Theory (HSRF) 116
7.3.4 Indirect Current Control (ICC) 118
7.3.5 Direct Current Control (DCC) 119
7.4 Simulation Results 120
7.5 Experimental Results 123
7.6 Conclusion 123
References 124
8 Modeling and Simulation of Current Transformer to Study
Its Behaviors in Different Conditions 127
Aveek Chattopadhyaya and Surajit Chattopadhyay
8.1 Introduction 127
8.2 Simulation Circuit of Current Transformer 129
8.3 Effects of CT Performance Due to Variation of Circuit
Time Constants 130
8.4 Effects of CT Performance Due to Switching Transients 132
8.5 DWT-Based Skewness Analysis for Assessment of
CT Saturation Due to Switching Transients 135
8.6 CT Saturation Detection by Multi-Resolution Analysis-
Based Notch Assessment 138
8.7 CT Primary Current Assessment During CT Saturation 140
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Contents ix

8.8 Conclusion 141

References 141
9 Multilevel Inverter-Fed Closed Loop Control and Analysis of
Induction Motor Drive 143
Subrat Behera, Ranjeeta Patel, Rudra Narayan Dash
and Amit Kumar
9.1 Introduction 144
9.2 Mathematical Modeling 148
9.2.1 Field Weakening Controller 149
9.2.2 Vector Controller 150
9.3 Results 151
9.3.1 Starting Dynamics 151
9.3.2 Reversal Dynamics 153
9.3.3 Load Perturbation Analysis 154
9.3.4 THD Analysis 155
9.4 Conclusion 156
References 156
10 Hybrid Grey Wolf Optimizer for Modeling and Control
of Electric Drives 159
Souvik Ganguli and Prasanta Sarkar
10.1 Background Study 160
10.2 Proposed Approach 163
10.3 Simulation Outcomes and Discussions 164
10.4 Conclusions 169
References 170
11 Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC Model of
Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles Using Slime
Mold Algorithm 173
Ramdutt Arya, Shatrughan Modi and Souvik Ganguli
11.1 Introduction 174
11.2 Brief Overview of the Battery Models 177
11.2.1 Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) of Li-Ion Battery 178
11.2.2 First-Order RC Equivalent Circuit Model 179
11.2.3 Fitness Function for Optimization 180
11.3 Slime Mold Algorithm (SMA) 181
11.4 Methodology 184
11.5 Simulation Results and Discussions 185
11.6 Conclusions 192
References 193
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x Contents

12 Harmonic Distortion-Based Performance Analysis and

Fault Diagnosis of Inverter Connected with BLDC Motor
Using Starting Transients 197
Surajit Chattopadhyay, Chiranjit Sain, Purnendu Burui,
Sk Rased Ali and Soumya Saha
12.1 Introduction 198
12.2 Modeling 201
12.3 THD Comparison of Phase Currents of Different Inverters 203
12.4 Variation of Harmonic Distortion of IGBT Inverter
During Fault 207
12.5 Variation of Harmonic Distortion of MOSFET Inverter
During Fault 208
12.6 Variation of Harmonic Distortion of Ideal Switch Inverter
During Fault 209
12.7 Conclusion 210
References 210
About the Editors 215
Index 217
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Preface

Mathematical modeling of the system is extracting the essence of practi-

cal problems into systematic mathematical language. In system modeling,
mathematical expression deals with modeling and its applications. It is
characterized by how a modeling competency can be categorized and how
its activity can contribute to building up these competencies. Mathematical
modeling of a practical system is an attractive field of research and a
grown-up subject with a variety of applications. The main objective of
mathematical modeling is to predict the behavior of the system under
different operating conditions, to design and implement efficient control
strategies to achieve the desired performance. A considerable research
effort has been directed to the development of a model, which must be
understandable and easy to analyze. It is a very difficult task to develop
mathematical modeling of complicated practical systems considering all
its possible high-level non-linearity and cross-couple dynamics. Although
mathematical modeling of nonlinear systems sounds quite interesting, it is
difficult to formulate the general solution to analyze and synthesize non-
linear dynamical systems.
This book covers the different features of the mathematical modeling of
real physical systems like grid-connected hybrid power system, microg-
rid network, harmonics modeling of the power system, active power filter,
photovoltaic panels, current transformer, induction motor drive, DC/DC
converter, and lithium-ion batteries. Most of the real practical systems are
nonlinear in nature and synergetic integration of the various sub systems
connected in such a manner to perform the desired task. Therefore, any
attempt to derive the mathematical modeling of such real physical systems
is a challenging task. This book covers the derivation and implementation
of the mathematical modeling of such real physical systems from different
fields of engineering.
We hope that the contents of the book would be useful for teaching and
research. Any suggestions for further improvements to the book are most

xi
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welcome. We are grateful to all who encouraged and helped us directly or

Tamal Roy
Suman Lata Tripathi
Souvik Ganguli
Kolkata, India
June 2024
indirectly during the preparation of the manuscript.
xii Preface
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1
Assessment of Faults in Hybrid
System Connected with Main Grid
Aveek Chattopadhyaya1*, Niladri Mukherjee2 and Surajit Chattopadhyay 3

Department of Electrical Engineering, GNIT, Panihati, Kolkata, India

1

Department of Electrical Engineering, S.K.F.G.I., Mankundu, Hooghly, India

2

3
Department of Electrical Engineering, GaniKhan. C. Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Malda, India

Abstract
In this chapter, fault assessment in grid-connected microgrid (solar and wind-
based hybrid system) was performed by signal processing-based waveform anal-
ysis. For this analysis, wind and solar system-based grid-connected microgrid
(hybrid system) is considered. System current waveforms were captured for fault
identification. Total harmonic distortion (THD) based on fast Fourier transform
(FFT) and inter-harmonic group analysis were considered as tools to identify the
presence of different harmonics in non-identical environments. In Park plane,
one space vector was also calculated from the captured three-phase current sig-
nals. Different parameters based on discrete wavelet transform (DWT) were also
computed from space vector for assessing the symmetrical and unsymmetrical
faults in hybrid system, which is connected to the main grid.

Keywords: THD, FFT, DWT, skewness, kurtosis, mean RMS

1.1 Introduction
The demand for renewable energy resources has escalated significantly
over the past few years, due to the fact that the fossil fuels will run out in
the near future and the harmful environmental effects of the fossil fuels. In
hybrid system, wind & solar systems are used for generating power where

*Corresponding author: chatterjee58@gmail.com

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(1–14) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

1
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2 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

wind turbines generators are used for wind generation and the solar pan-
els are used for solar generation. The power generation of solar and wind
system strongly depends on the weather conditions. Distributed generation
plays a vital role in today’s huge energy demand scenario. Hybrid genera-
tion system is a system, which is having renewable/non-renewable sources.
Hybrid systems are interconnected with renewable/non-renewable sources
to supply power to local load and grid/micro grid. Different issues like con-
trol, optimal sizing, grid connection of hybrid systems having solar photo-
voltaic (PV), wind power, fuel cells etc. have been vividly ventilated by the
researchers [1]. Different issues regarding benefits and drivers of ‘hybrid
renewable energy systems (HRES)’ for off grid power generation has been
discussed in [2]. A simulink model is developed of grid coupled hybrid sys-
tem in MATLAB where the hybrid system consists of wind and photovoltaic
systems [3]. To simulate a hybrid system some basic systems are required.
In PV/wind, hybrid systems three important parts are needed [4]. Firstly,
PV/wind system, wind energy conversion (WEC) system, power elec-
tronics devices and MPPT algorithm [3]. The hybrid system encompasses
PV-wind system, DC/DC converter and energy (wind) conversion system
[4]. E. Natsheh et al. proposed a control strategy for the optimization of
smart grid performance where a hybrid system is connected with a grid [5].
In [6], a modular PV and fuel cell based grid connected hybrid system has
been developed in MATLAB and ‘160 Wp solar module’ and ‘5 kW solid
oxide fuel cell (SOFC)’ was used for simulation. N. T. Pathan et al. discussed
steady state performance of a hybrid system connected with main grid [7].
In this study permanent - magnet - synchronous – generator has been used
for wind turbine. Two different system (wind and solar) are synchronized
to supply a common grid and a local load. The output of the system fed to
a common grid and a local load while solar system generates dc power and
wind system produces pulsating AC. The main difficulty is synchronization.
The output power from wind system is converting into DC then connected
with solar system. Afterword it is fetched to a PWM inverter and finally syn-
chronized [9]. For the reliable operation of grid connected microgrid system,
it is very much obvious that, different faults should be detected properly as
early as possible. In [8], authors designed and simulated and studied hybrid
system consists of wind and solar in isolated mode [8]. A. González et al.
suggested sensitivity analysis based optimally sizes of ‘grid-connected photo-
voltaic–wind power systems’ in [10]. Using this system, cost of electricity has
been lowered as compared to purchase of electricity. S. Swain proposed an
Active Crowbar Protection (ACB_P) system to improve the system's power
quality by enhancing the DFIG's fault-ride through (FRT) capacity. The sug-
gested scheme's functionality is confirmed by running simulations on a 1.7
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Assessment of Faults in Hybrid System 3

MVA “wind energy systems” based on “Doubly Fed Induction Generators

(DFIG)” under various short circuit fault scenarios in MATLAB [11]. In this
chapter, consequences and identification of faults are discussed thoroughly
based on harmonics analysis. The different types of faults in grid integrated
hybrid system have been investigated by the inter-harmonics; total harmonic
distortion (THD), Park plane and DWT based skewness, kurtosis, root-
mean-square (RMS) and mean value analysis. Here, in grid side non-identi-
cal faults have been contemplated for analysis. Three-phase system current
has been captured at ‘point of common coupling (PCC)’ and normalized and
then it has been processed to assess the different conditions.

1.2 Hybrid System Connected with Main Grid

The single line diagram of grid-connected hybrid system is delineated in
the above figure (Figure 1.1). The hybrid system is comprised of a wind
generation and solar generation. A 100-KW photovoltaic module (i.e., PV
array) consisting of 96 cells per module with 66 parallel string, having 5
series-connected modules per string are connected, and a 9-MW wind
farm, having six numbers of 1.5-MW wind turbines were used for mak-
ing the hybrid system. The solar system yields 64.2 V, which was boost up
near to 500 V by boost converter. Here, the wind generator output nominal
voltage is 575 V. An induction generator (wound rotor) was used in dou-
bly-fed-induction-generator (DFIG) in wind generation. Wind generator
output voltage is pulsating ac. The output voltage of wind system was fed
to a universal bridge rectifier to produce DC output. Rectifier output is

THREE
IRRADIANCE PHASE
FAULT

Ir
PV GRID
BOOST
TRANSMISSION LINE REACTOR
MODULE CONVERTER INVERTER

Temp

V,I

TEMPERATURE

MPPT

Wind Speed
Wind Universal
Generator Bridge
rectifier

Pitch Angle

Figure 1.1 Single line representation of hybrid system connected with main grid.
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4 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

then directly connected to the output of the boost converter of the solar
system for proper synchronization because both the output is DC. In
DC, the synchronizing process is easier than the ac synchronizing pro-
cess because in the ac system, the main concerns are phase sequence and
frequency mismatch. To overcome these problems, synchronization was
done through DC. The combined output of the hybrid system was then
fed to the inverter. Inverter output voltage was then stepped up to 25 kV
through a step-up transformer. The output of the transformer was trans-
mitted through 15-km line and fed to a 25-kV grid. Here, non-identical
faults were contemplated in the grid side. In fault and normal situations, all
three-phase currents of bus (after transformer) was considered at proper
sampling frequency for analysis. The three-phase current was captured and
normalized then using Park transformation matrix, one space vector was
found. After finding out the current space vector (in Park plane), it was
processed by DWT. In DWT, the mother wavelet was considered as ‘db4’
as it is well suited for this analysis. From the DWT coefficients, different
parameters like kurtosis, mean, RMS, and skewness were calculated in
different conditions to detect and identify the grid side disturbances. Fast
Fourier transform (FFT) and inter-harmonics groups were also computed
on captured system current signals to assess the abnormal conditions.

1.3 FFT Results in Different Conditions, Respective

Bar Diagram, and Observations
From THD analysis based on FFT, different conditions can be discriminated
and detected properly [12, 13]. In Table 1.1, THD is minimum and maxi-
mum at normal and symmetrical (LLL) fault conditions, respectively, which
is shown in Figure 1.3. Direct current (DC) components have also been con-
sidered to detect the grid side disturbances. Direct current components in
system current signals are delineated in Figure 1.2. From these results, nor-
mal condition can be properly discriminated from other fault conditions.

1.4 Inter-Harmonic Group Analysis, Results,

and Observations
In this study, three inter-harmonics groups [12, 13] of ‘C’ phase current
signals in various situations were determined, as shown in Table 1.2.
Maximum group values of inter-harmonics were found in LLL and LL fault,
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Assessment of Faults in Hybrid System 5

Table 1.1 THD of current for C phase.

Condition DC 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th THD
Normal 0.23 1 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.05 0.08 0.36 0.08 0.08 0.02 0.01 1.04
L-G 23.67 1 1.50 1.01 0.75 0.61 0.51 0.45 0.35 0.32 0.29 0.27 9.26
L-L-G 13.90 1 0.90 0.61 0.47 0.41 0.40 0.62 0.37 0.20 0.17 0.15 6.02
L-L-L 136.01 1 0.01 5.42 7.80 11.82 21.07 58.56 44.97 21.11 13.74 10.24 287.38
L-L 38.49 1 2.62 3.74 3.98 5.40 8.51 7.61 6.84 6.28 3.82 2.63 99.20
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6 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

DC components in different conditions

Percentage magnitude of DC 160
140
120
components

100
80
60
40
20
0
Normal L-G L-L-G L-L-L L-L
DC 0.23 23.67 13.9 136.01 38.49

Figure 1.2 DC components in different conditions.

THD in different condition

350
Percentage magnitude of THD

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
Normal L-G L-L-G L-L-L L-L
THD 1.04 9.26 6.02 287.38 99.2

Figure 1.3 THD in different conditions.

Table 1.2 Inter-harmonics in current signal (C phase).

Inter- Normal or
harmonic no-fault
group condition LG condition LLG condition LL condition LLL condition

IG1 12.00 13.32 12.48 14.72 20.86

IG2 12.00 12.47 12.17 15.04 19.33

IG3 12.00 12.24 12.09 12.01 21.57

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Assessment of Faults in Hybrid System 7

Inter Harmonics Group for different conditions

25

Magnitude
20
15
10
5
0
Ig1 Ig2 Ig3
Normal 12 12 12
LG 13.32 12.47 12.243
LLG 13.32 12.4715 12.25
LL 14.724 15.0045 15.8348
LLL 20.86 19.3341 21.5753

Figure 1.4 Group analysis (inter-harmonics) of ‘C’ phases current in non-identical situations.

whereas minimal values were found in normal environment. The outcomes

are illustrated in Figure 1.4. Different abnormal circumstances in the grid
side were analyzed from there.

1.5 Statistical Parameter Analysis Based on Discrete

Wavelet Transform, Results, and Observations
The currents in all three phases of the system were recorded and then nor-
malized. One space vector was found out using the Park transformation
matrix. After determining the current space vector (in Park plane), the
‘db4’ mother wavelet-based DWT is used to deconstruct it. Different met-
rics such as kurtosis, mean, RMS, and skewness were derived from DWT
in different circumstances, as shown in the accompanying figures [12–
16]. Kurtosis and mean values of DWT coefficients (approximation) are
depicted in Figure 1.5(a) and (b). The highest difference between normal
and L-G fault conditions is shown in Figure 1.5(a), whereas the minimum
difference is shown in Figure 1.5(b). Figure 1.6(a) and (b) shows the find-
ings of RMS and skewness values of DWT coefficients (approximation)
in different situations, respectively. In different DWT levels, zig-zag dis-
crepancies between normal and other fault circumstances are identified in
Figure 1.6(a). Up to DWT fragmentation level three (3), the highest differ-
ence between normal and L-L-L fault environments may be seen in Figure
1.6(b). In nature, the disparity has been shrinking since level three. From
level one to nine, the smallest difference was noticed between other faults
(L-L, L-L-G, L-G fault situations) and conventional condition. The find-
ings of kurtosis and mean of detail coefficients at non-identical situations
are defined in Figure 1.7(a) and (b). Figure 1.7(a) and (b) shows a zig-zag
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8 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Results of Kurtosis Values

60

Kurtosis values of approximation---->

50 NORMAL CONDITION
LL FAULT

40
LLG FAULT

30 LLL FAULT

LG FAULT
20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level----->
(a)

Results of Mean Values

0.79
Mean values of approximation---->

0.78

0.77
LL FAULT
LLG FAULT LG FAULT
0.76
NORMAL CONDITION

0.75
LLL FAULT
0.74

0.73
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level----->
(b)

Figure 1.5 (a) Kurtosis values of approximation coefficients. (b) Mean values of
approximation coefficients.

difference pattern between normal and different fault states. Figures 1.8(a)
and (b) shows the RMS and skewness of detail coefficients results. Up
to level two, a very small difference between normal and other fault cir-
cumstances are shown in Figure 1.8(a). The difference between level two
and four has remained constant for L-G problems, but it has increased in
character for other types of conditions. The highest and minimum differ-
ences between conventional and L-G and L-L-L fault situations have been
reported. Figure 1.8(b) shows some zig-zag changes of skewness values in
different conditions.
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Assessment of Faults in Hybrid System 9

Results of RMS Values

5

RMS value of approximation coefficients--->

4.5
4
3.5
3 LLL FAULT

2.5
2
LG FAULT
1.5 LL FAULT
1
0.5
NORMAL CONDITION LG FAULT
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level---->
(a)

Results of Skewness Values

Skewness values of approximation coefficients--->

6
LLL FAULT
5 LL FAULT LLG FAULT

1
LG FAULT
0 NORMAL CONDITION

–1

–2

–3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level----->
(b)

Figure 1.6 (a) RMS values of approximation coefficients. (b) Skewness values of
approximation coefficients.

1.6 Algorithm to Determine Non-Identical Conditions

The following is an algorithm for assessing different situations in a hybrid
system (grid-connected) and could be implemented for protection of
grid-connected microgrid:

• First, the three phases of the current signal will be sampled

at the appropriate sampling frequency.
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10 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Results of Kurtosis Values

1200

Kurtosis detail value of coefficients--->

1000

800

600
LLG FAULT

NORMAL CONDITION
400 LL FAULT
LG FAULT
LLL FAULT
200

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level---->
(a)

× 10–4 Mean Values Result

7
6
Mean value of detail coefficients--->

5 LL FAULT

4
LG FAULT
3
LLG FAULT
2 NORMAL CONDITION

1 LLL FAULT

0
–1
–2
–3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level----->
(b)

Figure 1.7 (a) Detail coefficients kurtosis values. (b) Mean values of detail coefficients.

• The three-phase current signal must then be transformed

into the Park plane using the Park transformation matrix.
• One current space vector will be calculated in the Park plane.
• The current space vector will then be decomposed using a
DWT based on a ‘dB4’ mother wavelet.
• Then, at various DWT decomposition levels, various param-
eters such as skewness, kurtosis, and so on, will be calculated.
• Different fault conditions will be assessed by comparing all
of the ‘above-calculated’ parameters to the normal condition.
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Assessment of Faults in Hybrid System 11

Results of RMS Value

0.3

RMS value of detail coefficients--->

0.25 LL FAULT

NORMAL CONDITION LLL FAULT

0.2

LLG FAULT
0.15 LG FAULT

0.1

0.05

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level---->
(a)

Skewness values
6
Skewness values of detail coefficients--->

4
NORMAL CONDITION
LL FAULT
3

LLG FAULT LG FAULT

2
LLL FAULT

–1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level----->
(b)

Figure 1.8 (a) RMS from DWT coefficients (detail). (b) Skewness values of detail
coefficients.

1.7 Specific Outcome of This Chapter

The Park plane, THD based on FFT, inter-harmonics group, and param-
eters estimations based on DWT were used to investigate the non-iden-
tical conditions in hybrid electrical system, which is connected in main
grid. The normal condition had the lowest THD value and the LLL fault
situation had the highest THD. In another analysis, the minimum inter-
harmonics were noticed in the conventional situation and the maximum in
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12 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

the LLL and LL fault environments. Highest and continuous deviations in

approximation coefficients were noticed in DWT-based analysis.

1.8 Conclusions
In this chapter, grid connected one standard hybrid PV and wind power
system were considered. The mentioned system consisted of four import-
ant segments, which are: wind system, solar system, wind energy conver-
sion (WEC) system, and double-input DC/DC converter. Fast Fourier
transform (FFT)-based THD, inter-harmonics group, Park plane, and
DWT-based different parameters were used for fault analysis in wind and
solar-based hybrid system. The minimal THD was noticed at conventional
situation and the highest THD value was observed at L-L-L symmetrical
fault situation. In this chapter, Park plane was used to extract the space
vector and then mean, RMS, skewness, and kurtosis were computed based
on DWT to identify and discriminate the grid abnormalities. Discussed
techniques can be used to develop fast and reliable protection scheme in
any grid-connected microgrid system. After studying this chapter, readers
can gather knowledge about the protection of microgrid system.

References
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systems. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., Science Direct, 52, 907–916.https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.187.
2. Mohammed, S., Y., Mustafa, W., M., & Bashir, N. (2014). Hybrid renew-
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org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.04.022.
3. Rana, A., & Ilyas, Md. (2015). Implementation of a wind/pv hybrid system
using matlab/simulink. Int. J. Adv. Res. Electr. Electron. Instrum. Eng., 4(7),
5941-5948. https://doi.org/10.15662/ijareeie.2015.0407019.
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ISGTEurope.2011.6162643.
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Assessment of Faults in Hybrid System 13

6. Bayrak, G., & Cebeci, M. (2013). Grid connected fuel cell and PV hybrid
power generating system design with Matlab Simulink. Int. J. Hydrog., Science
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hybrid wind driven PMSG - solar PV power generation system with single
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and simulation of wind and solar hybrid system under isolated mode of
operation. Int. J. Ind. Electron. Electr. Eng., 2(3), 23-27.
9. Ren, H., Wu, Q., Gao, W., & Zhou, W. (2016). Optimal operation of a
grid-connected hybrid PV/fuel cell/battery energy system for residential
applications. Energy, Science Direct. 113, 702-712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2016.07.091.
10. González, A., Riba, R., J., Rius, A., & Puig, R. (2015). Optimal sizing of a hybrid
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nected DFIG based wind energy system with active crowbar protec-
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IJEPES.2016.05.006.
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(2020). Discrete Wavelet Transform and Stockwell Transform based
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of harmonic distortion and skewness of stator current of induction motor at
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2
Diversified Harmonics Modeling for
Power System Stability Analysis
Tamal Roy1, Debopoma Kar Ray1 and Surajit Chattopadhyay2*
1
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, MCKVIE, West Bengal, India
2
Dept. of Electrical Engineering, GKCIET, West Bengal, India

Abstract
This chapter presents diversified harmonics modeling for power system networks.
The chapter starts with a description of a simplified steady-state stability model.
Network stability is classified based on load change and disturbance. Then the
presence of harmonics is introduced step by step. Then a brief discussion is pre-
sented on how the model will look in the presence of harmonics. The change of
operating points due to harmonics is discussed in a case study.

Keywords: Harmonics, harmonic operating point (HOP), harmonic power,

load angle, maximum power, power equation, power system, stability

2.1 Introduction
The term ‘stability’ in the power system indicates the state of ‘synchronism’
maintained during operation. Power system networks involve synchro-
nous generators along with other types of generation units. Moreover, they
feed power to a variety of loads of diverse and dynamic characteristics.
Also, power system networks face different types of faults and other types
of disturbances. All these make the operation in synchronism a very diffi-
cult and challenging task to be maintained. The maximum power that can
be delivered to maintain stability is known as the stability limit.

*Corresponding author: surajitchattopadhyay@gmail.com

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(15–32) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

15
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16 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

2.2 Classification
System characteristics are greatly influenced by load condition, disturbance,
method, and capacity to maintain stable operation. Concerning these, power
system stability (PSS) is classified into three categories, as follows:

a. Steady-state stability
b. Transient stability
c. Dynamic stability

2.2.1 Steady-State Stability

Power system stability (PSS) under small disturbances followed by normal
load conditions is known as steady-state stability. The systems are consid-
ered under automatic voltage control (AVC). Maximum power transfer
is an important criterion for the study of steady-state stability. Maximum
power point in power versus load angle characteristics is treated as the
stability limit of steady-state stability. Beyond this limit, the system fails to
operate in synchronism and fails to maintain stability.

2.2.2 Transient Stability

Power system stability (PSS) under large disturbance to bring the opera-
tion of the system in ‘synchronism’ is known as transient stability. A sud-
den large disturbance can cause a loss of stability if it fails to bring back
the synchronism by reducing oscillation. Loss of stability may occur below
the steady-state stability limit. Transient stability deals with the properties
of the generator for reducing oscillation before the governor starts acting.
Various methods which improve power system transient stability are [1–9]:

i. Improved steady-state stability

a) Higher system voltage levels
b) Additional transmission line
c) Smaller transmission line series reactance
d) Smaller transfer leakage reactance
e) Series capacitive transmission line compensation
f) Static var compensators and flexible AC transmission
systems (FACTs)
ii. High speed fault clearing
iii. High speed reclosure of circuit breaker
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Diversified Harmonics Modeling for PSS Analysis 17

iv. Single pole switching

v. Large machine inertia, lower transient reactance
vi. Fast responding, high-gain exciter
vii. Fast valving
viii. Breaking resistor

2.2.3 Dynamic Stability

Dynamic PSS refers to bringing the system’s operation in ‘synchronism’
at the new or same equilibrium point of oscillation by governor action. It
comes after the transient stability period or rather when the system fails to
restore stability in its transient stability period. Dynamic stability depends
on various factors like faults, breaking operations, and fault clearance.
Power system stability is mainly concerned with rotor stability analysis.
For this, various assumptions are needed, such as:

• For stability analysis, balanced three-phase system and bal-

anced disturbances are considered.
• Deviations of machine frequencies from synchronous fre-
quency are small.
• During short circuit in generator, DC offset may be neglected.
• Network and impedance loads are at steady state. Hence,
voltages, currents, and powers can be computed from power
flow equation.

In this chapter, steady state stability is assessed for a two-bus system,

wherein the direction of power flow is assessed to ascertain the stability
of the system. A case study is presented for a sample two-bus system and
analysis is done at the end to authenticate the case concerned.
The advantage of the P-δ plane approach is that, here, fault bus and type
of fault can be analyzed from other distant buses and lines also, which
may not be connected directly with the fault buses. Both symmetrical and
unsymmetrical fault analysis can be done using this technique and stability
assessment of the connected lines can be done at normal and faulty condi-
tions using this method of analysis in harmonic-infiltrated environment.
This is achieved by monitoring harmonic load angle and feeder operat-
ing points in P-δ plane. Harmonic P-δ characteristics can be formed and
feeder operating points can be determined for healthy and at symmetri-
cal, line to line, line to ground, and double line to round fault in certain
buses of the system. Significant changes will be observed in the harmonic
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18 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

operating points (HOPs) due to fault. Also, the change of harmonic load
angle due to fault at different frequencies is observed. Based on the obser-
vation logic can be made to judge whether the system is healthy or faulty.
If there is any fault, then fault bus along with the type of fault is identified.
The specific outcome of this method is that, here, fault bus and type of fault
can also be assessed from other buses and feeders which may not be con-
nected directly with fault bus by using harmonic voltage angle and power
flow monitoring, and logic is developed accordingly. This method can be
extended for other multi-bus systems and for identification of other types
of faults. Also, steady state stability analysis can be done with the aid of this
approach [10].

2.3 Power Equation

Power delivered to load by a synchronous generator depends on generated
voltage, load voltage, i.e., the voltage across the load, load angle, i.e., the
angle between these two voltages, and reactance of the generating system.
Consider a simple single-generator-single-load system as shown in Figure
2.1 [11–13].
Let,
E = Generated voltage
V = load voltage
δ = load angle
δ = reactance

Then active power can be mathematically written as follows:

EV
P sin (2.1)
X

Generator Load

Figure 2.1 A simple single-generator-single-load system.

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Diversified Harmonics Modeling for PSS Analysis 19

Pm

O δ

Figure 2.2 Power versus load angle characteristics.

This equation is commonly known as the power equation. The equation

shows that power delivered to load varies in the sinusoidal way with load
angle. Power versus load angle characteristics is shown in Figure 2.2.

2.4 Maximum Power

Though the power delivered to the system varies with load angle, the max-
imum power does not depend on load angle; rather it depends on voltages
and reactance of the system. From the above equation maximum power
can be written as follows:

EV
Pmax = (2.2)
X

The above expression shows that maximum power increase with the
increase of generated and load voltage and decreases with the increase of
system reactance.

2.5 Nonlinearity and Harmonics

The characteristics of magnetic materials are nonlinear. This aspect brings
nonlinearity in all electrical machines consisting of magnetic materials
and also causes harmonic generation in the system. The properties of the
power system network largely depend on the properties of the machines
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20 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

installed in the system. It may be noted that there are other major sources
of harmonics in the network like converters, faults, transients, and nonlin-
ear loads. Thus, all these harmonics produced in the system also introduce
nonlinearity in the network.

2.6 Active Power, Load Angle, and Reactance

Active power delivered shows that the operating point and maximum
power depend on system parameters. In practice, a power system network
consists of multiple generators and loads that are connected by buses and
different feeders. The active power transmitted from one bus to another is
almost similar to the previously discussed power equation. Let,

Vj = voltage at bus j
Vk = voltage at bus k
δjk = difference between voltage of bus j and bus k
X = reactance between bus j and bus k

Therefore, the active power can be written as follows [14–19]:

V jVk
P sin jk (2.3)
X

Thus, the power flow of the network and its stability will depend on the
reactance of the network. Network reactance can be expressed in matrix
form. Let,

[ X ] reactance of the network

The reactance matrix can be derived from the admittance matrix of the
network. Let,

[Y ] admittance of the network

Therefore, the reactance can be expressed in terms of admittance, as follows:

[ X ] [Y ] 1 (2.4)
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Diversified Harmonics Modeling for PSS Analysis 21

For a three-bus network, the admittance matrix looks like:

Y11 Y12 Y13

[Y ]3 3 Y21 Y22 Y23 (2.5)
Y31 Y32 Y33

In generalized form, the admittance matrix of an n-bus system can be

written as follows:

Y11 Y1n
[Y ]n n Y21 Y2n (2.6)
Y31 Ynn

2.7 Effects of Harmonics on Stability Model

Reactance can be expressed as follows:

X R j L (2.7)

Neglecting resistance, the reactance will consist of only inductance, as

follows:

X j L (2.8)

Therefore, the magnitude of the reactance will involve angular frequency

and inductance, as follows:

|X| |j L| L (2.9)

Similarly, admittance can be written by inversing reactance, as follows:

1 1
Y (2.10)
X j L
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22 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Therefore, the magnitude of the admittance can be written as follows:

1 1
|Y |
j L L
(2.11)

2.7.1 Harmonic Reactance

Reactance is a frequency-dependent term.

|X| |j L| L 2 f L (2.12)

where,

2 f (2.13)

The system is expected to operate with 5% (it may vary based on regula-
tion guidelines) deviation at the following frequency:

f 50 Hz or 60 Hz (2.14)

Any real system consists of harmonics. Therefore, ith order frequency

may be expressed as follows:

i 2 fi (2.15)

where,

i 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.n

If any system is free from even harmonics, then

i 1, 3, 5.n (2.16)

However, some even harmonics with very small amplitude may be

found. In those cases, second-order harmonics are found dominating (e.g.,
inrush in transform network). Therefore, considering this,
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Diversified Harmonics Modeling for PSS Analysis 23

i 1, 2, 3, 5.n (2.17)

Now because of semiconductor-based generating units and controlling

devices, in practice, the network may consist of fractional harmonics. Then,

i = fractional (2.18)

In the presence of harmonics, the magnitude of reactance can be written

as follows:

|Xi | |j i L| i L (2.19)

2.7.2 Harmonic Power Equation and Harmonic

Maximum Power
For each harmonic frequency, active power depends on harmonic voltages.
Let,

V ji = voltage at bus j corresponding to frequency component of

order i
Vki = voltage at bus k corresponding to frequency component of
order i
jki = difference between voltage at bus j and bus k corresponding
to frequency component of order i
X jki = reactance between bus j and bus k corresponding to fre-
quency component of order i

Considering ith order frequency component, the power equation can be

written as follows:

V j i Vk i
Pjk i sin jk i (2.20)
X jk i

Therefore, harmonic maximum power can be written as follows:

V j i Vk i
Pjk i max (2.21)
X jk i
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24 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Pi

Pim

Pci

O δi

Figure 2.3 Harmonic power, operating point, and corresponding maximum power.

Harmonic power, operating point, and corresponding maximum power

are shown in Figure 2.3.
For fundamental components,

i =1 (2.22)

Therefore, a fundamental component of maximum power can be writ-

ten as follows:

V j 1Vk 1
Pjk 1 max (2.23)
X jk 1

Fundamental power, operating point, and corresponding maximum

power are shown in Figure 2.4.

P1

Pm1

P1c

O δ1

Figure 2.4 Fundamental power, operating point, and corresponding maximum power.
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Diversified Harmonics Modeling for PSS Analysis 25

2.8 Harmonic Operating Point

2.8.1 Harmonic Power Versus Load Angle Characteristics
Power versus load angle characteristics is greatly influenced by maximum
power. Normally, maximum power or peak power corresponds to the
power contributed by fundamental components of voltages and respective
reactance of the system. But this maximum power varies with the change
of frequency. As frequency of harmonic components differ from that of
fundamental, maximum power corresponding to different harmonic com-
ponents are different and significantly less (most of the cases neglected for
power flow analysis and trading aspects) than that of fundamental. Thus,
harmonic power versus load angle characteristics refers to the P-power
angle characteristics that involve all parameters like voltages, reactance,
and power angle having harmonic frequencies.

2.8.2 Harmonic Operating Point

Harmonic operating point (HOP) refers to the operating point concerning
active power versus load angle characteristics for a particular frequency.
Harmonic operating points are normally seen to vary with frequency.

2.8.3 Does HOP Hamper Overall Stability?

As harmonics’ magnitudes are comparatively very small concerning the
magnitude of fundamental, harmonic stability does not normally hamper
overall stability. Thus, system stability is governed by fundamental compo-
nents. But in a very small network like nanogrids and picogrids, HOP may
influence system stability.

2.8.4 Importance of HOP

Monitoring and study of HOP have the following importance:

• HOPs carry other system information that may be important.

• Harmonics often carry an indication of faults. Therefore,
monitoring of HOP along with fundamental operating
points can help in fault prediction.
• Performance of control units can be monitored by observing
HOPs.
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26 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

2.8.5 Steps for Determination of HOP

Before determining HOPs, system parameters are to be determined corre-
sponding to harmonic frequencies. Normally, admittance matrix of a par-
ticular power system network is determined by changing the frequency
dependent matrix elements using harmonic frequencies. Then, using har-
monic admittance matrix, harmonic bus voltages are determined. Then,
harmonic power angles are determined by the difference of corresponding
bus voltages. These angles are used to determine HOPs.

2.9 Case Studies

A case study is presented here to show how HOP changes with frequency. Two-
bus network model was considered for harmonic stability study, as shown in
Figure 2.5. A power source of 33 kV was applied at sending end. At receiving
end, it delivered power to a three-phase load of 300 kW at 33 kV. Harmonic
voltages and corresponding interconnecting line reactance were measured,
as presented in Table 2.1. Operating load angles for different frequency

Line

Source Bus 1 Bus 2 Load

Figure 2.5 Two-bus network model used for harmonic stability study.

Table 2.1 Harmonic voltages and corresponding interconnecting line reactance.

Harmonics fiHZ V1 V2 X
Sub harmonics f0.2(10Hz) 7.59 2.33 0.08329164
Do f0.4(20Hz) 24.57 2.82 0.16658328
Do f0.6(30Hz) 40.17 3.42 0.24987492
Do f0.9(40Hz) 86.48 5.63 0.33316656
Do f1.4(70Hz) 67.61 2.49 0.58304148
Do f1.6(80Hz) 42.62 1.30 0.66633312
Do f1.9(90Hz) 37.0 1.06 0.74962476
Integer harmonics f3(150Hz) 16.99 0.28 1.2493746
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Diversified Harmonics Modeling for PSS Analysis 27

components were calculated, as presented in Table 2.2. Harmonic components

of bus voltages excluding fundamental component are shown in Figure 2.6.
Load angles for different harmonic frequencies are shown in Figure 2.7.
The same study was carried out for a three-phase load of 150 kW at 33
kV. The harmonics voltages and corresponding reactance are shown in
Table 2.3. Corresponding harmonic components of bus voltages excluding
fundamental component are shown in Figure 2.8. Operating load angles for
different frequency components were calculated, as presented in Table 2.4.
Load angles for different harmonic frequencies are shown in Figure 2.9.

Table 2.2 Operating load angles for different frequency components.

Harmonics fiHZ Δ = δ2 − δ1
Fundamental f1(50 Hz) 87
Sub harmonics f0.2(10 Hz) 85.5
Do f0.4(20 Hz) 88.7
Do f0.6(30 Hz) 93.7
Do f0.8(40 Hz) 84.6
Do f1.4(70 Hz) 83.4
Do f1.6(80 Hz) 84.4
Do f1.8(90 Hz) 84.6
Integer harmonics f3(150 Hz) 79.3

100
90
80
Bus voltages (V)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
(10Hz) (20Hz) (30Hz) (40Hz) (70Hz) (80Hz) (90Hz) (150Hz)
Frequency components (Hz)
Bus 1 Bus 2

Figure 2.6 Harmonic components of bus voltages excluding fundamental component for
300-kW load.
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28 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Load Angles (Degree) for different harmonic frequencies

95

90

85

80

75

70
(50Hz) (10Hz) (20Hz) (30Hz) (40Hz) (70Hz) (80Hz) (90Hz) (150Hz)

Figure 2.7 Load angles for different harmonic frequencies.

Table 2.3 Harmonic voltages and corresponding interconnecting line reactance.

Harmonics fiHZ V1 V2 X
Sub harmonics f0.2(10Hz) 5.63 2.84 0.08329164
Do f0.4(20Hz) 12.92 3.25 0.16658328
Do f0.6(30Hz) 25.97 4.32 0.24987492
Do f0.8(40Hz) 52.68 6.82 0.33316656
Inter harmonics f1.2(60Hz) 81.64 7.01 0.49974984
Do f1.4(70Hz) 38.81 2.79 0.58304148
Do f1.6(80Hz) 27.67 1.76 0.66633312
Do f1.8(90Hz) 21.70 1.23 0.74962476
Integer harmonics f3(150Hz) 10.13 0.36 1.2493746
Do f5(250Hz) 5.31 0.24 2.082291
Do f7(350Hz) 4.29 0.16 2.9152074
Do f9(450Hz) 3.10 0.05 3.7481238
Do f11(550Hz) 2.45 0.07 4.5810402
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Diversified Harmonics Modeling for PSS Analysis 29

90
80
70
Bus voltages (V)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
(10Hz) (20Hz) (30Hz) (40Hz) (50Hz) (70Hz) (80Hz) (90Hz) (150Hz)(250Hz)(350Hz)(450Hz)(550Hz)
Frequency components (Hz)
Bus 1 Bus 2

Figure 2.8 Harmonic components of bus voltages excluding fundamental component for
150-kW load.

Table 2.4 Operating load angles for different frequency components.

Harmonics fiHZ δ = δ2 − δ1
Fundamental f1(50Hz) 84.3
Sub harmonics f0.2(10Hz) 92.4
Do f0.4(20Hz) 88.7
Do f0.6(30Hz) 88.2
Do f0.8(40Hz) 86.3
Inter harmonics f1.2(60Hz) 82.7
Do f1.4(70Hz) 82
Do f1.6(80Hz) 80.6
Do f1.8(90Hz) 79.3
Integer harmonics f3(150Hz) 72.2
Do f5(250Hz) -263
Do f7(350Hz) -10.9
Do f9(450Hz) 42.5
Do f11(550Hz) 65.1
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30 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Load Angles (Degree) for different harmonic frequencies

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
(10Hz) (20Hz) (30Hz) (40Hz) (60Hz) (70Hz) (80Hz) (90Hz) (150Hz)(450Hz)(550Hz)

Figure 2.9 Load angles for different harmonic frequencies.

Observation:
The major observations from the case study are as follows:

• Power or load angles for harmonic components are not the

same.
• Tables 2.3 and 2.4 show that load angles considerably change
with the change of frequency component.
• Sign (+ or -) of power angles are not the same for all har-
monic components.
• Power angle features varies with load.
• Further study shows at harmonic power, angle varies sig-
nificantly during load, thus, these features may be useful for
fault diagnosis.

2.10 Conclusions
Different issues of PSS concerning harmonic power flow in the network
were presented in this chapter. At first, system stability was defined.
Considering gradual load and large disturbances, power system stability
was classified. The power equation needed for stability study was expressed.
Different useful parameters were pointed out that are important for stabil-
ity consideration. Then, a detailed discussion was made on how harmonics
influence system reactance, operating points that are important for stabil-
ity analysis. Then the case study results were provided, which show that
operating points of different frequency components are different. As the
magnitudes of harmonic components are significantly less than that of the
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Diversified Harmonics Modeling for PSS Analysis 31

fundamental frequency, normally, they do not have a great influence on the

overall system stability; however, the study of HOPs is interesting as they
can give other important information about the condition of the system.

References
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tice”, IET, London, ISBN: 9781839533112, 2021.
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10. D. Kar Ray (2019). “Harmonic Power Flow Analysis and its Applications in
Electrical Systems”, Ph. D. Thesis, UCSTA, CU, Kolkata, India.
11. T. Zabaiou, L. A. Dessaint, I. Kamwa, “Preventive Control Approach for
Voltage Stability Improvement using Voltage Stability Constrained Optimal
Power Flow based on Static Line Voltage Stability Indices”, IET Gen. Trans.
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12. P. M. Anderson, A. A. Fouad, “Power System Control and Stability”, IEEE
Press, ISBN (Print): 978-0-471-23862-1, 2003.
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Publishing Co., ISBN-10:1588746739, ISBN-13:978-1588746733, 2016.
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32 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

14. O. P. Rahi, A. K. Yadav, H. Malik, A. Azeem, B. Kumar, “Power System Voltage

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 Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ by ibrahim ragab - Universita Di Firenze Sistema , Wiley Online Library on [09/09/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
3
Comparative Study of Different Existing
Standard Microgrid Networks
Sagnik Datta1*, Aveek Chattopadhyaya2, Surajit Chattopadhyay3
and Arabinda Das4

Electrical Engineering Department, S.K.F.G.I., Mankundu, Hooghly, India

1

2
Electrical Engineering Department, GNIT, Panihati, Kolkata, India
3
Electrical Engineering Department, G.K.C. Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Malda, India
4
Electrical Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

Abstract
Reliability has become one of the most important properties of a power distribu-
tion network in modern era. Nowadays, a distribution network faces threats of
cyberattacks on it along with weather-related events, such as storms and floods.
Microgrids gained extreme popularity for enhancing overall reliability and resil-
ience of conventional power networks. It consists of a set of distributed energy
sources and loads present in a small region, which acts as a separate controllable
set-up in relation to the main grid. However, widespread introduction of microg-
rid introduces some new technical challenges. Unlike traditional power networks,
generators, energy storage facilities, and loads are present at all the levels. Thus,
generation, distribution, and consumption can occur at any level, making the
direction of power flow very much uncertain. Deep understanding of a microgrid
operation is still at its infancy. In order to develop a better understanding, stan-
dardized forms of microgrid networks are of paramount importance. This chapter
showcases three most widely used standardized networks: IEEE 14 bus microgrid
network, IEEE 9 bus microgrid network, and IEC 61850-7-420 standard microg-
rid network.
Keywords: DC microgrid, AC microgrid, hybrid microgrid, energy storage,
energy resource, power distribution, protection schemes

*Corresponding author: sagnik.ee@gmail.com

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(33–48) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

33
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34 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

3.1 Introduction
In recent times, reliability, i.e., the ability to stay ‘operational in the
event of adversity’ is becoming one of the most desirable properties of
a power distribution network. The word ‘adversity’ refers to weather-­
related events, such as storms and floods, and also physical/cyberattacks
on power network. Evolutions in the area of distributed energy resource
(DER) and energy storage system are making microgrids extremely pop-
ular for enhancing overall reliability and resilience of conventional power
networks. Microgrid consists of a set of distributed energy sources and
loads present in a small area, which acts as a separate controllable set-up
with respect to the main grid, having a distinct electrical borderline. It
is capable of working either connected with the traditional power grid
or on its own as an island. However, widespread introduction of micro-
grid will bring forth its own sets of technical challenges. The main chal-
lenges deal with the significant impact on existing networks created due
to the deployment of a number of DERs and design of proper protection
schemes which can operate satisfactorily in the much lower voltage and
current levels present in the microgrid environment. Unlike traditional
power networks, generators, energy storage facilities, and loads are pres-
ent at every level of a microgrid network. Generator, distributor, and also
consumer can stay at any level of a microgrid network and the direction
of power flow is also uncertain. Complete understanding of a micro-
grid operation is still at a very early phase. Thus, to facilitate a secure
operation in such a multifaceted environment, where so many different
parameters and variables are to be monitored, controlled and communi-
cated, extensive research work is needed. In order to do so, standardized
forms of microgrid networks are of paramount importance. This chapter
showcases three most widely used standardized networks: IEEE 14 bus
microgrid network, IEEE 9 bus microgrid network, and IEC 61850-7-420
standard microgrid network.

3.2 Classification of Microgrid Networks

Microgrid networks can be classified in three broad categories, depending
upon the DER units and the type of loads present. These are DC microgrid,
AC microgrid, and hybrid microgrid.
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Comparative Study of Microgrid Networks 35

PV Wind Battery
Grid Farm Farm Storage

Rectifier DC/DC Rectifier DC/DC

DC Bus

DC/DC DC/DC DC/DC

DC Loads DC Loads HEV

Figure 3.1 Basic structure of a DC microgrid network.

3.2.1 DC Microgrid Network

DC microgrids have the lowest energy loss in comparison the other kinds
of microgrid systems. Figure 3.1 shows the basic layout of a DC microgrid
which can operate at different direct current (DC) voltages. The control
operation is relatively easier due to the absence of reactive power and only
the amplitude of voltage needs to be regulated for connecting DC sources
with the bus. The absence of energy conversion stages and no need for
phase and frequency synchronization are the two main advantages of DC
microgrid networks. Usage is limited only to applications requiring low
voltage levels.

3.2.2 AC Microgrid Network

Figure 3.2 shows the basic form of an AC microgrid network. The main
advantage of this type of microgrid is that local loads can draw power

PV Wind
Grid Farm Farm

Transformer Rectifier Transformer

AC Bus

Transformer Transformer

AC Loads AC Loads

Figure 3.2 Basic structure of an AC microgrid network.

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36 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

from it and the main conventional grid can also get the excess power of
the microgrid. Different voltage levels can be achieved through the use
of transformers. Perfect synchronization of phase angle and frequency is
needed for the operation of AC microgrids. High power applications need
this type of microgrids.

3.2.3 Hybrid AC/DC Microgrid Network

Figure 3.3 shows the fundamental layout of a hybrid AC/DC microgrid.
This type of microgrid network is a combination of AC and DC microg-
rids. So, it has two distinct portions. Direct connection between the AC
network and the conventional grid is present. An interlinking converter
joins the DC section of the microgrid network with the conventional
power grid. These types of networks are designed by considering the flow
of power, nature of loads, and cost. This type of microgrid network can
serve both AC and DC loads. All the existing standard forms of microgrids
are of this type.

3.3 Modes of Operation

IEEE 2030.7-2017 describes the different operating modes for a microg-
rid network in a comprehensive way. This standard summarizes microgrid
operation into steady state (SS) operating mode and transitions (T) of dif-
ferent kinds, as depicted in Figure 3.4.

Grid Wind Farm AC Loads

Transformer Transformer Transformer

AC Bus
Rectifier
DC Bus

DC/DC DC/DC DC/DC DC/DC

Battery
Storage PV Farm DC Loads HEV

Figure 3.3 Basic structure of a hybrid AC/DC microgrid network.

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Comparative Study of Microgrid Networks 37

T1
SS 1 SS 2
T3

T2 Yes T4
T2
No Blackout
Success?

Figure 3.4 Microgrid operating modes and control flow diagram.

The operating modes according to IEEE 2030.7-2017 are as follows:

• SS1: steady state (grid connected): here, the network is in con-

nection with traditional grid. It is capable of providing ser-
vices to the main grid, such as peak shaving, valley filling, and
reactive power control. The microgrid controller provides a
single point of communication for availing all of the services.
• SS2: steady state (island): here, disconnection between
the microgrid and the traditional power network will be
achieved. So, the microgrid network operates on its own
(formally known as “islanding”). A continuous balance
needs to be present between loads and local generation
and energy storage facilities. If the microgrid has enough
generation capacity then it can be operated in this mode
indefinitely. Island mode demands different settings for the
protective devices than that needed for grid-connected con-
dition, due to much reduced levels of faulty current and pos-
sible alterations in power flow directions. Load management
is crucial in island mode for achieving operating stability in
case generation is not enough for the net load demand, or
if the energy storage systems do not have enough reserve to
meet power demand for a specific time frame. Microgrids
which only have solar or wind energy sources generally need
systems to store energy, for getting some buffer in between
different sources and the loads. It also requires the capability
to cut down generation, when the storage gets full and gen-
eration becomes more than load demand, in order to pre-
vent high frequency or voltage-related problems.
• Transition T1: from grid connected to steady state island
(planned): microgrid may be operated in island mode even
when the traditional power grid is available. It can be done
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38 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

for several reasons such as to test the network for a sched-

uled power outage, or simply for economic reasons. T1
demands the transition between grid connected and island
mode to be smooth. Auxiliary generation gets initiated to
achieve an equilibrium between load demand and avail-
able power generation. After that, the microgrid is discon-
nected at the ‘point of interconnection (POI).’ At the same
time, local generation should also switch from ‘grid follower
mode’ to ‘grid former mode’. Protective devices generally
operating in a particular direction have to be bidirectional at
island mode. It is extremely important that their settings are
tweaked accordingly.
• Transition T2: From grid connected to steady state island
(unplanned): here, the operation takes place if in the event
of fault occurring in main network, the microgrid has the
ability for disconnecting itself and transit into island mode
without interruption of power supply to the loads with the
help of local generations. T2 is somewhat easier in case of
small dedicated microgrid networks but difficult for large
microgrid networks. Sometimes, the critical loads are dis-
connected during this process until additional power sources
are brought online. Similar to the planned island, protective
equipment require adjustments.
• Transition T3: steady state island reconnection with grids:
here, changeover happens from the island mode of opera-
tion to grid connected through successful reconnection.
Both frequency and phase angle of the ‘grid forming’ genera-
tor present in microgrid network must be matched with that
of the traditional power grid to obtain proper synchroniza-
tion. After the reconnection is complete, the ‘grid-forming’
generator gets switched to the ‘grid following’.
• Transition T4: black start to steady state island: in this mode
of operation, a microgrid is restarted in island mode after
experiencing black out. T4 needs the microgrid network to
be detached from the main grid at the POI. If the microg-
rid controller fails to deal with an unexpected power outage
of the main power grid and initiate stable transition (T2) to
island mode then T4 is experienced. T4 can also happen if
there exists insufficient generation or energy storage reserve
for continuation of supply to loads, and consequently, it has
to be shut down.
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Comparative Study of Microgrid Networks 39

3.4 General Equipment of a Microgrid Network

Identification of the energy sources, storage for energy, management of
load, and automation enabled, distribution-related equipment, which are
present in the microgrid, is of paramount importance for understanding
the operation of the microgrid controller.

• Energy sources: energy sources present in microgrid networks

are generally photovoltaic systems (PV), diesel generators,
fuel cells, and wind generators. Nowadays, behind-the-meter
(BTM) sources like commercial or residential PV systems are
also being utilized. One of the active energy sources act as the
‘grid-forming’ generator. It sets the operating frequency and
voltage level of the network. A conventional alternator or an
inverter along with battery set-up is used as the ‘grid-forming’
generator. Solar systems and wind generators generally do not
play the role of ‘grid-forming’ generator due to their highly vari-
able nature.
• Energy storage: energy storage facilities act like a bridge
between generation and load management. Battery systems
can also serve as energy sources when there is a provision of
recharging them from other sources. Thermal-energy stor-
age, e.g., controlled water-heater or storage of ice for com-
mercialized cooling purpose, are also useful in enhancing
grid stability, though they are not active contributors of elec-
tric power. Table 3.1 shows the classification of systems for
energy storage based on their working principles.
• Load management: it is the key component of the balanced
operation of a microgrid network because proper load man-
agement ensures a balance between generations and the load
demand. Load management can be of various types such as
techniques needed to respond against utility demand, remotely
disconnecting meters at domestic and commercial (small) facil-
ities, active load-disconnection facility at commercial (large)
units and sectionalization of feeders for the purpose of isolating
entire groups of users based on their location. Information must
be fed to the microgrid controller regarding the loads which are
present at various positions inside the network. Priority wise
plan for the most critical load should also be maintained, in
case of an event of limited generation is faced.
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40 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 3.1 Classification of energy storage systems on the basis of working

principle.
Sl. no. Types of energy storage Examples
1. Mechanical • Flywheel
• Compressed air
• Hydro pump
2. Electrical • Super conducting magnetic energy
storage
• Capacitor bank
3. Electrochemical • Secondary battery (lead acid, NiCd, NaS)
• Flow battery (redox flow, hybrid flow)
• Super capacitor
4. Chemical • Fuel cell
5. Thermal systems • Heat storage

• Automated distribution system equipment: two purposes are

generally served by automated distribution system equipment
present in a microgrid network. Firstly, they perform micro-
level load management, such as initiating ‘rotating blackouts’
in case a shortage in generation is faced. Secondly, they also
play the role of sensing as well as protective equipment. The
electrical characteristics vary considerably, between island
mode and also grid-connected mode of working because flow
of current in grid-connected mode is always unidirectional—
from substation to load, whereas, in steady state island (SS2)
mode of operation, flow of current can be bidirectional
depending upon the energy sources available at a given time.
Hence, the protective devices should possess the ability to
handle the bidirectional current flow in case the microgrid
network experiences a changeover between grid connected
and island mode.
• Communications and cyber security issues: for proper oper-
ation of a microgrid network, microgrid controllers need
to communicate with a number of devices such as inverters
present in PV systems to residential thermostats. This com-
munication system poses the greatest challenge in design
and operation of a microgrid network mainly because of a
great variety of communication technologies (e.g., fiber, PLC,
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Comparative Study of Microgrid Networks 41

cellular, etc.) and also of standards and protocols (e.g., Modbus,

DNP3, IEC 61850, etc). The protocols generally employed in
the network are also very much different than the consumer
friendly BTM arrangement. Controllers of microgrids are
either self-reliant or hierarchical in nature. In both cases,
interoperability is very much needed. Cyber security is also
very closely related to communications and interoperability.
Devices should possess the abilities to decipher out a valid
status request or control from one that is not. It should also
ensure the security of communication signals and decryption
only by the proper controller. Hence, cyber security needs to
be ingrained with software design at the earliest stage.

3.5 Basic Control Structure of Microgrid Network

The basic control structure for microgrid operation generally consists of
three stages or layers.

• Primary control: output voltage regulation through invert-

ers and sharing of load among the inverters is performed at
primary level of control. This level of control is required for
maintenance of economy and enhancing the overall reliability.
• Secondary control: deviations in voltage waveforms as well
as frequency caused at primary control level is rectified with
the help of secondary control. Load demand forecasting and
adjustment of output from the DERs are performed.
• Tertiary control: exchange of power between different consum-
ers is managed at this control level. It is utilized to ensure the
reliability of economic-emission dispatch. Optimization-based
control techniques are utilized to implement this control.

3.6 Existing Standard Models

The behavior of a microgrid network, regardless of the mode in which
it is operating, is extremely dynamic. Connection or disconnection of a
DER or a load can take place at an instant. In case of such a change in
the network, suitable changes need to be made to the power generation,
load-sharing, control, and protection schemes. Despite the recent popu-
larity of microgrid, it is still in very early phases of understanding. Hence,
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42 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

to understand and study the myriad technical challenges present in oper-

ation, control, and protection of microgrid networks, standardized forms
are very helpful. These standard networks can also be used for research
and development of new theories for microgrid environment. Three of the
most popular and widely utilized standard microgrid networks are IEEE
standard 14 bus microgrid network, IEEE 9 bus microgrid network, and
IEC 61850-7-420 standard microgrid network. Detailed discussion regard-
ing these networks is provided in the following section.

3.6.1 IEEE 14 Bus Microgrid Network

It is one of the earliest developed standard model of microgrid network
derived from the conventional IEEE 14 bus network. IEEE standard 14
bus microgrid is shown in Figure 3.5 [1]. There are four different types of
sources in this microgrid network. Bus G13 has the bulk generator con-
nected to it. At G12, PV system is present. Diesel generator 1 (DG1) and
diesel generator 2 (DG2) are connected at G8 at G3, respectively. Loads are
of four different types. Bus B10 has nonlinear bulk load, B6 has furnace, B1

Bulk
PV Cell
Generator

Bus B2 Bus B1

Neutral
Grounding

Furnace

Bus B4 Bus B3

Non-linear
Load

Diesel
Generator 1
Battery
Charging Bus B5
System
Linear
Bus B6 Load 1

Bus B7

Bus B8
Diesel
Linear Generator 2
Load 2
Bus B9

Figure 3.5 IEEE Standard 14 bus microgrid network.

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Comparative Study of Microgrid Networks 43

has an arrangement for battery charging, B2 has linear load, and B3 has
linear load 1 connected to it. The length of transmission lines connecting
one bus to its adjacent bus is 1 km. Operating voltage and frequency is
kept at 400 V (line to line) and 50 Hz, respectively. Bulk generator bus is
considered as the swing bus. Bulk generator is rated at 100 MW, PV system
has a capacity of 40 MW, and both the diesel generators are rated at 50 MW.

3.6.2 IEEE 9 Bus Microgrid Network

This network is derived from the conventional IEEE 9 bus network. It has
been modified into a microgrid network by reducing the line lengths and
strategically introducing various DERs [2]. Alternator G1 is taken as the
reference generator and bus B1 is considered as the swing bus. Three alter-
nators present in this network are of three different types. The hydro-alter-
nator is connected to bus B1, gas-turbine is at B2, and the coal-fired type
alternator is present at B3. The capacity of the hydro-alternator, gas tur-
bine, and the coal-fired type alternator is 250 MW, 255 MW and 230 MW,
respectively. The automatic voltage regulator that is present with each of
these alternators has a turbine. Solar PV systems are connected at buses
5 and 9, doubly-fed induction generator-based wind farms are at buses 6
and 8. These sources are connected to the microgrid through a transformer
with a rating of 0.4/230 kV. Power rating of the PV farm A and B are 69
MW and 49 MW, respectively. The wind farm has a power rating of 50
MW. An energy storage system (BESS) is connected with bus 1. IEEE 9 bus
microgrid network is shown in Figure 3.6.

Bus 8 Bus 9
Load C T3 G2
G2 T2 Line 7-8 Line 8-9
Wind
farm A Bus 3
Bus 2
Line 5-7

Line 6-9

Bus 7 PV
farm A
Bus 5 Bus 6
Line 4-5

Line 4-6

PV Load A Load B Wind

farm B farm B

Bus 4
BESS T1

Bus 1

G1

Figure 3.6 IEEE 9 bus microgrid network.

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44 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

3.6.3 IEC 61850-7-420 Standard Microgrid Network

In IEC 61850-7-420 standard network, all branches contain energy source
and load, and the main feature of this network is that the structure can be
altered as per requirement network with the help of combinations of relays [3].
The power flow, load sharing, stability parameters, and protection schemes
need to be adjusted accordingly. In this network structure, various DGs and
loads are connected to and disconnected from the microgrid followed by
some minor adjustments. In case CB4 is disconnected, then CB5 has to be
closed to keep the integrity of the network. For protection of the microgrid
against failures, the line connecting Loads 1 and 2 (under the protection of
CB5) forms a loop structure if needed. The whole network structure and the
relationship between the microgrid components change significantly. This
would require major adjustments on the flow of power, sharing of load, sta-
bility parameters, and schemes for protection to ensure satisfactory and safe
operation [8–12]. Therefore, a centralized microgrid management system
which implements extensive communication with microgrid components is
required [13–19]. This management system will monitor DGs, loads, storage
devices along with protection equipment, and assign necessary parameters
for respective component. The continuous monitoring and adjusting micro-
grid parameters on the fly help implement a dynamic management system
required by the highly variable nature of the microgrid. Figure 3.7 shows the
IEC 61850-7-420 standard microgrid network.

Utility Grid

CB1

CB2

CB3 CB4

DG1 DG2 CB5 CB6

Load1
CB7

Load2 DG3
Load3 DG4 DG5
Microgrid

Figure 3.7 IEC 61850-7-420 standard microgrid network.

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Comparative Study of Microgrid Networks 45

3.7 Considerations for Designing of

Protection Schemes
Two fundamental differences between traditional power grid and microg-
rid network are that in a microgrid environment, neither the structure of the
grid is ‘radial’ nor is it ‘passive’ in nature. Microgrids also have much lower
levels of voltages and currents in comparison with the traditional power
grids. So, the protective equipment and protection schemes employed for
protection of traditional grids do not work satisfactorily. Moreover, the
direction of power flow in a microgrid network may change depending
upon its mode of operation, time of the day, and available sources, which
adds additional challenges in designing a protection strategy [20–27].
Aforementioned challenges call for a centralized protection scheme
which will be independent of voltage and current levels, direction of cur-
rent flow, and fault impedance. Some advancement in this regard has been
made by considering the statistical nature of harmonic contents in the fault
current waveforms [1, 4–7].

3.8 Conclusion
The presence of sources like small PV panels, wind turbines, and diesel
generators in a microgrid network grid brings forth marked differences
between the structure of a traditional power grid and a microgrid. These
radical changes in structure create challenges in operation and protection
of a microgrid network which were not known by the power engineers.
Traditional load flow control methods have also been rendered ineffective
in a microgrid environment along with the popular protection schemes.
Hence, rigorous study and research work is needed to address the vari-
ous issues faced in a microgrid environment. The standardized microgrid
networks play an important role in studying the nature of microgrids in
different modes of operations as well as devising new operation and pro-
tection strategies.

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46 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

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4
Application of Active Power Filter
in the Hybrid Power System to
Regulate the Grid Voltage
Sarita Samal1*, Rudranarayan Dash1, Arjyadhara Pradhan1
and Prasanta Kumar Barik2

School of EE, KIIT DU, Bhubaneshwar, Odisha, India

1

2
Dept. of Mechanical &Electrical Engineering, CAET, OUAT,
Bhubaneshwar, Odisha, India

Abstract
This work outlines a strategy for integrating solar photovoltaic (SPV) and wind
energy system (WES) connections. Both rely on storage batteries for energy deliv-
ery, which are one of the distribution system’s key advantages. This technique is
used to control the voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC) while the SPV
system is not producing any power. Using the SPV and batteries as storage energy,
the overall system was able to achieve bidirectional grid voltage regulation. During
voltage disruptions like sag, swell, and interruption, the bidirectional inverter
functions as a normal active power filter, regulating the grid voltage. When the
SPV system is using a battery charger, particularly at night time to charge the bat-
teries, it will behave like a conventional switch, and energy will be stored. The pro-
posed technique established the idea of indirect feeder link pathways to regulate
voltage regulation, in which as the voltage level rises, a large amount of reverse
power flow from WES is automatically regulated by employing the SPV system
inverter to charge and store the power. Simulink blocks in MATLAB can be used
to model the suggested system. The proposed strategy to adjust the feeder voltage
by exchanging real active power through the energy storage batteries could be
verified by simulation results. Further, the proposed system may be tested with
different recent control approaches of active filters for better performance.

Keywords: Active power filter, solar PV, wind energy, voltage sag, swell

*Corresponding author: ssamalfel@kiit.ac.in

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(49–66) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

49
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50 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

4.1 Introduction
The performance of the electrical power generation has greatly deterio-
rated recently as a consequence of increased power utilization. The use
of nonlinear loads in the system results in harmonics, which affect the
current and voltage waveforms and reduce the power factor of the supply
system [1]. Consequently, nonlinear loads in the system must be regulated
for harmonics. Because passive filters are inexpensive and reliable, they
have been employed for harmonic reduction in the past, but they have
several problems, including resonance and mistuning, which cause their
interruption in the network [2, 3]. The passive filters, have the drawbacks
of being costly and having large inverter losses [4, 5]. As a consequence,
this chapter presents a series active power filter (APF) incorporated with
a hybrid power system in conjunction with multiple control approaches to
eliminate all of these shortcomings and produce superior harmonic mit-
igation at a lower overall cost [6, 7]. The authors of References [8] and
[9] examined the dynamics of a combined series APF and battery energy
storage (BES) combined arrangement to reduce resonance issues during
transient conditions. A PI (proportional integration) control was used to
drive the voltage source control (VSC). The authors of References [10]
and [11] projected a PI-controlled series APF with a combined storage of
a BES and a super capacitor to increase voltage stability. In References [12]
and [13], an enhanced modular multilevel converter method for dynamic
power allocation based on BES units in a PI-controlled with combined
shunt active power filter (SAPF) and BES system have been implemented.
In the majority of investigations, the combination of series APF and BES
assistance with power systems uses conventional PI control scheme for the
VSC [14, 15]. Hence, in this chapter, a combined effect of solar PV, wind
energy, and BS integrated series APF is presented and its effects are veri-
fied concerning conventional APF. Using the SPV and batteries as storage
energy, the overall system was able to achieve bidirectional grid voltage
regulation. During voltage disruptions like sag, swell, and interruption,
the bidirectional inverter functions as a normal APF, regulating the grid
voltage. When the SPV system is using a battery charger, particularly at
night time to charge the batteries, it will behave like a conventional switch,
and energy will be stored. The proposed technique established the idea of
indirect feeder link pathways to regulate voltage regulation, in which as
the voltage level rises, a large amount of reverse power flow from WES is
automatically regulated by employing the SPV system inverter to charge
and store the power.
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Application of APF in the Hybrid Power System 51

In summary, the authors highlight the following contributions in this

chapter:

• Develop a hybrid energy system using SPV, WES, and BS.

• For voltage sag, swell, and interruption mitigation, a combined
hybrid energy system integrated with series APF is proposed.
• Evaluation of the proposed scheme’s performance in com-
parison to traditional APF.

This chapter’s final section is organized as follows.

The design of the hybrid energy system model is described in Section
4.2. The modeling of Series APF and its control strategies are covered in
Section 4.3. Section 4.4 presents the test scenarios and simulation results.
The chapter is briefly concluded in Section 4.5.

4.2 System Topology Description

The recommended structure is shown in Figure 4.1, which also illustrates
an energy system that combines with a series APF. The proposed work’s
detailed structure is depicted in this diagram. A hybrid energy source that
is connected across the DC-link side of the series APF at the PCC regulates
it. This hybrid energy source regulates the capacitor’s DC-link voltage and
enhances the APF’s filtering capabilities [18–20].

AC PCC

Series Transformer
AC source 3-phase Transformer

Nonlinear load

Buck-Boost
DC-link
Converter
capacitor

DC BUS
Series APF

AC/DC DC/DC
converter converter
Hybrid energy system
+ –

Battery

Wind-system Solar PV

Figure 4.1 Proposed model.

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52 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

4.2.1 Solar Photovoltaic System

Highly pure solar energy is freely available on the entire planet. Additionally,
it produces no greenhouse gas emissions and has a lower carbon footprint.
Due to its plentiful supply in the natural world and lack of contamina-
tion, solar energy is an excellent replacement for traditional electric power
sources. Currently, SPV technologies help to increase system efficiency and
lower component costs. The architecture of the SPV technology will be
covered in detail in the section that follows.

4.2.1.1 SPV Modeling

A structure derived from previously published research [16] is utilized
to simulate the PV array employed in the envisioned system. The PV cell
serves as a regulated current source in this technique, as seen in Figure 4.2.
The output characteristic of the SPV is derived in Equation 4.1.

q Vpv I pv Rse
I pv N p I ph N p I 0 exp 1 (4.1)
N s AkT

4.2.1.2 Maximum Power Point Tracking

The fundamental problem with the SPV concept is that the electricity gen-
erated is dependent on solar radiation. A maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) system with a fast outcome functionality is employed to address
the abovementioned concerns since it can offer the maximum output
power regardless of the weather [17].
A variety of techniques for MPPT has been explored in the literature.
The perturb and observe (P&O) method is widely used to maximize power

Ideal solar cell

Rs
Id

Rp

IP

Figure 4.2 SPV equivalent model.

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Application of APF in the Hybrid Power System 53

point tracking. Perturb and observe (P&O) provides a simple and quick
solution to changes in solar radiation. Because of this, peak energy is pro-
duced via P&O regardless of the amount of irradiation. Figure 4.3 displays
a flowchart for the P&O MPPT. The SPV system’s parameters are listed in
Table 4.1 [18].

4.2.1.3 Boost Converter

The boost converter (BC) raises the solar array’s output voltage so that it
can power a DC-link capacitor. The MPP can also be monitored using the
boost converter (BC). Figure 4.4 depicts the layout of the BC. The duty
cycle D is used to compute the output DC voltage [19]. Figure 4.5 shows
the SPV model with boost converter and MPPT.

4.2.2 Wind Energy System

In the hybrid energy system, WES is another source. The permanent mag-
net synchronous generators (PMSG)-based WES is used. The wind energy
fundamental equation is given in Equation 4.2 [20].

Start

measure V(n) and I(n)

calculate power P(n)=V(n).I(n)

P(n)–P(n–1) YES
=0

NO

NO P(n)–P(n–1) YES
>0

NO YES NO YES
V(n)–V(n–1) V(n)–V(n–1)
<0 >0

D = D + ΔD D = D – ΔD D = D + ΔD D = D – ΔD

RETURN

Figure 4.3 Flow chart of P&O MPPT.

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54 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 4.1 SPV system parameters.

Parameters Values
Reference temperature (Tr) 25
Diode ideality factor A
Maximum power current (Imp) 8.6A
Short circuit current (Isc) 10.2A
Open circuit voltage (Voc) 90.5V
No. of series-connected cells (Np) 72
No. of parallel-connected cells (Ns) 01
Voltage output (V0) 230 V
Supply voltage (Vpv) 80 V
Maximum power voltage (Vmp) 81.5V

L1

D1
Vin D Sw V0
C R

Figure 4.4 Step-up converter.

L
R
Tr
Diode
DC Output

25 C1
SPV
DC
400 C2

Insolation

P&O
MPPT

Figure 4.5 SPV model block diagram.

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Application of APF in the Hybrid Power System 55

Gear system AC generator

AC-DC Boost
Rectifier converter

Wind Blade
Connected
Storage system DC converter load

Figure 4.6 WES block diagram.

Discrete,
Wp [po]
Goto5
s = 2e-05 s
Te powergui

Tm
[Idc]
Speed3 Ws Wm T Duty Cycle
Goto1
+ –i
12 Manual Switch A A V+
+ + Idc Vdc

B B Ld Goto3 v+– Cd
+
wind speed [Vdc] V–
–
C C Boost Converter
with Load
wind generation Universal Bridge

Vdc Vdc
Duty cycle
Idc Idc
MPPT controller

Figure 4.7 Overall WES model.

1
P0 CP , R 2V 3 (4.2)
2
Where P0 = mechanical power, β = pitch angle, λ = tip-speed ratio, λ
= ΩR/V, R = blade radius, and ρ = air density. These parameters are used
to model and develop the WEC system. Figure 4.6 shows the WES model
and Figure 4.7 displays the simulation model of WES. The symbols used in
WES are listed in Table 4.2.

4.2.3 Modeling of Battery

In the electric power system, a variety of methods are employed to store energy.
Batteries, flywheels, ultra-capacitors, pumped hydro, and the manufacture of
hydrogen gas for use in fuel cells or hydrogen internal combustion (IC) engines
are among them. Because batteries and flywheels are commercially accessible,
they are frequently incorporated at the distribution system level. Lead-acid or
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56 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 4.2 Symbols used in WES design.

Symbols Description
ñ density of air in (kg/m2)
r radius of the blade (m)
ë tip-speed ratio
â pitch angle in (rad/s)
Ws wind speed in (r.p.s)
Tm mechanical torque in (N–m)
Te electromagnetic torque in (N–m)

Internal
Resistance IBattery

Controlled VBattery
Voltage Source

VB Integrator

Figure 4.8 Battery model.

flow batteries are commonly used in grid-connected battery banks. Because

of their prevalence in everyday electronics, batteries play a crucial function as
energy carriers in our modern civilization. Due to the growing popularity of
wireless gadgets around the end of the twentieth century, demand for batteries
skyrocketed. The battery industry is now classified as a large-scale industry,
producing millions of batteries each month. One main development chal-
lenge is increasing energy capacity; nevertheless, for consumer items, safety
is likely to be considered equally vital today. With the introduction of hybrid
electric vehicles to the market, there has been technological advancement in
the battery industry, resulting in lower fuel consumption and greenhouse gas
emissions. Both business and university research are working on battery devel-
opment. Figure 4.8 displays an elementary battery architecture.
When the battery is fully depleted and no electricity is flowing, the voltage
will be virtually 0. When a current is reintroduced, the voltage drops sharply.
This model produces accurate findings and also accurately portrays the bat-
tery’s behaviour.
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Application of APF in the Hybrid Power System 57

+ VL – I
IS S IO

IC +
R
+
VS VO
– C
D –

Figure 4.9 Buck converter operation.

4.2.4 Buck-Boost Converter

It is nothing more than a standard DC to DC converter with a predeter-
mined output voltage value. It could be greater or smaller than the input
voltage. The buck boost converter is comparable to the fly back system,
except instead of using a transformer, it employs a single inductor. There
are two different types of converters in a buck-boost converter: buck con-
verters and boost converters. These converters could offer a wider range of
output voltages in contrast to input voltages. The fundamental buck-boost
converter is depicted in the schematic in Figure 4.9.

Operating Principle
The input inductor, which results in an unanticipated shift in the input cur-
rent, is what allows the DC to DC converter to work. The inductor absorbs
energy from the input and stores it when the switch is switched on. The
energy is released when the switch is turned off.
Figure 4.9 shows how a buck converter works. The buck converter’s
metal oxide silicon field effect transistor (MOSFET) is switched on and the
subsequent semiconductor is disabled as a result of the increased square
wave frequency. The current passes through the magnetic field, charging
C, and powers the load if the magnetic field’s current is larger than the first
semiconductor’s gate terminal’s current. The positive voltage applied to the
cathode disables the Schottky diode D1.

L1 D1
+ +
d
DC + DC
Input Output
VIN C1 Load VOUT > VIN
g
s
Square wave MOSFET
driving switch Switch

Figure 4.10 Boost converter operation.

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58 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

800

700
Voltage in (V) 600

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time in (S)

Figure 4.11 Boost converter output voltage.

In the boosting mode shown in Figure 4.10, the primary semiconductor

of the aforementioned converter is continuously on while a high-frequency
square wave is applied to the second transistor’s gate terminal. The other
transistor is working while the ‘S’ MOSFET is turned on and taking input
current from the inductor L. The negative terminal charges the magnetic
field of the inductor. The D2 diode remains incapable to operate because
the anode is on the potential ground because of the robustly conducting
MOSFET. Earlier oscillator cycles can be created by charging capacitor
C during the ON state, which applies the load to the entire circuit. The
output voltage may have a high frequency of ripples when the capacitor
C discharges often during the ON period. Figure 4.11 displays the boost
converter’s output voltage.

4.3 Series Active Power Filter Design

To reduce harmonics, the reactive energy is provided by this DC connection
capacitor. The waves in the voltage the inverter produces are eliminated by
the inductor and capacitor (LC) filter. As its name suggests, the APF series
is coupled in series with the load. Figure 4.12 displays the block diagram of
series active filter. The voltage source inverter (VSI) is coupled in series with
the source and the load in series APF by the series coupling transformer.
The series APF compensates for voltage-related power quality issues,
protecting the load from utility-side disturbances. Moreover, it does not
compensate for current-related power quality issues, i.e., it does not pre-
vent the utility from the penetrating of current flaws.

Control Strategies for Series Active Power Filter

The unit vector signals are produced in sequence using the APF Park
transformation technique. The measured and real voltage were compared
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Application of APF in the Hybrid Power System 59

a ia vca
vsa ib va
Electrical b vcb
Power Grid vsb vb Load
ic vcc
c
vsc vc
N

vsa vca*
vsb
vsc Controller vcb* Inverter
ia
ib vcc*
ic
Vdc + –

Series Active Power Filter Vdc

Figure 4.12 Block diagram of series active filter.

in the dq0 reference plane after being translated from abc coordinates to
dq0 coordinates. After comparison, both are transformed back into ABC
reference frames. The phase locked loop (PLL) required for Park’s trans-
formation and inverse Park’s transformation can be produced. The series
converter’s six switches are linked to a pulse width modulation (PWM)
generator, which provides synchronized switching pulses. By providing
proper switching pulses, the series converter’s goals can be met. The gen-
eration of the switching pulses is obtained from the three-phase reference
signal that is acquired from two controllers. The pulses required for VSI
operation are produced by a hysteresis voltage controller by comparing the
expected voltage of the output (Vc*) to the real series APF output voltage
(Vc). The modeling of series APF control scheme is shown in Figure 4.13.
The series APF detects a voltage drop in a sag condition and injects
the necessary voltage through the series coupling transformer. It ensures

Lowpass

Lowpass Filter
abc
0
dq0 dq0
Constant2
sin_cos Terminator1 abc 1
Freq sin_cos Vabc1
Terminator2 abc_to_dq0 0
1 Vabc (pu) wt dq0_to_abc
Transformation
Vabc Terminator Constant1 Transformation
Sin_Cos

3-phase PLL
Terminator3

Figure 4.13 Simulation of series APF control scheme.

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60 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Vdc
PLL
Vdc*
PI
controller
S1
Isa
dq abc Vsa
K Vsa* S2
VLa
LPF controller
Vsb S3
Isb Vsb* S4
K controller
S5
VLb Vsc
Vsc* S6
Isc abc LPF dq controller
K
VLc

Figure 4.14 Operational diagram of series APF.

that the load terminal is kept at the rated voltage. The series APF recog-
nizes a voltage swell as it happens and injects the compensating voltage to
cancel it out, maintaining the evaluated voltage across the load terminal.
This method is equivalent to maintaining the rated voltage under uneven
source voltage. After the series inverter had injected the compensation
voltage in series with the source voltage, it was discovered that the load
voltage was similar to the combination of the source and replacement volt-
ages. When the source voltage is non-sinusoidal and unbalanced, the load
bus’s rated sinusoidal voltage is controlled by injecting a series voltage at
the necessary magnitude and phase angle. The system is therefore safe-
guarded against voltage-related PQ problems including voltage sag, swell,
imbalance, flicker, and so forth. Figure 4.14 demonstrates the function of
the PI controller.

4.4 Simulation Results

According to Figure 4.1, the series APF-equipped suggested model is
linked to the PCC using a series transformer. Modeling of the suggested
system is done in MATLAB/SIMULINKR.
The investigation is based on the following cases.

a) Case 1: evaluation with the nonlinear loads condition with-

out hybrid energy source-based series APF
b) Case 2: evaluation with nonlinear load condition with hybrid
energy source integrated series APF
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Application of APF in the Hybrid Power System 61

4.4.1 Analysis Under Case 1

In this scenario, the hybrid power sources (HPS) is not connected across the
series APF when the nonlinear load is present in order to study the system
performance initially.

Sag Compensation
To validate the series APF operation, voltage sag is injected into the system.
The series APF is employed at the load terminal to address voltage-related
power quality (PQ) abnormalities such voltage sag, swell, inequalities, flicker
notches, and so on. The load voltage profile exhibited in Figure 4.15(a)
matches the voltage sag observed on the time axis from 0.1 s to 0.3 s. A volt-
age decrease is detected by the series APF during a sag state, and it injects the
necessary voltage through the series coupling transformer. It ensures that the
load terminal is kept at the rated voltage. As seen in Figure 4.15(b), when
the APF is turned on, it injects compensating voltage into the PCC to make
up for load voltage sag. The voltages at the source and the load are there-
fore equivalent. The voltage of the load following the adjustment is shown
in Figure 4.15(c). In order to keep the rated voltage across the load terminal
constant, the series APF operates by quickly detecting voltage changes at the
source and injecting a compensation voltage. The voltage on the DC-link
capacitor is revealed in Figure 4.15(d). The capacitor voltage is practically
constant up to 700 V with a settling period of 0.25 s, as shown in the result.

4.4.2 Analysis Under Case 2

The output of a hybrid energy system is combined with a boost converter
in this study to achieve the desired voltage. The boost converter is con-
nected to the APF DC-link capacitor to improve performance.
Using a series transformer, the series APF delivers the compensating
voltage. The generation-compensating voltage control technique was pre-
viously discussed. The sag and swell caused by the load will be mitigated by
the compensatory voltage supplied by series APF. Another unique aspect
of the system is the employment of a hybrid energy system to maintain a
constant DC-link voltage. The proposed technique is ideal for connecting
at PCC with various functionalities, allowing for voltage sag correction,
load current harmonics suppression and other routine operation.

Sag compensation
To test the effectiveness of the series APF, voltage sag is injected into the
system for 0.1 s to 0.3 s of the voltage waveform, shown in Figure 4.16(a).
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62 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

600

400

Voltage in (V)
200

–200

–400

–600
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
(a)
100
Voltage in (V)

50

–50

–100
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time in (S)
(b)
600
400
Voltage in (V)

200
0
–200
–400
–600
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time in (S)
(c)
800

700

600
Voltage in (V)

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time in (S)
(d)

Figure 4.15 Profile obtained Case 1. (a) Load voltage before compensation, (b) compensating
voltage injected by APF, (c) load voltage after compensation, and (d) DC-link capacitor
voltage.

The required voltage is injected through the series coupling transformer

by the series APF, which recognizes the voltage drop occurring during a
sag state. It guarantees that the load terminal is kept at the rated voltage.
The compensating voltage introduced by the series APF is shown in Figure
4.16(b). The load voltage after compensation is shown in Figure 4.16(c),
demonstrating that the sag has been reduced by the injection of com-
pensatory voltage. Figure 4.16(d) displays the voltage across the DC-link
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Application of APF in the Hybrid Power System 63

600

400
Voltage in (V) 200

–200

–400

–600
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
(a)
100
Voltage in (V)

50
0
–50
–100
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time in (S)
(b)
600
400
Voltage in (V)

200
0
–200
–400
–600
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Time in (S)
(c)
800

700

600
Voltage in (V)

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time in (S)
(d)

Figure 4.16 Profile obtained Case 2. (a) Load voltage before compensation, (b) compensating
voltage injected by APF, (c) load voltage after compensation, and (d) DC-link capacitor
voltage.

capacitor. The result demonstrates that the capacitor voltage is nearly con-
stant up to 700 V with a settling time of 0.025 s.
The suggested hybrid energy system with series APF can adjust for
current disturbances at the load side while also maintaining a consistent
DC-link capacitor voltage. Nonlinear load is considered when evaluating
the suggested APF’s performance. The load voltage sag can be efficiently
corrected, and the settling time of the DC-link capacitor voltage is reduced
to 0.025 s, as shown by the numerical comparison of results.
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64 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

4.5 Conclusion
This work focuses on power quality improvement of power system with
nonlinear load using series APF. The performance of the APF is studied
with and without integrating a hybrid energy system across its DC-link
side. Moreover, the performance of APF is improved by regulating the
DC-link capacitor voltage by integrating hybrid renewable energy-based
sources based across it. From the obtained results, it is found that load
voltage sag can be compensated effectively and also, the settling time of
DC-link capacitor voltage is reduced to 0.025 s. During voltage disruptions
like sag, swell and interruption, the bidirectional inverter functions as a
normal APF, regulating the grid voltage. When the SPV system is using
a battery charger, particularly at night time to charge the batteries, it will
behave like a conventional switch, and energy will be stored.

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5
Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control
with MATLAB Simulation
Suman Lata Tripathi *

School of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Phagwara, Punjab, India

Abstract
This chapter focuses on dynamic modeling of drone using MATLAB. The control
of diverse drone movements is vital for understanding and managing drone flight
dynamics. The main objective is to replicate movements like ascending, descend-
ing, forward-backward, and lateral translations through a comprehensive simula-
tion model within MATLAB. This simulation will accurately represent the drone’s
flight dynamics and interactions within its environment. The understanding of
drone maneuverability and control is serving as a foundational step towards devel-
oping more sophisticated control systems for these aerial platforms by facilitating
advancements in drone technology across various industries.

Keywords: Flight control, drone control, simulation in MATLAB, flight

dynamics, six degrees of freedom, dynamic systems modelling, parameter
analysis, aerospace technology

5.1 Introduction
Drones, also known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), have become
increasingly popular in recent years due to their versatility and usefulness
in a wide range of industries (Shelare et al., 2021) [1]. These aerial vehi-
cles are equipped with advanced technology and can be used for a variety
of purposes, including surveillance, reconnaissance, agriculture, disaster
management, and filmmaking. Drones are particularly valuable because

Email: tri.suman78@gmail.com

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(67–88) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

67
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68 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

they can access remote or dangerous areas, collect real-time data, and per-
form tasks with precision and efficiency.
Understanding the complex dynamics of drone flight is crucial for
optimizing their performance and ensuring safe and reliable operation.
Drones can move in six directions (six degrees of freedom or 6-DOF),
which means they can travel up, down, forward, back, left, and right, and
they can also rotate in all three dimensions (roll, pitch, and yaw) (Najm
and Ibraheem, 2019) [1]. Comprehending these 6-DOF is essential for
effective drone control because it directly affects how we can manage the
drone’s position, orientation, and overall flight dynamics. This under-
standing is the foundation for developing precise control strategies,
enhancing operational capabilities, and navigating the challenges inher-
ent in drone flight.
MATLAB’s Simulink is a powerful platform for modeling, simulating,
and analyzing dynamic systems, making it an ideal tool for understanding
the complexities of drone flight. This chapter aims to provide a compre-
hensive understanding of the parameters governing drone flight, enabling
proficient navigation of the MATLAB and Simulink environment.

5.2 Tool Description

Tools play an integral role across various industries, enabling efficiency
and precision in tasks. These instruments range from simple handheld
devices to complex machinery, designed to assist in construction, man-
ufacturing, repair, or creative endeavors. Each tool serves a specific func-
tion, aiding individuals in accomplishing tasks with greater accuracy and
speed. Their innovation and evolution have significantly contributed to
advancing human capabilities, allowing for enhanced productivity and the
realization of drone model. The following tools are required for designing
of drone model:
MATLAB is a powerful numerical computing environment widely used
in engineering, mathematics, and scientific research. It provides a compre-
hensive set of tools for data analysis, visualization, and algorithm devel-
opment. With its user-friendly interface and extensive libraries, MATLAB
allows users to solve complex mathematical problems, simulate systems,
and create intricate models with ease. Its versatility in handling matrices,
functions, and algorithms makes it an indispensable tool for professionals
and academics alike.
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Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control 69

Simulink is an extension of MATLAB, specifically designed for model-

ing, simulating, and analyzing dynamic systems. It offers a graphical envi-
ronment for designing and simulating multidomain systems using block
diagrams. Engineers and researchers use Simulink for various applications
such as control systems, signal processing, communications, and more. Its
intuitive interface allows users to model complex systems visually by con-
necting blocks representing components or functions. Simulink’s simula-
tion capabilities enable real-time analysis and testing of dynamic systems
before implementation, making it an invaluable tool for system design and
validation.
The Simulink support package for Parrot minidrone serves as a vital
link between Simulink, an advanced simulation and modeling environ-
ment, and Parrot’s minidrone platform. This package provides users with
an extensive toolkit and various blocks within Simulink, enabling seam-
less communication and control of the Parrot minidrone. By merging
Simulink’s intuitive visual interface with the minidrone’s capabilities, this
package empowers engineers, researchers, and enthusiasts to create, sim-
ulate, and implement intricate control algorithms for the drone. Users can
refine and experiment with control strategies virtually before deploying
them onto the physical minidrone, expediting development and encourag-
ing innovation in drone control applications.

5.3 Methodology
In the process of designing a drone control system using MATLAB, the
understanding of the 6-DOF in drone flight (thrust or up/down, pitch or
forward/back, roll or left/right, and yaw or twist left and right) is essential
for applying effective engineering. This knowledge serves as the founda-
tion for developing a control system that enables the drone to hover and
move seamlessly.
The design of a control system for a drone involves a thorough grasp
of hardware components and sensors, such as ultrasound, camera, pres-
sure sensor, and inertial measurement unit (IMU). Addressing the under-
actuated nature of the system, with four actuators for 6-DOF, presents a
challenge. The configuration and spin directions of motors are pivotal,
requiring a motor mixing algorithm to convert intuitive commands into
precise motor speeds. The final control system, built and simulated in
Simulink, undergoes tuning and testing before generating flight code for
the onboard microcontroller. This methodology leverages sensor data for
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70 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

state estimation and deploys algorithms for precise motor control, ensur-
ing desired drone movements in three-dimensional (3D) space.

5.4 Overview of the Drone Control System

To truly understand the flow of the design of the control system, the image
above provides an overview of the control problem at hand. The system
involves a drone as the plant and four actuators responsible for introduc-
ing forces and torques into the system. The fundamental question revolves
around determining the optimal inputs to achieve the desired output—
specifically, manipulating the four motors in precise ways to enable the
drone to rotate and maneuver in 3D space. Supporting this endeavor are a
set of sensors employed to directly or indirectly estimate the minidrone’s
state, encompassing angular position and rates, altitude, and horizontal
velocity. The states subject to estimation are contingent on the chosen con-
trol architecture and the objectives pursued, details of which are elucidated
in Figure 5.1 and in subsequent discussions.
Having the required knowledge of the system’s state and a clear under-
standing of the desired minidrone behavior, a controller is developed. This
controller, essentially an algorithm executed in software, takes the set point
and estimated state as inputs and calculates precise motor commands to
inject the requisite forces and torques into the system.

Figure 5.1 Block diagram of the drone control system.

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Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control 71

5.5 Overview of the Drone Control System in

MATLAB Simulink
The drone control system in MATLAB Simulink [3], comprises four pri-
mary block groups. Firstly, the flight command is represented, housing the
signal builder command block to regulate flight directives. Secondly, the
drone flight control system is depicted, serving as a central component
for managing the drone’s movements. The third block group encompasses
the simulation model, featuring three blocks: nonlinear airframe, environ-
ment, and sensors, collectively contributing to a comprehensive simulated
environment. Lastly, the flight visualization block provides a visual repre-
sentation of the drone’s flight dynamics. This organized model structure
facilitates a systematic and efficient approach to drone control and simula-
tion within the MATLAB Simulink framework.

5.5.1 Flight Command

The flight command block group serves as a crucial component in the
drone’s control system architecture, encapsulating the signal builder block
that intricately manages the command controls for the 6-DOF parameters:
thrust, roll, yaw, and pitch. Within the signal builder block, precise instruc-
tions are crafted to dictate the drone’s movements in 3D space, allowing for
seamless control over its translational and rotational dynamics. Notably,
this block goes beyond basic commands by also defining orientation and
position references, ensuring a comprehensive and sophisticated approach
to directing the drone’s flight path. The integration of the signal builder
within the flight command block group exemplifies a meticulous design
strategy for orchestrating the drone’s precise and dynamic maneuvers in
response to user input or autonomous navigation requirements.

5.5.2 Flight Control System

The flight control system block serves as a pivotal component in directing
the drone’s flight maneuvers. It receives commands from the flight com-
mand, specifying the desired movements of the drone. Simultaneously,
it collects real-time feedback from sensors and processes image data to
adjust the drone’s actions based on its actual position and environmen-
tal conditions. Acting as a vigilant overseer, this block includes a fail-safe
flag designed to halt the actuators in the event of software-related issues.
The output signals from this block are essential instructions sent to the
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72 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

actuators, precisely governing the motor actions. Meanwhile, the flag acts
as a safety measure, ensuring the drone’s flight remains stable and secure,
particularly in unforeseen circumstances.

5.5.3 Simulation Model

Simulation models serve as an invaluable tool for understanding, ana-
lyzing, and replicating the behavior, functionality, and performance of a
real-life drone. It involves intricate algorithms, physics-based calculations,
and sensory inputs to imitate flight dynamics, navigation, control systems,
and environmental interactions. These models enable testing and refin-
ing drone designs, predicting performance under various conditions, and
developing efficient control strategies, fostering innovation and advance-
ments in drone technology across industries like aerial photography, logis-
tics, surveillance, and more.

5.5.4 Flight Visualization

The flight visualization block group is an integral component of the drone
control system, providing real-time feedback on the drone’s state and
enabling operators to effectively monitor its performance and address any
potential issues. This block group seamlessly integrates with the drone’s
sensors and actuators to gather comprehensive data on its position, ori-
entation, altitude, and other critical parameters. The acquired data is then
processed and visualized using a variety of graphical elements, including
gauges, charts, and maps, providing a clear and intuitive representation
of the drone’s status. The flight visualization block group offers several
advantages to drone operators, including enhanced situational awareness,
improved performance monitoring, and facilitated troubleshooting. By
providing a comprehensive overview of the drone’s state, operators can
swiftly identify and address any emerging issues, ensuring the drone’s safe
and reliable operation.

5.5.5 Result and Discussion

This section reveals the results and discussion on the performance of the
drone control system and simulation, focusing on the key parameters of
thrust, pitch, roll, and yaw. Through simulations and tabulated data have
systematically explored the influence of these critical parameters on the
drone’s navigation capabilities. By examining the dynamic interplay
between thrust and the drone’s vertical movement, as well as the impact
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Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control 73

of pitch, roll, and yaw on its orientation, we aim to gain insights into the
effectiveness and responsiveness of our drone control system.

5.5.6 Varying the Values of Thrust Parameter of the

Drone Flight Control
Thrust is a critical parameter for drones, enabling them to move freely
in 6DOF. This means the drone can not only fly forward and backward
but also move up and down, left and right, and even rotate on its axis.
Without sufficient thrust, a drone would be unable to achieve lift-off, let
alone maneuver with agility. Figure 5.2 presents a simulated result of drone
control model. Table 5.1 depicts the drone flight position with varying the
values of thrust parameter.
In the provided simulation results, the variations in the thrust parame-
ter of the drone flight control system have a clear and direct impact on the
drone’s vertical movement. When the thrust parameter is set to 0, the drone
maintains its position, indicating a balanced state with no net upward or
downward force. Subsequently, when the thrust parameter is set to –2, a
negative value, the drone exhibits an upward movement, suggesting that
the propulsion system is generating more thrust than needed to counteract
gravity. This behavior aligns with the intuitive expectation that a higher
thrust value would cause the drone to ascend.
Conversely, as the thrust parameter transitions from –2 to –0.3, a neg-
ative but less extreme value, the drone begins to descend. This downward

Figure 5.2 Simulation results of the drone control model.

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Table 5.1 Varying the values of thrust parameter of the drone flight control.
74 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Simulation
Values

–0.3
–2

–2
0

0
Time

100 s
40 s

70 s
0s

5s
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Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control 75

movement implies that the thrust generated by the propulsion system is

no longer sufficient to counteract the force of gravity, resulting in a net
downward force. The observed behavior is consistent with the fact that
a decrease in thrust leads to a descent. Finally, as the thrust parameter
returns to 0, the drone resettles to its initial position. This cyclic behavior
illustrates the responsiveness of the drone to changes in the thrust param-
eter, serving as a crucial insight for drone flight control adjustments and
emphasizing the direct correlation between thrust values and the drone’s
vertical movement.

5.5.7 Varying the Values of Pitch Parameter of the Drone

Flight Control
The pitch parameter plays an important role in a drone’s ability to achieve
complete movement within the 6-DOF. As one of the fundamental param-
eters in drone flight control, the pitch parameter specifically governs lat-
eral motion along the horizontal axis. By manipulating the values for pitch
parameters, the drone motors will synchronously operate to seamlessly
traverse backward and forward positions, enabling a versatile and dynamic
range of motion essential for various applications. Figure 5.3 depicts the
MATLAB-based drone model for pitch parameter.
Table 5.2 shows the variation of the values of pitch parameters of the
drone flight control that will exhibit the functionality of the designed con-
trol system in line with the pitch parameter. The simulations are also shown

Figure 5.3 Drone model for pitch parameter.

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76 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 5.2 Varying the values of pitch parameter of the drone flight control.
Time Values Simulation
0s 0

20 s 0.002

40 s 0.002

60 s –0.002

(Continued)

in the table with respect to the values of pitch parameters. The observed
drone movement in the X-axis coordinate, corresponding to changes in
the pitch parameter values, provides valuable insights into the impact of
pitch adjustments on the drone’s spatial dynamics. Initially set at 0, the
drone remains stationary at the origin. However, as the pitch parameter
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Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control 77

Table 5.2 Varying the values of pitch parameter of the drone flight control.
(Continued)
Time Values Simulation
80 s –0.002

100 s 0

decreases to –0.002, the drone exhibits a backward movement, indicating a

pitch adjustment that influences the drone to tilt backward. This backward
tilt results in a displacement in the negative X-axis direction, effectively
moving away from the starting point.
Conversely, when the pitch parameter transitions from –0.002 to 0.002,
the drone responds by tilting forward. This adjustment prompts the drone
to move in the positive X-axis direction, indicating a forward motion. The
directionality of the drone’s movement aligns with the sign of the pitch
parameter, demonstrating a clear correlation between pitch adjustments
and the drone’s spatial behavior. The return to a pitch parameter value of
0 corresponds to the drone returning to its original position, signifying a
reset or neutralization of the pitch influence and, consequently, the cessa-
tion of any forward or backward movement along the X-axis.

5.5.8 Varying the Values of Roll Parameter of the Drone

Flight Control
Another essential parameter for a drone’s 6-DOF movement is roll. This
angular movement allows the drone to tilt to its left and right sides. This
tilting ability is crucial for maneuvering the drone, enabling it to turn, bank,
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78 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

and avoid obstacles. Without roll control, the drone would fly in a straight
line, severely limiting its ability to navigate and perform complex maneu-
vers. Figure 5.4 shows the drone flight control model for roll parameter.
The observed variations in the roll parameter values of the drone’s flight
control, as outlined in Table 5.3, indicate significant effects on the drone’s
lateral movement along the Y-axis coordinate. Initially, when the roll
parameter is set to 0, the drone remains stationary at the origin. However,
as the roll parameter increases to 0.002, a positive value, the drone exhib-
its a consistent lateral movement to the right over the course of 40 s. This
behavior is in line with the fundamental principle of drone flight control,
where adjustments in the roll parameter contribute to the drone’s angular
rotation around its longitudinal axis, consequently influencing its lateral
displacement.
Conversely, when the roll parameter transitions from 0.002 to –0.002, a
negative value, the drone’s motion reverses, leading to a lateral movement
to the left. This behavior aligns with the expectation that a negative roll
parameter induces a rotation in the opposite direction, effectively steer-
ing the drone to the left along the Y-axis. The subsequent return to a roll
parameter value of 0 results in the drone retracing its path back to the
starting point. These observed movements underscore the critical role of
the roll parameter in controlling the drone’s lateral displacement, show-
casing its direct influence on the direction and magnitude of the drone’s
movement in the Y-axis coordinate.

Figure 5.4 Drone flight model for roll parameter.

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(Continued)
Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control 79

Table 5.3 Varying the values of roll parameter of the drone flight control.
Simulation
Values

–0.002

–0.002
0.002

0.002
0
Time

20 s

40 s

60 s

80 s
0s
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80 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 5.3 Varying the values of roll parameter of the drone flight control. (Continued)
Time Values Simulation
100 s 0

5.5.9 Varying the Values of Yaw Parameter of the Drone

Flight Control
Within the 6-DOF that define a drone’s movement, yaw plays a critical
role. This parameter controls the drone’s rotational movement around its
vertical axis, allowing it to twist left and right. This ability to twist and turn
is vital for precise maneuvering, enabling the drone to change direction
quickly and accurately. Without yaw control, the drone would only be able
to fly forward and backward, severely limiting its ability to navigate com-
plex environments and perform tasks like aerial photography and videog-
raphy. Figure 5.5 shows a drone flight control model for yaw parameter.
The provided Table 5.4 illustrates the impact of varying the yaw parame-
ter values in the drone flight control system at different time intervals. Yaw,

Figure 5.5 Drone flight control model for yaw parameter.

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Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control 81

(Continued)
Table 5.4 Varying the values of yaw parameter of the drone flight control.
Simulation
Values

–1
0

1
Time

20 s

40 s

60 s
0s
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82 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 5.4 Varying the values of yaw parameter of the drone flight control.
(Continued)
Time Values Simulation
80 s –1

100 s 0

representing the rotation around the vertical axis, plays a crucial role in
determining the drone’s orientation and heading. As observed in the sim-
ulation, when the yaw parameter is set to 0, the drone maintains its initial
heading. When the yaw value transitions from 0 to 1, the drone exhibits
a clockwise twist or rotation to the right. Conversely, when the yaw value
changes from 1 to –1, the drone initiates an anti-clockwise twist or rota-
tion to the left. This dynamic response is indicative of the drone’s ability
to change its orientation based on yaw parameter variations, highlighting
the direct influence of this control parameter on the drone’s rotational
behavior.
Furthermore, the periodic oscillation observed in the yaw values (0, 1,
–1) at regular time intervals (20, 40, 60 s) reflects a deliberate and con-
trolled alteration in the drone’s heading. This pattern repeats, and as the
yaw parameter values oscillate between 1 and –1 at subsequent intervals
(80 s), the drone continues to twist from right to left. The simulation
demonstrates a clear correlation between yaw parameter adjustments and
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Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control 83

the resulting rotational behavior of the drone. It emphasizes the practi-

cal significance of fine-tuning yaw parameters in drone flight control to
achieve specific orientation changes, allowing for precise maneuvering and
navigation in different directions.

5.5.10 Varying the Values of Thrust, Pitch, Roll, and Yaw

Parameter of the Drone Flight Control
A drone’s ability to move freely in all directions comes down to four
key parameters: thrust, pitch, yaw, and roll. Thrust controls the drone’s
altitude, with more thrust sending it higher and less pulling it down.
Pitch and yaw alter its direction, tilting the body forward and backward
for pitch, and rotating left and right for yaw. Finally, roll tilts the drone
sideways, allowing it to bank and turn. Mastering these parameters
allows the drone to move with incredible precision and agility, making
it capable of traversing complex environments and performing intricate
maneuvers.
The simulation results, presented in Table 5.5 and 5.6, illustrate the
effectiveness of a synchronized control system governing thrust, roll,
pitch, and yaw parameters for a drone. By modulating these parameters
at different time intervals, the drone exhibits controlled movement in all
6-DOF. The coordinated adjustments in thrust, roll, pitch, and yaw enable
the drone to navigate through changes in altitude, orientation, and rota-
tional movements. The tables provide a clear visualization of the drone’s
dynamic response, showcasing the practical application and capabil-
ity of the designed control system for comprehensive and precise drone
navigation.

Table 5.5 Varying the values of all parameters of the drone flight control.
Time Thrust value Pitch value Roll value Yaw value
0s 0 0 0 0
20 s –1 0.002 0.002 0.5
40 s –0.8 0.002 0.002 –0.5
60 s –1.2 –0.002 –0.002 0.5
80 s –1 –0.002 –0.002 –0.5
100 s 0.2 0 0 0
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(Continued)
Table 5.6 Varying the values of all parameters of the drone flight control.
84 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Simulation
Time

20 s

40 s

60 s
0s
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Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control 85

Table 5.6 Varying the values of all parameters of the drone flight control.
(Continued)
Time Simulation
80 s

100 s

5.6 Applications
Drones, also known as UAVs, have risen from futuristic fantasy to com-
monplace reality. These versatile machines, equipped with rotors and
remote control, are buzzing into action across diverse fields, transforming
industries and redefining possibilities. Surveillance, environmental moni-
toring and photography and videography industries are some applications
in drone control [3, 4].
Surveillance. Drones have become the eyes in the sky, transforming
surveillance and monitoring. These UAVs equipped with powerful cam-
eras and sensors can gather real-time data from inaccessible or dangerous
areas, providing a comprehensive view that traditional methods struggle
to match. Imagine soaring above a crowd, capturing faces and activities
with unparalleled detail, or swiftly surveying vast landscapes, pinpoint-
ing anomalies hidden from ground-based observers. This is the power of
drone surveillance, offering unparalleled awareness for security, disaster
response, environmental protection, and even wildlife conservation. From
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86 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

patrolling borders to tracking endangered species, drones are revolutioniz-

ing the way we monitor our world, one silent flight at a time.
Environmental monitoring. Drones have the ability to access remote and
inaccessible areas, making them invaluable tools for gathering data and
monitoring hard-to-reach locations. With their advanced technology
and maneuverability, drones can navigate through dense forests, rugged
terrains, and even underwater environments, providing valuable insights
that were previously impossible to obtain. As a result, they are increas-
ingly being used in scientific research, conservation efforts, and emergency
response operations to enhance our understanding of the world around us.
Photography and videography. Drones have revolutionized the world
of photography and videography, offering a unique perspective and capa-
bilities that were previously unimaginable. These flying machines are no
longer just for hobbyists, they have become essential tools for professionals
and aspiring creators alike. Drones can capture stunning aerial photos and
videos that would be impossible to get with traditional methods. With their
ability to maneuver in tight spaces and capture shots from various angles,
drones have opened up new creative possibilities for photographers and
filmmakers. Additionally, their compact size and portability make them
convenient for on-the-go shooting, allowing professionals to easily capture
breathtaking visuals in remote or challenging locations.
As drone technology continues to evolve, its applications are bound
to expand even further. With advancements in drone technology, we can
expect to see improved safety features such as collision avoidance systems
and enhanced battery life, enabling longer flight times and more efficient
operations. Furthermore, the integration of artificial intelligence [5] and
machine learning algorithms into drones could revolutionize industries
like agriculture, where they can be used for precision farming and crop
monitoring [6]. As the potential of drones continues to be explored, it is
clear that they will play a significant role in shaping our future.

5.7 Conclusion
In conclusion, this chapter provided an overview of the design of drone
control and simulation using MATLAB and its Simulink environment. The
chapter provided a comprehensive understanding of the parameters gov-
erning drone flight, enabling proficient navigation of the MATLAB and
Simulink environment. An effective control system capable of precisely
maneuvering the drone was designed and implemented. Through the utili-
zation of Simulink, realistic drone simulations were conducted to evaluate
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Dynamic Modeling of Drone Control 87

control strategies and optimize performance under various conditions.

The chapter also presented an opportunity for the readers to overcome the
challenge of unfamiliarity with the platform required to operate a drone by
thoroughly mastering the MATLAB and Simulink environment, enabling
them to effectively control and simulate drone flight.

References
1. Shelare SD, Aglawe KR, Waghmare SN, Belkhode P (2021b) Advances
in water sample collections with a drone – A review. Mater. Today Proc.
47:4490–4494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.05.327
2. Najm AA, Ibraheem IK (2019) Nonlinear PID controller design for a
6-DOF UAV quadrotor system. Eng. Sci. Technol., an International Journal
22(4):1087–1097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jestch.2019.02.005
3. MATLAB: https://in.mathworks.com/discovery/drone-simulation.html
4. Goyal, N., Sharma, S., Rana, A. K., & Tripathi, S. L. (Eds.). (2022). Internet of
Things: Robotic and Drone Technology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, UK.
5. Thillaiarasu, N., Tripathi, S. L., & Dhinakaran, V. (Eds.). (2022). Artificial
Intelligence for Internet of Things: Design Principle, Modernization, and
Techniques. CRC Press, Boca Raton, UK.
6. Tripathi, S. L., Ganguli, S., Kumar, A., & Magradze, T. (Eds.). (2022).
Intelligent green technologies for sustainable smart cities. John Wiley & Sons,
USA, doi: 10.1002/9781119816096
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6
Development of New Bioinspired
Hybrid Algorithms for Parameter
Modeling of Photovoltaic Panels
Souvik Ganguli*, Shilpy Goyal and Parag Nijhawan

Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering,

Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India

Abstract
Three hybrid bioinspired techniques are developed in this chapter. Two popular
nature-dependent methods, viz., the firefly method, abbreviated as firefly algo-
rithms (FA) and the bacterial foraging algorithm (BFA) were integrated utilizing
the benefits of each. Firefly algorithms is employed for exploring the entire search
domain while the three improved BFA schemes proposed by Supriyono have been
utilized to search locally in the global optimization methods. Mainly, the step size
of chemotaxis in bacterial foraging technique is modified with linear, quadratic,
and exponential adaptations to improve upon the basic BFA technique. The bioin-
spired techniques not only outperform their parent methods, but they also surpass
some of the most cutting-edge metaheuristic strategies. A bunch of unconstrained
standard functions are taken up in this work to test the efficiency of the suggested
approaches. The statistical analysis of the optimal values as well their non-para-
metric test also validate this fact. Further, these hybrid algorithms are also suc-
cessfully used for the evaluation of two-diode model parameters using a novel
objective function coined as weighted sum of square error (WSSE). The test results
of the two different photovoltaic systems truly prove that the proposed method is
effective in obtaining the unknown model parameters. The variation of the cost
function with the iteration counts also verify the faster convergence and accuracy
of the results. In future, multi-dimensional diode modeling can be considered to
identify their undetermined parameters with the proposed technique. Instead of
arbitrary weights, optimized weights can be assigned to bring about even better

*Corresponding author: souvik.ganguli@thapar.edu

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(89–108) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

89
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90 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

results. Parameter modeling of various photovoltaic panels can also benefit from
a multi-objective strategy.

Keywords: Firefly algorithms (FA), bacterial foraging algorithm (BFA),

modified bacterial foraging algorithm (MBFA), hybrid firefly algorithm (HFA),
bioinspired technique, two-diode model

6.1 Introduction
In bioinspired techniques, hybrid algorithms have been developed by inte-
grating two or more algorithms to improve or enhance overall search effi-
ciency. Many researchers have quite often tried to utilize the merits of each
algorithm for the common good [1]. In this chapter, three new bioinspired
hybrid propositions are presented by integrating the firefly algorithm (FA)
[2] with some improved forms of bacterial foraging [3]. The bacterial for-
aging technique, suggested by Passino, is evolved on the basis of the for-
aging phenomenon of E. Coli bacteria that stays within the intestine of the
human body. But, bacterial foraging algorithm (BFA) uses a lot of user-de-
fined parameters, suffers from the drawback of premature convergence,
and its efficacy heavily decreases with dimensions and problem complexity
[4], for which an integrated approach of FA and BFA is conceptualized.
A bacterial foraging system comprises four salient components, namely,
chemotaxis followed by swarming, reproduction, and finally, the elimina-
tion-dispersal. Out of these four key steps of the algorithm, adaptive varia-
tion of the chemotactic step, is widely popular in the literature.
Supriyono [5] proposed one such scheme to bring about the linear,
quadratic, and exponential formulation of the chemotactic step which
improved the standard BFA to a considerable extent. This strategy is used
to yield a modified bacterial foraging algorithm, coined as MBFA in this
chapter. Thus, three global optimization methods are presented combining
FA with MBFA. Firefly algorithm is used for exploration purpose while
three MBFA methods are employed to execute the exploitation feature. The
hybrid algorithms are referred to in this chapter as FABFA-1, FABFA-2,
and FABFA-3, respectively. Both unimodal and multimodal benchmark
functions of appreciable dimensions are considered to test the efficacy of
these new hybrid algorithms. A sufficient number of recently developed
metaheuristic algorithms are set up for a comparative study. Statistical
tests, both parametric and non-parametric, are conducted to validate the
experimental outcomes. The convergence curves also prove the accuracy
of results and the quality of solutions.
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New Bioinspired Hybrid Algorithms 91

Further, these novel hybrid propositions were utilized to identify several

model specifications of commercial photovoltaic modules directly from its
datasheet information [6]. In order to optimize for these unknown model
parameters, the root mean square error (RMSE) [7] is often considered. The
square error is equally competent to handle this problem as well. In this
chapter, a weightage is assigned to the sum of square error (SSE) concept
to obtain the two-diode model parameters with the help of the hybrid algo-
rithms instead of the typical square error to give an edge over it. The popular
two-diode model [8] is taken up for parameter estimation of some common
solar cells applied in the industries [9]. A good amount of comparison is
also provided to give justification to the efficacy of the advocated methods
[10–13]. Thus, the chapter efficiently develops new bioinspired methods for
modeling photovoltaic panels using a non-experimental approach.
The remainder chapter flow is developed in the following way. The two-
diode model equations are deliberated in Section 6.2 for the understanding
of the readers. Even the cost function is also suggested in this section as well.
The hybrid approaches constituting the firefly technique and the improved
BFAs are deliberated in Section 6.3. The approach of work is also briefed here
as well. Section 6.4 showcases the simulation outcomes, while Section 6.5
draws the salient conclusions with few indications for future propositions.

6.2 Problem Statement

A two-diode model is considered here for the study. Owing to the losses due to
the recombination phenomenon taking place in the depletion part of the semi-
conductor, an extra diode is introduced to the single diode representation of
the photovoltaic system. Thus, the prime merit of this model as compared to
the single-diode system is that it gives rise to superior precision in cases of
relatively lower irradiation. The equivalence for the two-diode model is shown
in Figure 6.1. The current for this two-diode model is thus represented by

q V IRS
I I PV I 01 exp 1
1 KT
q V IRS V IRS
I 02 exp 1 (6.1)
2 KT Rp

where ‘IPV’ represents the photocurrent, while ‘I01’ and ‘I02’ typify the
reverse saturation currents of the respective diodes, ‘Rp’ and ‘RS’ denote,
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92 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

RS

I
IPV I01 I02 RP
V

Figure 6.1 The electrical circuit representative for a two-diode model.

respectively, the resistances connected in parallel and series arrange-

ment in the circuit, α1 and α2 are the diode ideality factors, ‘q’ replicate
the charge of an electron, ‘T’ denotes the temperature expressed in abso-
lute scale, and last but not the least, ‘K’ represents the Boltzmann constant
in Equation 6.1.
At the time of an open circuit, the current becomes equal to zero,
whereas V = VOC, representing the open-circuit voltage; thus, Equation 6.1
can be modified as

qVOC qVOC VOC

0 I PV I 01 exp 1 I 02 exp 1
1KT 2 KT Rp
(6.2)

On solving,

qVOC qVOC VOC

I PV I 01 exp 1 I 02 exp 1 (6.3)
1KT 2 KT Rp

Under the shorted conditions, the voltage ‘V’ will be zero while I = ISC,
denoting the short-circuit current. In that case, Equation 6.1 can be written
as

qI SC RS qI SC RS I SC RS
I SC I PV I 01 exp 1 I 02 exp 1
1KT 2 KT Rp
(6.4)
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New Bioinspired Hybrid Algorithms 93

Thus,

qI SC RS qI SC RS I SC RS
I PV I SC I 01 exp 1 I 02 exp 1
1KT 2 KT Rp
(6.5)

When maximum power condition is met, the respective voltage and

current are given by V = Vm, and I = Im therefore Equation 6.1 can alter-
natively be denoted by

q Vm I m RS
Im I PV I 01 exp 1
1 KT
q Vm I m RS Vm I m RS
I 02 exp 1 (6.6)
2 KT Rp

Our objective is to determine accurately the parameters of photovoltaic

systems for the three important criteria mentioned above. Thus, in order to
minimize the errors, the help of a metaheuristic technique is sought.
From Equation 6.3, the error value during the open-circuit condition
can be calculated as follows.

qVOC qVOC VOC

errOC I 01 exp 1 I 02 exp 1 I PV
1KT 2 KT Rp
(6.7)

Similarly, the error function for the short-circuit condition can be for-
mulated with Equation 6.5, as given below.

qI SC RS
errSC I SC I 01 exp 1
1KT

qI SC RS I SC RS
I 02 exp 1 I PV (6.8)
2 KT Rp
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94 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Finally, Equation 6.6, depicting the maximum power point condition, is

utilized to derive the last error equation denoted by

q Vm I m RS
errm I PV I 01 exp 1
1 KT
q Vm I m RS Vm I m RS
I 02 exp 1 Im (6.9)
2 KT Rp

Thus, the objective function, namely the weighted sum of square error
(WSSE) is framed as

2 2
err w1 errOC w2 errSC w3 errm2 (6.10)

Arbitrary weights, mostly equal in the present chapter, are assigned to

the SSE to get improved results.

6.3 Proposed Bioinspired Techniques and

Methodology
The BFA and the firefly technique are quite popular in the literature and
have been utilized in manifold applications [14–17]. One of the major
drawbacks of the BFA is that it uses a lot of user-defined parameters. The
choice of appropriate parameters thus portrays a vital role in obtaining
the solutions of quality. Further, increasing the dimensionality of the prob-
lem also has a huge impact on the outcomes of the experiment. Several
works on the modifications of the parent BFA technique were suggested in
the literature [18–21]. Most of them were centered around improving the
results of the conventional BFA technique by bringing about changes in its
chemotactic step size. Supriyono proposed three different ways of varying
the chemotactic step size [5]. The step size was varied adaptively with the
help of either linear, quadratic, or exponential relations to improve upon
the results over the original BFA method. Three hybrid combinations are
thus developed integrating FA with the abovementioned adaptive BFA
techniques. The hybrid algorithms so developed are coined as FABFA-1,
FABFA-2, and FABFA-3, respectively, in this chapter. These algorithms are,
first of all, tested on some representative high dimensional benchmark
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New Bioinspired Hybrid Algorithms 95

functions. Moreover, these algorithms are further utilized to find out the
different parameters of the two-diode models. Quite a substantial number
of methods are employed to compare with the proposed approaches. The
statistical measures of the results are also reported for the test functions.
In order to verify the significance of the findings, the Wilcoxon’s rank-sum
test [22] is also performed. The plot of the fitness function against the total
number of iterations also proves better convergence speed and accuracy of
the suggested techniques over the compared methods.

6.4 Simulation Results and Discussions

A small set of typical tasks was chosen to test the effectiveness of the pro-
posed techniques. The nature of the test functions is not limited in any
way, and they are typically categorized as unimodal or multimodal. To
reflect the proposed techniques’ diversification and intensification, five
test functions from each of the unimodal and multimodal categories were
chosen as representatives. A high-dimensional analysis is performed to
appropriately determine the efficiency of the suggested methods. The
details of the test functions considered for this work are already described
in Reference [23]. Hundred decision variables are optimized using the
proposed techniques. Some common details of these testbeds with respect
to the function type, their search limits, and further, the ideal optimum
values are given in Table 6.1.
All the test functions Func1–Func10 are to be minimized with an ideal
optimum value of zero. The number of search agents for these problems
is taken as 30 whereas the number of iterations is considered as 500 to
solve these unconstrained optimization problems. Table 6.1 shows that
these values compare favorably to those involving one hundred decision
variables and fixed search parameters. All algorithms used for comparison
have had their parameters set according to what is considered standard
practice in the relevant literature. Given the random nature of the meta-
heuristic algorithm’s output, we run it 20 times to draw statistically signif-
icant conclusions. Table 6.2 displays these statistical evaluations of the test
results. Each method’s best and worst results as well as their average and
standard deviation are detailed. Table 6.2’s minimum values for each col-
umn are highlighted in bold.
On most occasions, the proposed hybrid mechanisms perform better
as compared to as many as seven algorithms as indicated by the bolded
letters in Table 6.2. The grey wolf optimizer (GWO) and BFA techniques
are exceptions on two occasions. Among the hybrids proposed, FBFA-3
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96 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 6.1 Benchmark test problems and their descriptions.

Nomenclature of Function Type of Lower and
the functions names function upper bounds fmin
Func1 Sphere Unimodal [–100, 100] 0
Func2 Schwefel 2.22 Unimodal [–10,10] 0
Func3 Schwefel 2.21 Unimodal [–100,100] 0
Func4 Rosenbrock Unimodal [–30,30] 0
Func5 Step Unimodal [–100,100] 0
Func6 Rastrigin Multimodal [–5.12,5.12] 0
Func7 Ackley Multimodal [–32,32] 0
Func8 Griewank Multimodal [–600,600] 0
Func9 Penalized-1 Multimodal [–50,50] 0
Func10 Penalized-2 Multimodal [–50,50] 0

proves to be the preferred one based on the results obtained. Even the per-
formance of FABFA-1 and FABFA-2 are better on numerous occasions as
compared to the other techniques compared. To assess the implication of
the outcomes, the Wilcoxon test measuring the rank-sum of the datasets
[22] was performed. The p-values are calculated in this evaluation. The
approximate orders of the results are reported in Table 6.3. The p-values
having the numerical figure greater than 0.05 is considered to be insig-
nificant and hence underlined. Mostly, the p-values are similar on most
occasions, and hence, represented with the order only. Few distinct values
near 0.05 are also indicated in this table.
It is clear from Table 6.3 that almost 95% of the results are significant.
Thus, the results of the proposed bioinspired techniques are validated by
the non-parametric test. To test an engineering application, the proposed
methods are applied for the parameter modeling of the two-diode models
of some commercial solar cells. The datasheets of the solar cells used are
reported in Table 6.4 for the benefit of curious readers.
The various terms used in the Table 6.4 carry their usual significance.
The population size considered for optimizing the PV cell parameters is
50, while the iteration count for this problem is taken up as 1000. Various
methods are employed to find the seven unidentified parameters (IPV,
α1, α 2, RS, Rp, I01, I02) of the two-diode model. The parameter limits are
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New Bioinspired Hybrid Algorithms 97

Table 6.2 A comparative study to assess the performance of the proposed

methods with other algorithms.
Test functions Algorithms Minimum Worst Mean Std.
Func1 FABFA-1 3.9004E–15 7.5817E–15 5.0862E–15 9.5852E–16

FABFA-2 9.4749E–16 1.6713E–15 1.2089E–15 1.9754E–16

FABFA-3 6.1223E–16 1.0189E–15 7.8070E–16 1.2164E–16

FA [2] 5.92E–06 1.2E–05 8.4E–06 1.58E–06

BFA [3] 51.66 615.5578 177.1513 134.3055

GWO [10] 2.7E–13 2.96E–12 1.23E–12 7.68E–13

DA [11] 823.73 5.16E+04 2.28E+04 1.13E+04

SCA [12] 2.15E+03 2.38E+04 8.3E+03 5.95E+03

SSA [13] 8.82E+02 2.16E+03 1.48E+03 3.26E+02

Func2 FABFA-1 5.1529E–08 7.3352E–08 6.1445E–08 5.6249E–09

FABFA-2 2.7822E–08 3.5751E–08 3.2807E–08 2.1352E–09

FABFA-3 1.7457E–08 2.5671E–08 2.1505E–08 1.6936E–09

FA [2] 0.0017 0.0021 0.0019 1.0178E–04

BFA [3] 7.1492 18.3991 13.5225 3.3672

GWO [10] 2.22E–08 8.23E–08 4.43E–08 1.46E–08

DA [11] 41.8502 225.7288 85.9071 38.3511

SCA [12] 0.5664 19.3137 7.4521 5.5944

SSA [13] 37.2278 53.2753 44.4958 4.0849

Func3 FABFA-1 4.3981E–04 6.2700E–04 5.3887E–04 4.2540E–05

FABFA-2 3.3785E–04 5.0892E–04 4.3484E–04 4.4338E–05

FABFA-3 1.8406E–04 2.7000E–04 2.4045E–04 3.7507E–05

FA [2] 63.0482 96.8883 84.0101 8.6711

BFA [3] 18.7254 29.8706 24.8083 2.8613

GWO [10] 0.2476 2.1324 0.8602 0.5228

DA [11] 45.2060 69.1119 56.5179 6.4487

SCA [12] 86.7194 94.7967 90.28 1.8711

SSA [13] 21.9577 32.3182 26.9959 3.0592

(Continued)
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98 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 6.2 A comparative study to assess the performance of the proposed

methods with other algorithms. (Continued)
Test functions Algorithms Minimum Worst Mean Std.
Func4 FABFA-1 96.2882 98.4344 96.5032 0.6605

FABFA-2 94.8917 259.9506 155.1393 42.7433

FABFA-3 92.8388 98.6646 95.5091 1.9275

FA [2] 175.0484 701.5454 316.8462 121.0249

BFA [3] 2.46E+03 5.17E+04 1.28E+04 1.36E+04

GWO [10] 96.1101 98.5268 97.8319 0.7269

DA [11] 2.5E+06 6.1E+07 2.26E+07 1.37E+07

SCA [12] 3.31E+07 2.22E+08 1.33E+08 5.24E+07

SSA [13] 9.6E+04 4.4E+05 1.97E+05 9.05E+04

Func5 FABFA-1 1.4981E–09 2.7304E–09 2.0071E–09 3.7457E–10

FABFA-2 3.6656E–10 7.0816E–10 5.1331E–10 8.5000E–11

FABFA-3 3.6526E–10 8.4021E–10 5.6333E–10 1.0698E–10

FA [2] 5.00E–06 1.15E–05 7.83E–06 1.42E–06

BFA [3] 54.8905 620.5757 202.8115 135.7646

GWO [10] 8.5219 11.5055 10.0113 0.8257

DA [11] 6.2E+03 4.77E+04 2.1E+04 1.160E+04

SCA [12] 1.2E+03 2.3E+04 9.47E+03 7.32E+03

SSA [13] 852.7054 2.0098E+03 1.3671E+03 306.1686

Func6 FABFA-1 1.4981E–09 2.7304E–09 2.0071E–09 3.7457E–10

FABFA-2 2.9079E–09 5.3301E–09 3.6907E–09 5.8336E–10

FABFA-3 1.2225E–09 1.9314E–09 1.5003E–09 2.0897E–10

FA [2] 232.8198 543.2443 402.5087 81.14

BFA [3] 155.1326 292.0099 207.4837 34.3790

GWO [10] 4.1604 16.5307 6.0957 4.7768

DA [11] 547.8203 1.06e+03 839.8859 145.6656

SCA [12] 95.9183 404.3979 240.834 81.1203

SSA [13] 184.4813 331.7451 244.9028 38.7924

(Continued)
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New Bioinspired Hybrid Algorithms 99

Table 6.2 A comparative study to assess the performance of the proposed

methods with other algorithms. (Continued)
Test functions Algorithms Minimum Worst Mean Std.
Func7 FABFA-1 9.6031E–09 1.6878E–08 1.2470E–08 2.2456E–09

FABFA-2 4.8868E–09 6.5092E–09 5.6100E–09 4.0067E–10

FABFA-3 4.2271E–09 5.7621E–09 4.6420E–09 3.8768E–10

FA [2] 4.0446E–04 2.9015 1.9619 0.5866

BFA [3] 3.9650 6.6358 5.2797 0.7711

GWO [10] 6.15E–08 2.2E–07 1.08E–07 3.95E–08

DA [11] 10.0024 16.5795 13.5161 1.8384

SCA [12] 7.5226 20.6768 18.0645 4.6932

SSA [13] 8.113 12.5868 9.6826 1.1071

Func8 FABFA-1 1.4433E–14 2.9088E–14 2.1810E–14 3.6249E–15

FABFA-2 6.4393E–15 1.2323E–14 8.8041E–15 1.6853E–15

FABFA-3 1.2212E–15 2.8866E–15 2.0706E–15 5.1859E–16

FA [2] 5.1366E–06 0.0246 0.0049 0.0077

BFA [3] 1.4301 6.0224 3.1628 1.4185

GWO [10] 1.8163E–03 0.0315 0.0039 0.0097

DA [11] 18.7477 378.1121 208.9218 97.8009

SCA [12] 15.0263 255.4609 116.0755 68.8237

SSA [13] 7.8183 24.2851 14.8216 4.3753

Func9 FABFA-1 0.5023 5.4214 2.6576 1.5994

FABFA-2 0.0112 1.2878 0.5626 0.3718

FABFA-3 4.1216E–08 1.9402 0.4816 0.3923

FA [2] 5.2E+09 1.26E+10 7.8E+09 2.11E+09

BFA [3] 0.1972 0.4625 0.2996 0.074

GWO [10] 2.98E+05 4.3E+06 1.36E+06 1.04E+06

DA [11] 2.8E+07 8.25E+08 3.12E+08 2.09E+08

SCA [12] 15.6637 66.5621 36.3138 15.5600

SSA [13] 2.6473 4.8462 3.9961 0.5713

(Continued)
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100 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 6.2 A comparative study to assess the performance of the proposed

methods with other algorithms. (Continued)
Test functions Algorithms Minimum Worst Mean Std.
Func10 FABFA-1 2.8162E–04 13.0106 3.5646 3.0582

FABFA-2 2.6768E–08 3.6085 0.9869 0.4213

FABFA-3 3.3638E–09 1.5975 0.3585 0.1228

FA [2] 10.1428 57.7169 14.2358 11.9196

BFA [3] 67.4809 164.3267 104.9347 26.2083

GWO [10] 0.1428 57.7169 11.9196 14.2358

DA [11] 1.5E+07 1.3E+08 5.07E+07 3.25E+07

SCA [12] 4.45E+07 1.1E+09 5.25E+08 2.9E+08

SSA [13] 148.5 7.7E+04 9.27E+03 1.76E+04

enumerated in Table 6.5 where IPV is the photovoltaic current, α1 and α 2

denote the ideality factors of the two diodes, respectively, RS is the resis-
tance connected in series, Rp is the resistance connected parallelly, and I01
and I02 represent, respectively, the reverse saturation currents of the first
and second diode.
The performance of the proposed techniques is not only verified with
the parent techniques but also juxtaposed with other illustrious techniques
like salp swarm algorithm (SSA), GWO, sine cosine algorithm (SCA), and
dragonfly algorithm (DA). Table 6.6 provides the optimized parameters
and cost function values of the two-diode model with various methods for
the specified industrial photovoltaic systems.
It is pretty clear from Table 6.6 that the suggested methods give the least
error when the comparison is carried out with the original methods as well
as few of the standard heuristic approaches. Further, the convergence char-
acteristics between the cost function and the iteration count are graphi-
cally represented in Figures 6.2 and 6.3, respectively. The evaluation of the
same is carried out with GWO, DA, SCA, and SSA skipping only the parent
techniques. Only the plot of the FABFA-3 is presented in the figures.
The proposed bioinspired algorithms converge faster and also accurately
with respect to the different techniques mentioned. Still, DA tries to reach
the best convergence. The performance of other methods used for com-
parison is not so well as seen from the graphs of Figures 6.2 and 6.3. Thus,
the results found by the proposed techniques are found to be satisfactory
as compared to the mentioned algorithms. Other modifications mentioned
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New Bioinspired Hybrid Algorithms 101

Table 6.3 Approximate p-value orders of the non-parametric test given by

Wilcoxon.
Benchmark Hybrid
functions algorithms FA BFA GWO DA SCA SSA
Func1 FABFA-1 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-2 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-3 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

Func2 FABFA-1 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−4 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-2 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 0.0010 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-3 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−7 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

Func3 FABFA-1 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-2 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-3 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

Func4 FABFA-1 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−5 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-2 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−4 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-3 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 0.0071 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

Func5 FABFA-1 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-2 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-3 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

Func6 FABFA-1 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-2 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-3 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

Func7 FABFA-1 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-2 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-3 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

Func8 FABFA-1 0.2785 ≃10−8 ≃10−5 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-2 0.2784 ≃10−8 ≃10−5 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-3 0.2783 ≃10−8 ≃10−5 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

Func9 FABFA-1 0.2085 ≃10−7 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-2 ≃10−7 ≃10−8 0.0056 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-3 ≃10−7 ≃10−8 0.4249 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

(Continued)
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102 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 6.3 Approximate p-value orders of the non-parametric test given by

Wilcoxon. (Continued)
Benchmark Hybrid
functions algorithms FA BFA GWO DA SCA SSA
Func10 FABFA-1 0.0106 ≃10 −8
≃10−4
≃10 −8
≃10−8
≃10−8

FABFA-2 ≃10−7 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

FABFA-3 ≃10−7 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8 ≃10−8

Table 6.4 Information sheet for the selected photovoltaic modules [9].
Name of manufacturer Schutten Solar Solarworld
Model number STM6 40-36 Pro. SW255
Cell type Mono-crystalline Poly-crystalline
Vm (V) 16.98 30.90
Im (A) 1.50 8.32
Voc (V) 21.02 38.00
Isc (A) 1.663 8.88
Ns (number of cells) 36 60
T (ºC) 51 25

Table 6.5 Range of decision variables for the two-diode model.

Parameters of the
two-diode model Set lower limit Set upper limit
IPV (A) 0.001 15
α1 0.5 7
α2 0.5 7
RS (ohms) 0.001 0.5
Rp (ohms) 0.01 500
I01 (µA) 0 1
I02 (µA) 0 1
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New Bioinspired Hybrid Algorithms 103

Table 6.6 Optimal two-diode model parameters using several methods for STM6 40-36 and Pro. SW255.
Model Algorithms IPV α1 α2 RS Rp I01 I02 WSSEmin
STM6 40-36 FABFA-1 1.64 1.07 2.15 0.50 240.72 7.05E–09 4.41E–07 1.23E–05
FABFA-2 1.65 1.08 2.11 0.50 239.87 7.07E–09 4.43E–07 1.21E–05
FABFA-3 1.65 1.09 2.13 0.49 240.34 7.10E–09 4.44E–07 1.15E–05
FA [2] 1.78 1.11 2.78 0.48 235.89 4.29E–07 2.33E–07 0.0056
BFA [3] 1.23 1.56 2.12 0.50 234.18 7.01E–07 3.52E–07 0.0367
GWO [10] 1.68 0.50 1.32 0.50 234.68 0.00000 2.35E–07 0.0010
DA [11] 1.65 1.08 2.14 0.50 241.73 7.12E–09 4.46E–07 0.0001
SCA [12] 1.79 0.50 1.25 0.50 138.37 0.00000 9.02E–07 0.0255
SSA [13] 1.67 4.57 1.26 0.21 159.74 7.29E–07 1.02E–07 0.0003
(Continued)
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104 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 6.6 Optimal two-diode model parameters using several methods for STM6 40-36 and Pro. SW255. (Continued)
Model Algorithms IPV α1 α2 RS Rp I01 I02 WSSEmin
Pro. SW255 FABFA-1 8.88 1.50 5.81 0.034 260.81 7.12E–07 8.15E–07 2.57E–05
FABFA-2 8.89 1.49 5.81 0.033 262.67 7.09E–07 8.18E–07 2.05E–05
FABFA-3 8.90 1.51 5.83 0.032 263.23 7.08E–07 8.21E–07 1.38E–05
FA [2] 9.29 0.50 1.12 0.581 178.51 6.87E–07 4.45E–07 0.6428
BFA [3] 9.35 0.52 1.14 0.672 189.21 0.0000 2.39E–07 0.7826
GWO [10] 9.33 0.50 1.09 0.467 218.24 0.00000 1.65E–07 0.5651
DA [11] 8.89 1.51 5.84 0.033 263.26 7.08E–07 8.20E–07 0.0002
SCA [12] 9.70 0.50 1.11 0.500 500.00 0.00000 2.44E–07 1.0399
SSA [13] 9.40 0.50 1.11 0.452 190.02 0.00000 2.13E–07 0.6491
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New Bioinspired Hybrid Algorithms 105

102
FABFA-3
SSA
GWO
Objective space SCA
Best score obtained so far

DA
100

10–2

10–4

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Iteration

Figure 6.2 Convergence plots for DDM (Schutten Solar STM6 40-36).

Objective space
2 FABFA-3
10
SSA
GWO
SCA
DA
Best score obtained so far

100

10–2

10–4

100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Iteration

Figure 6.3 Convergence characteristics for DDM (Solarworld Pro. SW255).

below can also be tested in the future to acquire the diode model parame-
ters for photovoltaic systems. Some typical forms of the BFA approach can
be adapted for integration with FA for improved outcomes. A multi-di-
mensional diode model may also be constructed to produce more precise
conclusions. A multi-objective strategy incorporating conflicting aims can
be tried in the near future to find the parameters of the two-diode model.
Since the bioinspired approaches used are stochastic methods, the results
are somewhat subject to the parameter choice and the selection of termi-
nation conditions.
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106 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

6.5 Conclusions
Three hybrid bioinspired approaches are discussed in this chapter. The FA
and the BFA are two well-known algorithms with natural-world inspira-
tions that can be combined to maximize their individual strengths. In the
global optimization method, FA is used to probe the entire search space,
while Supriyono’s technique of enhanced BFA schemes is employed for the
local search. Linear, quadratic, and exponential adjustments to the che-
motactic size of the BFA are primarily used to enhance the fundamental
BFA technique. Bioinspired methods not only outperform their ances-
tor methods but also some recently developed metaheuristic techniques.
Using roughly ten widely used test functions, we are able to demonstrate
the efficacy of our method. Moreover, the statistical methods and the
non-parametric test verify the experiment results. In addition, the WSSE
has proven useful with these hybrid algorithms for testing parameters in
the two-diode model. Results from both photovoltaic models indicate that
the proposed method works very well. Convergence plots guarantee accu-
rate and rapid convergence of results. In the future, the proposed method
can be used to calculate the parameters of a more complex diode model.
Assigning optimized weights, as opposed to arbitrary weights, can lead
to even better results. Multi-objective approaches involving two or more
competing goals are another option for determining the parameters of var-
ious photovoltaic panels.

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7
Power Quality Improvement by
Using PV-Integrated DSTATCOM
Pushpanjali Shadangi1, Sushree Diptimayee Swain1* and Pravat Kumar Ray2
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, O.P. Jindal University, Raigarh (C.G.), India
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, NIT, Rourkela, India

Abstract
This chapter presents a new photovoltaic system (PV)-based compensator for
the elimination of power quality-related issues. In this chapter, PV-based distrib-
uted static compensator (PV-DSTATCOM) with hybrid synchronous reference
frame theory (HSRF) current generation technique is proposed. The motive of
this research is to integrate renewable energy source to the power grid, as the
world is facing huge electric power demand worldwide. Photovoltaic system is
chosen due to its popularity and decaying cost among the other renewable energy
sources. Integration of PV with the conventional power grid system causes huge
power quality issues and these issues can be reduced by using proper compensa-
tion techniques. To meet power quality standards under IEEE, we are using very
effective control strategies based on soft computing techniques. The proposed
PV-DSTATCOM is designed to compensate the harmonics and to maintain the
reactive power transfer in the presence of unbalanced loads. The efficacy of this
system is validated by using MATLAB simulations as well as experimental data.
Keywords: Power quality issues, PV-DSTATCOM, hybrid synchronous
reference frame theory, nonlinear loads, grid stability

7.1 Introduction
As we all know, the use of non-conventional sources of energy is very
much popular and also becoming necessary to meet the required energy

*Corresponding author: Sushree.swain@opju.ac.in

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(109–126) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

109
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110 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

demand. The increasing consumption of energy is creating lots of stresses

on the power grid. Among all the non-conventional sources, solar energy
is readily available in nature and the source of energy is free. The photovol-
taic (PV) (Zhang et al., 2020) system is integrated with the grid (Wu et al.,
2021) to reduce the power demand stress on the grid. Photovoltaic system
is now used as power generator for many applications that can be used
as standalone PV (Verma & Singh, 2021) (Kalla, Singh, Murthy, Jain &
Kant, 2018) or can be used as grid-connected photovoltaic. There are sev-
eral advantages of using the PV system. When the PV system is integrated
with the grid, the PV system triggers a signal in the form of current into
the grid. The main benefit of grid-tied PV system is to sell surplus power to
other consumers. To get the proper understanding about the photovoltaic
system in DG networks (Tan & Wang, 2019) (Bernstein, Wang, Dall’Anese,
Le Boudec, & Zhao, 2018) are taken into consideration. A photovoltaic
device is a kind of nonlinear loads (Shadangi, Swain, Ray, & Panda, 2021)
and the parameters are dependent on sunlight. An energy storage device
(Yang et al., 2020) is always integrated with the PV panel. The reason of
connecting energy storage systems along with the PV systems is to shift
peak demands when needed. Power electronics inverters (Nakata, Torii,
Shiozawa, & Mototani, 2015) are also installed to convert power into AC
to feed into the grid. The topology has to be opted such that the inverter
should give an AC current with less harmonic distortions (Langella et al.,
2016). High harmonics distortion can cause poor effects on all the equip-
ment connected to the power grid.
A good power quality (PQ) (Alam & Arya, 2020) power is free from dis-
torsion. Deviation in voltage and current waveform from a sinusoidal one
like increase/decrease in magnitude of voltage due to a change in connected
load, named as sag/swell (Dongre, Mishra, & Kumar Dubey, 2020), leads to
poor PQ. Similarly, nonlinear, unbalanced load, and improper wiring con-
nections are main sources of noise. Due to such distortions, excess power
consumption, malfunction of equipment, and less life span occurs. The har-
monic distortions (Jo, Son, & Park, 2013) cannot be mitigated completely. It
can be decreased only. The proper monitoring and control schemes of elec-
trical system are required in order to maintain a well-powered system.
The use of nonlinear loads is increasing tremendously in high rate. So,
PQ problems are increasing more significantly day by day and becoming a
difficulty for both utility as well as consumers. A utility must provide bet-
ter PQ to the consumer for satisfactory operation of connected devices. The
mitigation of PQ problem stresses detection and localization of source and
cause of distortion. An appropriate control scheme can be chosen to locate
the distortions and reduce as much as possible. Here, we are using hybrid
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Power Quality Improvement Using PV-DSTATCOM 111

synchronous reference frame (HSRF) (Swain, Ray, & Mohanty, 2017) control
technique, which is designed to correct supply power factor, eliminate har-
monics, provides load balancing, and to improve the load terminal voltage.
Photovoltaic-based distributed static compensator (PV-DSTATCOM)
(Agarwal, Hussain, & Singh, 2017) (Singh, Kandpal, & Hussain, 2018) pro-
vides shunt compensation (Zhai et al., 2020) (de Almeida Carlos, Jacobina,
& dos Santos, 2018) and injects the current at the point of common cou-
pling (PCC). The PV-DSTATCOM, with some improvements, is able to
provide fast corrections for the dynamically changing loads.
Three algorithms are stated in this chapter, namely, instantaneous reac-
tive power theory (IRPT) (Chen, Li, Zeng, & Wang, 2018) (Wu et al.,
2021), modified instantaneous reactive power theory (M-IRPT) (Patnaik &
Panda, 2013), and HSRF (Swain et al., 2017). Two current control methods
are also considered here with the performances for DSTATCOM (Kumar,
Mishra, & Mekhilef, 2020) systems. These current control methods are
namely, indirect current control (ICC) (Patjoshi & Mahapatra, 2013)
(Meng et al., 2017) (Park, Kwon, & Choi, 2017) and direct current control
(DCC) (Raab, Kramer, & Ackva, 2021) (Mutschler & Marcks, 2002).
This chapter is organized as: Section 7.1 is the introduction. Section 7.2
describes the PV-based DSTATCOM model. Section 7.3 demonstrates the
controller design and different control algorithms along with the ICC and
DCC methods. Section 7.4 discusses the simulation results obtained. Section
7.5 illustrates the implementation of the proposed controller in laborato-
ry-developed prototype, and the last, section 7.6, concludes the chapter.

7.2 Photovoltaic (PV)-Based DSTATCOM Model

There are several advantages of using a PV system: when the PV system
is integrated with grid, it triggers a current signal into the grid. The main
benefit this type of system is that they have the ability to sell surplus power
to other consumers. To properly understand PV model in DG systems, PV
modeling and circuit analysis of the PV module is very important. A pho-
tovoltaic device is a nonlinear device and the parameters depend essen-
tially on sunlight and temperature.
In PV modules, there is a conversion of solar radiations into electricity
that takes place. One PV array has some series and parallel combination
of photo voltaic modules. Some cells are assembled together to make a
module or panel. At the terminals of the PV module, power is generated if
fed to the inverter of any other DC type load. The solar cell model design
is totally based on how the cells are assembled together. In the solar PV
module, the maximum power point (MPP) tracker allows the operation of
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112 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

the controller at MPP. The MPPT is associated there to maintain the pulse
width of converter/inverters. There are various methods to track the MPP
but among all, the perturb and observe technique is more popular.
In this chapter, PV-DSTATCOM is proposed and designed for PQ
improvement. The proposed system is designed by using nonlinear model-
ing. The PV panel model is integrated with DSTATCOM with parallel DC
capacitor along with the PI controller to get the harmonic-free power as
per our requirement. It is known to us that by the use of various inductive,
power electronics-based loads, we cannot completely eliminate the har-
monics from the source supply but we can reduce it up to a certain extent by
using appropriate control algorithm. The PV-DSTATCOM is realized using
three-phase, three-wire, IGBT-based voltage source inverter with parallel
DC capacitor. Control algorithm is mainly designed for supply power factor
improvements, to reduce harmonics, and to maintain voltage stability at the
grid. The PV-DSTATCOM provides parallel compensation and inoculate
the current at common coupling point. The PV-DSTATCOM with some
modifications is able to provide rapid corrections for the rapidly changing
loads such as furnaces and traction. Phase lock loop (PLL) is introduced
to generate firing pulse for insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT). The
PV-integrated DSTATCOM is shown in Figure 7.1. The experimental hard-
ware set up of the proposed method is also shown in Figure 7.2.

Rs Ls ISa
Va
Ls Three Phase
Rs ISb
Vb Three Wire
Non-Linear
Rs Ls ISc Load
Vc

Lf Lf Lf

Rf Rf Rf

cd

PV Panel

Figure 7.1 Block diagram representation of DSTATCOM.

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Power Quality Improvement Using PV-DSTATCOM 113

IS IL
3-Phase RL
Voltage Source
(100 V,50 Hz) XL
If

Lf
Current Sensor

Cdc
Measurement Unit
ADC
DAC PWM
Interfacing Inverter
Board

Oscilloscope

dSPACE

PC

Figure 7.2 Experimental block diagram.

7.3 Controller Design and Control Algorithm

Proportional integral (PI) controller is realized here and the HSRF algo-
rithm is discussed here in this chapter. Phase lock loop-based (PLL) syn-
chronization technique is used, as shown in Figure 7.3. In this method, the
reference current is compared with the error signal and is controlled by
using a PI controller. This generated signal is fed to the inverter as a firing
pulse.

7.3.1 Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory (IRPT)

In IRPT, there is a transformation of three-phase, a-b-c, to two-phase, αβ0,
which takes place. Due to the use of three-phase, three-wire system con-
sideration, zero sequence component of current gets eliminated, hence,
only α–β components are considered. If the IRPT algorithm along with
DSTATCOM combination is used, the voltage and currents can be tracked
from the PCC. These sensed parameters are further utilized for the cal-
culations of real and reactive powers. The block diagram of IRPT current
generation scheme is shown in Figure 7.4.
The rotating frame α–β component of voltage and current are shown in
Equations 7.1 and 7.2:
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114 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Gate signal

Hysteresis control

isa isb isc isa* isb* isc*

PI Limiter Imax
Circuit Reference current generation
Vdc-ref Controller
– Vdc

Figure 7.3 Block diagram representation of the controller block.

Vdc PI
Vdc
Vdc* Controller
Ploss

Vsa
Clarke p
Vsb Transformation p ica*
Vsc LPF
a-b-c
Power Reference Reference icb*
ILa Calculation q –q Current
Clarke Current
ILb –1 Calculation Calculation icc*
Transformation
ILc

Figure 7.4 Block diagram representation of IRPT algorithm.

1 1 v sa
1
v 2 2 2
v sb (7.1)
v 3 3 3
0 v sc
2 2

1 1 iLa
1
i 2 2 2
iLb (7.2)
i 3 3 3
0 iLc
2 2

Equations 7.1 and 7.2 can be used for the calculation of active and reac-
tive powers. The power is shown in Equation 7.3:
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Power Quality Improvement Using PV-DSTATCOM 115

p v v i
(7.3)
q v v i

The real and reactive powers, average, and reactive components are
given by Equations 7.4 and 7.5:

p p p (7.4)

q q q (7.5)

this power is then fed to the low pass filter (LPF) and hence, the power can
be obtained as in Equations 7.6 and 7.7:

p p ploss (7.6)

q 0 (7.7)

Reference signal are given in Equations 7.8 and 7.9:

i *c 1 v v p ploss
(7.8)
i *c v 2
v 2
v v q

1 0
i *Ca
2 1 3 i *C
i *Cb (7.9)
*
3 2 2 i *C
i Cc
1 3
2 2

Hence, this generated reference signal is utilized for IGBT ON/OFF

operation of DSTATCOM.

7.3.2 Modified Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory (MIRPT)

As there are some limitations to conventional the IRPT algorithm, hence,
to cope with this limitation, we are now using this MIRPT algorithm
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116 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Vdc
Vdc
–
PI Controller
Vdc*
PLoss
Vsa Vd Vd
Park's p ica*
Vsb a-b-c to d-q p
Conversion Transformation a-b-c
Vsc p-q LPF
Reference Reference icb*
Vq Vq Powers
ILa Calculation
Current Current
i
ILb Park's -1 Calculation Calculation cc*
Transformation q -q
ILc

Figure 7.5 Block diagram representation of MIRPT algorithm.

for the generation of reference current. In this method, the components

received after conversion from (a-b-c to d-q) form, the filter is transformed
to α–β components. The equation of voltage in terms of d-q axis is shown
in Equation 7.10:

1 1 1 v sa
vd 2 cos t sin t 2 2
vsb
vq 3 sin t cos t 0 3 3
2 2 vsc
 (7.10)

The α–β component of voltage can be expressed, as in Equation 7.11.

v cos t sin t vd
v sin t cos t vq (7.11)

The remaining parameters can be calculated the same as in conventional

IRPT method already stated in Section 7.3.1.
Here, ω is the angular rotating speed of d-q axes rotating at synchronous
speed. The d-q components of voltages received are then fed to the LPF to
remove the zero sequence component. The signals received form the LPF,
vd and vq, are then transformed to three-phase a-b-c components. All the
transforms are shown by the block diagrams in Figure 7.5.

7.3.3 Hybrid Synchronous Reference Frame Theory (HSRF)

In this technique, the reference current generation takes place by combin-
ing the load voltage and source current sensing method. In this theory, the
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Power Quality Improvement Using PV-DSTATCOM 117

load voltage and source currents are detected simultaneously to get the
harmonics. Among various control schemes available, the HSRF method
is superior, it is very efficient and a reliable scheme to avoid the voltage
unbalance, reduce harmonic content, and avoid voltage instability. Here,
three-phase load voltages (VLa, VLb, VLc) and source currents (Isa, Isb,
Isc) are transformed from a-b-c to rotating reference frame axis.
The voltages received can be further separated into two parts, DC and
dynamic components, as given below in Equation 7.12:

Vd Vd Vd
Vd Vq Vq (7.12)

The load voltages are VLa, VLb, VLc, and these are distorted and unbal-
anced types. If d-q-components are sent to the filter (LPF), it is subtracted
from the fundamental signal. In this way, the DC components vanish and
we get the harmonic signals, refer to Equation 7.13:

Vd Vd Vd
Vq Vq Vq (7.13)

Harmonic contained load voltages are given by the below Equation 7.14.

cos sin
VLah
2 2 Vd
VLbh cos( ) sin( ) (7.14)
3 3 Vq
VLch 2 2
cos( ) sin( )
3 3

Equations for Id and Iq are shown in Equation 7.15:

Id Id I
d
Id 
Iq I q (7.15)
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118 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Inverse transformation can be applied to get the harmonic contained

source current as given below in Equation 7.16:

cos sin
I sah
2 2 I d
I sbh cos( ) sin( ) (7.16)
3 3 I q
I sch 2 2
cos( ) sin( )
3 3

The reference current generation by using HSRF scheme is shown in

Figure 7.6. From Figure 7.6, the error signal generated by this method is
sent to the controller and harmonics can be eliminated further.
Reference compensating voltages can be expressed as Equation 7.17.

Vca * KI sah VLah Vcaf

Vcb * KI sbh VLbh Vcbf
Vcc * KI sch VLch Vccf
(7.17)

7.3.4 Indirect Current Control (ICC)

In the ICC method, the line currents can be acquired by getting the product
of unit vectors, usa, usb, usc, and peak source current represented by Imax.
The source currents are as follows in Equation 7.20. The block diagram
representation of ICC method is shown in Figure 7.7.

isa
K

LPF Vca*
VLa –
isb a-b-c to d-q d-q to a-b-c – Vcb*
K

Transformation Transformation
VLb LPF Vcc*
isc –
K

VLc
Vdc –
PLL Vs
Vdc* Vdc

Figure 7.6 Hybrid control approach-based synchronous reference frame (HSRF) method.
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Power Quality Improvement Using PV-DSTATCOM 119

isa
*
usa isa
Vsa
* isb
Unit Vector usb isb Gate Pulses
Vsb Controller
Generator u * isc
sc
Vsc isc

Vdc Imax
–
Vdc
*
Vdc

Figure 7.7 Indirect current control model.

Vsa Vmax sin t

Vsa Vmax sin( t 1200 )
Vsa Vmax sin( t 1200 ) (7.18)

usa usa / Vmax

usb usb / Vmax
usc usc / Vmax (7.19)

I * sa I max * usa
I * sb I max * usb
I * sc I max * usc (7.20)

7.3.5 Direct Current Control (DCC)

In this method, the line current components can be obtained by subtract-
ing the load currents from the reference source current. All the remaining
equations will be the same as stated in the ICC method section 7.3.4. The
block diagram representation of the DCC method is shown in Figure 7.8.

I *ca I * sa I La
I *cb I * sb I Lb
I *cc I * sc I Lc (7.21)
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120 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

iLc iLb iLa

– i * ica –
usa isa* ca
Vsa
u isb* – i * icb – Gate Pulses
Vsb Unit Vector sb cb
Controller
Generator u
sc isc * – icc* icc –
Vsc

Vdc Imax
Vdc –
Vdc *

Figure 7.8 Direct current control method.

Both the methods ICC and DCC have both been analyzed to show good
good total harmonic distortion (THD) spectrum but ICC shows superior-
ity over DCC. The Table 7.1 shows the THD after compensation for both
the control methods ICC and DCC for the range of order of harmonics.

7.4 Simulation Results

The PV-DSTATCOM was implemented in the MATLAB environment.
The simulations were carried out for the proposed HRSF algorithm. The
fast Fourier transform (FFT) was conducted to check the THD. The THD
must be within the IEEE standards. Hence, it was concluded that the THD

Table 7.1 Harmonic present in source current.

THD after THD after
compensation compensation
Harmonic order (ICC Analysis) (DCC Analysis)
5 0.39 0.48
7 0.35 0.45
9 0.33 0.41
11 0.31 0.40
13 0.28 0.38
17 0.26 0.36
19 0.23 0.35
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Power Quality Improvement Using PV-DSTATCOM 121

remain within the limit. For the hardware implementation verification of

HSRF algorithm along with DSTATCOM, some cases were considered, as
follows: (1) diode rectifier along with the resistive load, (2) diode recti-
fier along with resistive-inductive load, and (3) diode rectifier along with
­resistive-inductive-electro motive force (EMF) (R-L-E) load.
Case 1: (diode rectifier along with resistive load during steady-state con-
dition): Figure 7.9(a), (b) and (c) reflects the MATLAB simulation results
of voltage at source terminal, current at load end, and source current
(post compensation) during steady-state condition with resistive load. A
compensator device is inserted in the network along with pure resistive
load. The current signal generated from compensator is triggered at the
PCC. From Figure 7.10, we can see the THD percentage as 3.73%, which is
within the standards.
Case 2: (diode rectifier along with resistive-inductive load during
steady-state condition): from Figure 7.9(d), we can see the THD response.
For Case 2, Figure 7.10 reflects a THD of 4.23%.

200 10
Vs (V)

IL (V)

0 0

−200 −10
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)

50 1
Is (A)

Is (A)

0 0

−50 −1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (s) Time (s)
(c) (d)

1
Is (A)

−1
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time (s)
(e)

Figure 7.9 (a) Power supply voltage during steady-state response, (b) current at load
without filter, (c) source current for resistive load post compensation, (d) source current
for resistive-inductive load post compensation, and (e) source current for resistive-
inductive-EMF load post filtration.
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122 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

FFT analysis FFT analysis THD = 24.70%

THD = 24.29%

Mag (% of Fund)
Mag (% of Fund)

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Harmonic order Harmonic order

(a) (b)
FFT analysis FFT analysis
THD = 34.29% THD = 3.73%
Mag (% of Fund)

Mag (% of Fund)
20 0.8
0.6
10 0.4
0.2
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Harmonic order Harmonic order

(c) (d)

FFT analysis THD = 4.23% FFT analysis THD = 4.53%

Mag (% of Fund)

Mag (% of Fund)

0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Harmonic order Harmonic order

(e) (f)

Figure 7.10 Source current pre-compensation THD response. (a) For Case 1, (b) Case 2,
(c) Case 3. (d) For Case 1, (e) Case 2, and (f) Case 3 post-compensation THD response.

Case 3: (diode rectifier along with R-L-E load during steady-state condi-
tion): Figure 7.9(e), Figure 7.10(c) and (f): simulation results of current at
source, THD of current at source for pre- and post-compensation during
steady-state condition.
After doing all the analysis, it was concluded that before applying any
compensation in the system, we are getting more THD values for all the
cases, as follows: 24.29%, 24.70%, and 34.29%, respectively, but when we
introduced the compensation, the THD was drastically reduced to 3.73%,
4.23%, and 4.53%, respectively, for all the three cases stated above. Hence,
it is concluded that a suitable algorithm has to be chosen for the operation
of DSTATCOM to get the satisfactory output response.
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Power Quality Improvement Using PV-DSTATCOM 123

IL 1A/div.

Is

10ms/div. 10ms/div.
(a) (b)

1A/div.

10ms/div.
(c)

Figure 7.11 Laboratory experimental results for (a) current at load end pre compensation,
current at source end post compensation for Case 1 (b) source current post compensation
for Case 2, and (c) source current post filtration for Case 3.

7.5 Experimental Results

Simulations were carried out by using MATLAB 2016. To validate the
working of the laboratory prototype model, experiments were performed
on the hardware set up. Figure 7.2 represents the PV-based DSTATCOM
model. Load dynamics were taken into account to check for various
upcoming aspects.
Three cases that were taken into account: resistive load, resistive-induc-
tive load, and R-L-E, along with diode rectifier. The supply voltage of 110
Volts, 50 Hz were selected during experiments.
The switching device SEMIKRON inverter was taken for pulse genera-
tions. Experimental results were saved by using CRO (M SO4050). Some of
the figures, Figure 7.11(a), (b), and (c), respectively represents the output
waveforms for all the three considered cases.

7.6 Conclusion
Implemented Photo-Voltaic Distribution Static Compensator
(PV-DSTATCOM) with HSRF control algorithm as a reference voltage gen-
eration approach was proposed. The conventional control technique based
PV-DSTATCOM was found to be very simple in realization and also achieve
good performance when considering various load perturbations. But there is
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124 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

a time delay in the conventional approach, so the PV-DSTATCOM exhibits

slow response. Hence, harmonic compensation is not so perfect and fast.
The THD obtained from experimentation is close to the IEEE-519 standard.
Therefore, an HSRF-based PV-DSTATCOM system has been realized here.
A real-time implementation of PV-DSTATCOM system was carried out on
experimental mode. The real-time result shows that even if the load cur-
rent or load voltage is non-ideal, the HSRF method can eliminate harmonics
in better way. The proposed HSRF strategy is very efficient when it is com-
bined with PV-DSTATCOM and also provides better responses to load fluc-
tuations. The following points are successfully achieved and enlisted: THD
reduces up to 3.73% for resistive and 4.23% for resistive- inductive load, and
it is 4.53% for R-L-E load.

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8
Modeling and Simulation of Current
Transformer to Study Its Behaviors
in Different Conditions
Aveek Chattopadhyaya1* and Surajit Chattopadhyay2

Department of Electrical Engineering, GNIT, Panihati, Kolkata, India

1

2
Department of Electrical Engineering, GaniKhan C. Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Malda, W.B., India

Abstract
Current transformer (CT) is a pertinent device in electrical systems. This chap-
ter aims to discuss modeling and simulation of current transformer to study its
behaviors. For this purpose, CT secondary signal is considered. Applying wave-
let transform (WT) and fast Fourier transform (FFT), different behaviors of CT
are analyzed. Wavelet-transform-based multi-resolution analysis (MRA) and root
mean square (RMS) are also used to ascertain the saturation of CT and to calculate
the exact primary current during saturation.

Keywords: FFT, WT, DWT, RMS, interpolation, extrapolation

8.1 Introduction
For protection and measuring purposes, Current transformer (CT) is used.
Current transformer is widely used in electrical systems for smooth and
reliable operation of the electrical system. For this purpose, proper mod-
eling, simulation, and behaviors of CT in different conditions are utmost
required things. Otherwise, maloperation of CT can affect the performance
of the system. In Reference [1], computer simulation is discussed to show
the saturation and as a repercussion the deformation of the CT secondary

*Corresponding author: chatterjee58@gmail.com

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(127–142) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

127
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128 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

due to direct current (DC) component in the CT primary side. In this con-
dition, core hysteresis and the effect of residual flux on the CT performance
were also investigated. In Reference [2], saturation of CT was detected in
transient conditions using sampled value of CT secondary current [2]. Y.
C. Kang et al. proposed first, second, and third difference-based functions
of CT secondary waveform to detect CT saturation [3]. In this analysis, the
first difference of the CT secondary signal was used to identify the initia-
tion of saturation. The above discussed method was tested for 100:5 CT.
Negative and positive sequence impedance-based protection scheme is
developed throughout saturation and ratio discrepancy [4]. The developed
algorithm was verified in digital platform. N. Villamagna et al. proposed
component (symmetrical)-based saturation detection technique in differ-
ent fault conditions, where faults were created in EMTP/ATP simulation
platform [5]. A digital signal processor (TMS3206701) was used to test the
CT saturation detection algorithm, where the difference (third) of second-
ary waveform was considered for this purpose [6]. A. Hooshyar et al. pro-
posed a method to calculate primary component of fault signal in existence
of DC component and saturation [7]. The method is based on the look up
table of fault currents and least square errors. Waveform processing and
artificial intelligence (AI)-based method proposed by researchers to iden-
tify and rectify saturation for smooth operation about electrical systems
[8–9]. In this analysis, signal processing such as wave transform (WT) was
used to identify saturation and AI-like artificial neural network was also
used to correct saturation. A. Chattopadhyaya et al. proposed different sig-
nal processing and signal processing-based statistical parameter analysis
to assess the distorted signal in power systems [10–17]. In Reference [18],
authors proposed a statistical criterion-based technique to detect CT satu-
ration and reconstruction of CT distorted signal during saturation. Here,
authors also discussed the statistical methods to discriminate fault current
from inrush current. Monitoring the flux density, a method was developed
to identify saturation [19].
The chapter aims to present the behaviors of CT in non-identical envi-
ronments and its signal estimation on those conditions by modeling and
simulation of CT. Knowledge of behaviors of CT is very essential for appli-
cation and design of a CT. In this chapter, CT behaviors will also be dis-
cussed considering CT secondary signal and CT core flux. This assessment
is achieved by FFT and statistical parameters based on discrete wavelet
transform (DWT). This chapter will also discuss to calculate CT primary
current under CT saturated conditions. Current transformer (CT) satura-
tion for different reasons is also considered here. Here, modeling and cir-
cuit simulation of CT is discussed, which is followed by behaviors analysis,
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Modeling and Simulation of CT 129

detection of CT saturation by signal processing-based statistical parame-

ter estimations, and multi-resolution analysis (MRA)-based calculation of
exact CT primary current during CT saturated conditions.

8.2 Simulation Circuit of Current Transformer

Here, the performance of CT was analyzed using the simulation circuit
which is depicted in the figure below (Figure 8.1). A block diagram of a
simulated network is limned in Figure 8.2. In this analysis, 120-kV net-
work voltage is considered. 2000/5-Amp, 25-VA current transformer is
used for total analysis. The mentioned CT has one primary turn and 400
secondary turns. The CT secondary is shorted by 1-ohm resistance. On
the CT secondary side, a voltage measuring component is connected for
measuring a secondary voltage (V2) of CT, which is proportional to the
primary current (I1) of CT under normal condition. In this CT, the core
flux knee point value is 10 p.u.

CT Primary Current

Breaker
RL Load
AC Source Secondary
Current

Figure 8.1 Simulation circuit of current transformer (CT).

SCOPE
Primary Current Secondary Voltage
Source Measuring Unit
CT Measuring Unit

Multimeter

FFT BLOCK ANALYZER

Figure 8.2 Simulation circuit in block diagram.

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130 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

8.3 Effects of CT Performance Due to Variation of

Circuit Time Constants
In this chapter, the CT performance was analyzed in different time con-
stants scenario. In high voltage transmission, the line reactance is very
much higher than resistance and in distribution network, the resistance is
very much higher than reactance. For this reason, the performance anal-
ysis of CT is very much needed indeed for system reliability. Fast Fourier
transform (FFT)-based spectrum analysis of CT primary current, second-
ary voltage, and CT core flux were done for this purpose.

Case Study I:
Time constant (L/R) of the circuit is 3
In Case study I, the CT performance was observed when time constant
(L/R) of the circuit is 3. Fast Fourier transform-based spectrum analysis
was done on the primary and secondary signal of CT and CT core flux
under this condition (time constant is 3). In spectrum analysis, each fre-
quency component consists of first positive peak (FPP), second positive
peak (SPP), and negative peak (NP). Figure 8.3(a) and 8.3(b) depicts the
CT primary signal and secondary signal, and core flux, respectively. In
Figure 8.3(a), the primary and secondary signal of CT is overlapping each
other, which indicates normal condition. Spectrum analysis of CT primary
signal, secondary signal, and core flux are shown in Figure 8.3(c), 8.3(d),
and 8.3(e), respectively where no harmonics are observed in this condi-
tion. Results of the spectrum analysis dictate that for time constant 3, the
CT operates in linear zone.

CASE STUDY II:

Time constant (L/R) of the circuit is 0.1
The CT primary and secondary signal, and core flux are shown in Figure
8.4(a) and 4.8(b), respectively. Spectrum analyses of all these signals
are depicted in Figure 8.4(c)–Figure 8.4(e). Different harmonics were
observed in spectrum analysis of CT secondary voltage signal and CT core
flux, which dictates that under this condition, CT operates in non-linear or
saturation region of its primary current versus flux characteristics.
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Modeling and Simulation of CT 131

plot of I1 & V2 Vs time

4

1
I1 & V2

–1

–2

–3

–4
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
time in second
(a)

flux Vs time
1

0.8

0.6

0.4
flux

0.2

–0.2

–0.4
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
time in second

(b)
Peak Magnitude Spectrum called by Simulink
4000
Magnitude based on “Base Peak” - Parameter

3000

2000

1000

–1000

–2000

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Order of Harmonic
(c)

Figure 8.3 (a) CT primary signal and secondary signal. (b) Core flux of CT. (Continued)
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132 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Peak Magnitude Spectrum called by Simulink

10

Magnitude based on “Base Peak” - Parameter

8

–2

–4

–6

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Order of Harmonic

(d)
Peak Magnitude Spectrum called by Simulink
1.5
Magnitude based on “Base Peak” - Parameter

0.5

–0.5

–1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Order of Harmonic

(e)

Figure 8.3 (Continued) (c) Spectrum analysis of CT primary current. (d) Spectrum
analysis of CT secondary voltage. (e) Spectrum analysis of CT core flux.

8.4 Effects of CT Performance Due to

Switching Transients
In this chapter, CT performances were observed in different switching
transient conditions. Different switching transient cases were created by
varying the switching time of breaker closing time in the primary side
of the CT. Here, two switching times of breaker closing were considered.
One is 0.025 s and another is 0.02 s. At 0.025 s, the voltage across the
breaker is in peak position, and at 0.02 s, the voltage across the breaker
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Modeling and Simulation of CT 133

I1 and V2 versus time

150

100

50
I1 & V2---->

–50

–100

–150
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time in second---->
(a)
flux Vs time
20

15

10

5
flux---->

–5

–10

–15
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time in second---->
(b)
× 104 Peak Magnitude Spectrum called by Simulink

12
Magnitude based on “Base Peak” - Parameter

10
8
6
4
2
0
–2
–4
–6
–8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Order of Harmonic
(c)

Figure 8.4 (a) CT primary signal and secondary signal. (b) Core flux of CT.
(c) Spectrum analysis of CT primary current.  (Continued)
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134 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Peak Magnitude Spectrum called by Simulink

300

250

Magnitude based on “Base Peak” - Parameter

200

150

100

50

–50

–100

–150

–200
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Order of Harmonic
(d)

Peak Magnitude Spectrum called by Simulink

40
Magnitude based on “Base Peak” - Parameter

30

20

10

–10

–20

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Order of Harmonic
(e)

Figure 8.4 (Continued) (d) Spectrum analysis of CT secondary voltage. (e) Spectrum
analysis of CT core flux.

is in the zero crossing position. In these two conditions, the spectrum

analysis of CT secondary signal is shown in Figure 8.3(d) and Figure 8.5.
Switching at 0.025 s did not produce current asymmetry and as a conse-
quence, secondary signal of CT is free from harmonics. Switching at 0.02
s produced CT saturation and as a result, the secondary signal contains
different harmonics, which is clear from the spectrum analysis (Figure
8.5).
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Modeling and Simulation of CT 135

Peak Magnitude Spectrum called by Simulink

6

Magnitude based on “Base Peak” - Parameter

4

–1

–2

–3

–4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Order of Harmonic

Figure 8.5 Spectrum anqalysis of CT secondary voltage (at breaker closing time is
0.02 second).

8.5 DWT-Based Skewness Analysis for Assessment of

CT Saturation Due to Switching Transients
Four switching times of primary side breaker of CT were considered for
this purpose. Switching times are 1.25/50 (0.025) s, 1.06/50 (0.0212) s,
1.12/50 (0.0224) s, and 1/50 (0.02) s. Among four switching times, switch-
ing at 1.25/50 (0.025) s produced no asymmetry in the CT primary current,
and as result, no saturation or distortion in the CT secondary signal was
found. The reason behind is that at 0.025 s, the voltage across the breaker
is in peak condition. But the other three switching times produced current
asymmetry, and as a result, CT saturation and distortion in the CT sec-
ondary signal were found. In this chapter, distortion of the CT secondary
signal due to CT saturation for different switching times were analyzed by
DWT-based skewness analysis.

Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)

Wavelet transform (WT) is used to get time-frequency information from a
non-stationery waveform. It is categorized as continuous wavelet transform
(CWT) and discrete wavelet transform (DWT). The drawbacks of CWT are
that it generates a lot of data and many complex calculations are required
for CWT. Discrete wavelet transform is much faster with respect to CWT.
In DWT, the signal is decomposed into two sets in each and every DWT
decomposition level. In each DWT decomposition level, the signal passes
through two filters (high and low pass). High pass filter output contains
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136 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

higher frequency components and output of low pass filter contains lower
order frequencies. Detail coefficients are the output of high pass filter and
approximation or approximate coefficients are the output of low pass filter.
In this chapter, at different switching times, the CT secondary signal
was decomposed up to DWT level nine and at each and every level, skew-
ness values were calculated to detect CT saturation. Figure 8.6 to Figure
8.9 delineate the detail and approximate or approximation coefficients
skewness values (up to DWT decomposition level nine). In Figure 8.9,

Plot on Skewness values of Approximate coefficient & Detail coefficient

2

–1
Skewness

Approximate
–2

–3
Detail
–4

–5

–6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level

Figure 8.6 Skewness values at switching time 1/50 s.

Plot on Skewness values of Approximate coefficient & Detail coefficient

2
Approximate
1

–1
Skewness

–2
Detail
–3

–4

–5

–6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level

Figure 8.7 Skewness values at 1.12/50 s.

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Modeling and Simulation of CT 137

Plot on Skewness values of Approximate coefficient & Detail coefficient

2
Approximate
1

–1
Skewness

–2
Detail
–3

–4

–5

–6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level

Figure 8.8 Skewness at 1.06/50 s.

Plot on skewness values of Approximate coefficient & Detail coefficient

1

–1
Approximate
–2
Skewness

–3 Detail

–4

–5

–6

–7

–8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
DWT decomposition level

Figure 8.9 Skewness at switching time 1.25/50 s.

the skewness values of detail coefficients are totally different from the above
limned figures. Another important observation is that in normal condition
(switching time 1.25/60), the intersecting point between approximation
and detail coefficients skewness values is between level four (4) and five
(5) (in DWT level), but for otherdelineated figures, this point is in between
DWT decomposition level two (2) and three (3). From these skewness val-
ues, the CT saturation or distortion of CT secondary signal can be assessed
easily.
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138 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

8.6 CT Saturation Detection by Multi-Resolution

Analysis-Based Notch Assessment [12]
Using the main circuit (Figure 8.1), CT saturation was detected by MRA of
secondary waveform and at saturated condition, actual root mean square
(RMS) value of the primary waveform was obtained by MRA and ‘inter-
polation’ and ‘extrapolation (spline)’ technique. For this analysis, two CT
primary current are considered. One is 1000 Amp, which is the normal
condition current, and another is 25 kAmp, which is high current. Due
to this, the 25-kAmp CT core got saturated. Each and every time, DWT-
based MRA analysis was performed to decompose CT secondary signal in
different frequency resolution bands. Here, the mother wavelet is consid-
ered as ‘dB4’. Notch was observed in DWT detail level coefficients for high
primary current (25kAmp) condition. Measuring this notch, CT satura-
tion is detected. CT primary current, corresponding DWT detail level one
coefficients of CT secondary signal are delineated in Figures 8.10 and 8.11.
By this notch measurement, CT saturation is detected here.

Plotting of CT primary, secondary signal and detail values of coefficient at level 1

4
3
Magnitude of I1, V2, d1--->

2
1
0
–1 First
–4 notch
–3
–4
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time (sec)--->

Figure 8.10 Primary and secondary signal, DWT (detail level1) coefficient.

Plotting of CT primary, secondary signal and detail coefficient values at level 1

100
80
Primary signal (I1)
60
40
Secondary signal (V2)
20
Magnitude of I1, V2, d1--->

0
–20
–40 First and six
–60 notch
–80
–100
–4
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time (sec)--->

Figure 8.11 Primary, secondary signal, DWT (detail level1) coefficient.

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Modeling and Simulation of CT 139

For 1000-Amp CT primary current, at DWT detail level one (1) coef-
ficients, no notches were observed but the maximum value of 0.00002351
(which is almost zero) is considered for analysis. Due to flow of high pri-
mary current (25 kAmp), the starting notches positive peaks are inflated
with respect to normal condition. For analysis of saturation, these values
were used. From Table 8.1 results, it is clear that CT saturation in each
cycle can be detected by measuring the peak values of starting and ending
notches. Table 8.1 is used to delineate the magnitude of starting and ending
notches based on which CT saturation was detected.

Table 8.1 Starting and ending notches for different primary current.
Positive
Known Starting peak value No. of Positive peak
primary notch (starting ending value ( end
current number notch) notch notch)
1000 Amp 1 0.00002351 1 0.00002351
2 0.00002351 2 0.00002351
3 0.00002351 3 0.00002351
4 0.00002351 4 0.00002351
5 0.00002351 5 0.00002351
6 0.00002351 6 0.00002351
7 0.00002351 7 0.00002351
8 0.00002351 8 0.00002351
25,000 Amp 1 9.505 1 4.281
2 11.74 2 1.95
3 12.56 3 3.723
4 12.61 4 3.335
5 8.281 5 3.595
6 12.95 6 3.786
7 13.33 7 4.518
8 6.307 8 4.783
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140 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

8.7 CT Primary Current Assessment During CT

Saturation [12]
Exact RMS value of CT primary current is very much needed to protect
from maloperation of relay. The RMS value approximation coefficients
at level 1 (one) was taken here to assess the actual value of CT primary
current at different conditions. For the different known values of primary
currents, the RMS value of approximation level one coefficients were cal-
culated, which is limned in Figure 8.12.Using these values, the CT primary
current RMS values at different conditions were measured by extrapolation
or interpolation techniques, where the results came out wildly positive.
Table 8.2 delineates the proposed methods to assess CT primary currents.
RMS values of Approximate Coefficients at

Primary Current Vs RMS values of Approximate Coefficients at DMT Level1

40
35
30
25
DMT Level1

20
15
10
5
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Primary Current in amps

Figure 8.12 Different primary currents versus RMS value of approximate coefficients.

Table 8.2 Assessment of CT primary currents and error.

Original primary 7078 14,050 21,000 26,000 27,000 29,000
current (Amps)

RMS value at DWT 16.23 32.06 45.70 57.39 59.40 63.01

level one (1) (of
approximation
coefficients)

Calculated primary 7000 14,044 20,961 25,944 26,887 28,582

current (Amps)

Percentage error 1.16% 0.042% 0.185% 0.215% 0.4185% 1.44%

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Modeling and Simulation of CT 141

8.8 Conclusion
In this chapter, circuit simulation and behaviors of CT were discussed by
signal processing-based techniques. Saturation of CT was discussed in
different conditions by signal assessment of CT secondary side. The CT
saturation due to switching transient and high primary current was also
discussed. The presence of different harmonics in CT saturated condi-
tions was analyzed by FFT and DWT-based statistical parameter analysis.
The MRA-based RMS technique was also discussed to measure the actual
primary current (RMS) during CT saturation. All these things are very
important for proper protection of electrical systems.

References
1. O’Kelly, D. (1992). Calculation of the transient performance of protective
current transformers including core hysteresis. IEE Proceedings-c, 139(5),
455-460.https://10.1049/ip-c.1992.0063.
2. Evans, F. J., Wells, G. (1970). Use of a sampling scheme to detect transient
saturation in protective current transformers. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas.,
19(3), 144-147. https://10.1109/TIM.1970.4313884.
3. Kang, Y. C., Ok, H., Kang, S. H., Crossley, P. A. (2004). Design and evalua-
tion of an algorithm for detecting current transformersaturation. IEE Proc.-
Gener. Transm. Distrib., 151(1), 27-35. https://10.1049/ip-gtd:20030982.
4. Sachdev,M. S., Sidhu,T. S., Gill, H. S. (2000). A busbar protection technique
and its performance during CT saturation and CT ratio-mismatch. IEEE
Trans. Power Delivery, 15(3), 895-901. https:// 10.1109/61.871349.
5. Villamagna, N., Crossley, P. A. (2006). A CT saturation detection algorithm
using symmetrical components for current differential protection. IEEE
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IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 19(1), 78-85. https://10.1109/TPWRD.2003.820200.
7. Hooshyar, A., Pasand, M. S. (2012). Accurate measurement of fault currents
contaminated with decaying DC offset and CT saturation. IEEE Trans. Power
Deliv., 27(2), 773-783. https://10.1109/TPWRD.2011.2176965.
8. Hong, Y. Y., Chang-Chian, P. C. (2008). Detection and correction of distorted
current transformer current using wavelet transform and artificial intelligence.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2(4), 566–575. https://10.1049/iet-gtd:20070383.
9. Yu, D. C., Cummins, J. C., Wang, Z., Yoon, H. Z., Kojovic, L. A. (2001). Correction
of Current Transformer sistorted Secondary currents due to saturation using
Artificial Neural Networks. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 16(2), 189-194. https://
10.1109/61.915481.
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142 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

10. Chattopadhyaya, A., Chattopadhyay, S., Sengupta, S. (2013, February 26-27).

Signal assessment for detection of saturation of a Current Transformer under
switching transient condition by Wavelet Transform based skewness and
kurtosis analysis. Second National Conference on Instrumentation & Control,
NATCONIC – 2013, Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
11. Chattopadhyaya, A., Banerjee, H., Chattopadhyay, S., Sengupta, S. (2013).
Assessment of CT saturation Caused By Switching Transient. Int. J. Electr.
Electron. Comput. Sci. Eng., 2(2), 57-61.
12. Chattopadhyaya, A., Chattopadhyay, S., Bera, J. N., Sengupta, S. (2016).
Assessment of Saturated Current Transformer Primary Current by Multi
Resolution Analysis of Its Secondary Current. 2nd International Conference
on Control, Instrumentation, Energy and Communication (CIEC16), Kolkata,
West Bengal, India. Published in IEEE Xplore Digital Library. https://10.1109/
CIEC.2016.7513763.
13. Chattopadhyaya, A., Dey, D., Basu, M., Sengupta, S. (2013, October 10 –
11). Behaviours of Current Transformer under Different Conditions and Its
Signal Assessment. National Conferenceon Recent Development in Electrical,
Electronics & Engineering Physics (RDE3P-2013), Howrah, West Bengal, India.
14. Chattopadhyaya, A., Banerjee, H., Chattopadhyay, S., Sengupta, S. (2013,
October 10 – 11). Effect of Different Switching Transient on CT Saturation.
National Conferenceon Recent Development in Electrical, Electronics &
Engineering Physics (RDE3P-2013), Howrah, West Bengal, India.
15. Chattopadhyaya, A., Banerjee, H., Chattopadhyay, S., Sengupta, S. (2013,
November). Kurtosis Based Assessment of CT saturation Due to Switching
Transient. Second Michael Faraday IET India Summit, Kolkata, West Bengal,
India.
16. Datta, S., Chattopadhyaya, A., Chattopadhyay, S., Das, A. (2020, October,
3-4). Harmonic Distortion, inter-harmonic Group Magnitude and Discrete
Wavelet Transform based Statistical Parameter Estimation for Line to Ground
Fault Analysis in Microgrid System. Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
17. Mukherjee, N., Chattopadhyaya, A., Chattopadhyay, S., Sengupta, S. (2020).
Discrete Wavelet Transform and Stockwell Transform based Statistical
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for current transformer saturation detection and waveform reconstruc-
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iet-gtd.2017.1742
19. Odinaev, Pazderin, A., V., Murzin, P., V., Tashchilin, V., A., Samoylenko, V.,
O., Ghoziev, B. (2021, July 28th – 30th). Detection of the initial region of the
current transformer core saturation.19th International Conference on Renew.
Energies and Power Quality (ICREPQ’21), Almeria, Spain.
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9
Multilevel Inverter-Fed Closed
Loop Control and Analysis of
Induction Motor Drive
Subrat Behera1*, Ranjeeta Patel1, Rudra Narayan Dash1 and Amit Kumar2

School of Electrical Engineering, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology,

1

Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

2
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology Patiala, Deemed to be University,
Punjab, India

Abstract
Multilevel inverters have discovered more extensive extent of utilization in mod-
erate and also in high-power adjustable-speed drives. This chapter introduces a
vector control scheme of induction motor drive which includes pulse width mod-
ulations for reducing harmonics and total harmonic distortion (THD). For better
control of induction motor, indirect vector control has been applied which offers
advantages such as removal of flux sensor, more dynamic responses, and mini-
mum torque pulses is applied. The inverter named neutral point clamped inverter
is applied for observing dynamic control of the motor drive along with efficiency.
The main attention of this chapter is to improve the performance of indirect vector
controller. The THD analysis proves the better operation of induction motor as
compared to conventional voltage source inverter-fed induction motor drive. By
the help of MATLAB simulation, the dynamic performance as well as steady-state
of multilevel inverter-based drive are analyzed.
Keywords: Vector control, neutral point clamped inverter (NPCI),
synchronously rotating reference frame (SRRF)

*Corresponding author: subrat.sb@gmail.com

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(143–158) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

143
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144 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

9.1 Introduction
The acknowledgement engine has just been freed from fixed speed machine
to variable speed with the assistance of various control techniques. If a suit-
able control technique is not implemented properly, the benefits of variable
frequency operation cannot be totally recognized. The assumption of method
assumes a significant job in deciding the general feasibility, its attributes,
and execution of the engine drive. During ordinary activity of the induction
drive, the chosen control procedure is needed to guarantee that the activity
is restricted to the zone of high working torque. It must be considered that
it synchronizes the ratings of inverter which helps to reduce the switching
losses as well as the system loss. By the help of control strategies rather than
design of the system, we are able to manage the overload conditions or fault
conditions. One of the most common motor is induction motor, which is
used in most industries, signal control systems, and in the main AC power-­
driven applications. And the abovementioned are significant benefits of
induction motor (IM) drives. It is simple and possesses rugged construction,
lower cost, and less maintenance. There are varieties of induction motors
available for study. Efficient control of three-phase induction motor requires
proper concept of properties of motors. In this work of closed loop induc-
tion motor drive, a suitable converter named tandem converter was applied,
which proved to minimize the THD of the whole system and display better
performance. The induction motor performance encourages the implemen-
tation in AC motors. For the better control of induction motor drive several
typologies have been developed in the last many years. Decoupling mecha-
nism that works fine in case of separately excited DC motor was applied to
AC asynchronous machine. Here, the field oriented control was identified
to be suitable for obtaining the outputs. The outputs being the mechanical
and electrical as rotor current and speed of the machine. Along with that,
the chapter includes the THD performance of the machine using a suitable
inverter topology. The approach is to synthesize the machine currents in
order to generate better decoupling mechanism. As field oriented control is
one of the most suitable approach, the same is used for closed loop control.
The neutral point clamped multilevel inverters (NPCMLI) are also known
as diode clamped inverter technically. Here in the voltage level, the middle
point is referred to as the inverter’s neutral point. The increased inverter’s
potential has doubled the level of voltage of the device without precise volt-
age regulation. In various inverter topologies, voltage stress is a central point
influencing the operation of multilevel inverters (MLI). In diode clamped
MLI, diodes are being implemented in the circuit to restrict the stress on
power devices. If N = number of levels, then the voltage sources are counted
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MLI-FED Closed Loop Control and Analysis of Induction Motor 145

as [N-1], switching conductor devices are assumed as 2[N-1], and the num-
ber of diodes required are [N-1][N-2]. It provides low THD at the output, it
operated at both high-level and low-level frequencies, and low rating devices
can be used; these are some of the advantages of NPCMLIs [1].
The objective of the chapter is to demonstrate the study and research
outcome of NPCMLI of five-level with loads operating at different or wide
modulation index. Here, the switches are selected in such a way that it
minimizes the common mode voltage (CMV) of the inverter and the influ-
ence of the harmonics on the current at the load side is well taken care.
After proper analysis of the model and with the result obtained, five-phase,
three-level neutral point clamped (NPC) inverter proved dynamic for
small changes in load parameters. In this chapter, the study of the model
along with the outputs is done with MATLAB simulation [2–4].
Various other researchers worked in quite similar areas which may also be
corelated for the future scope of the study. Here the improvement in speed
control technique of induction motor drive has offered a wider scope of appli-
cations. This study analyzed the reducing harmonic distortions and CMV by
using appropriate switching techniques in case of five-level NPC inverter feed-
ing three-phase asynchronous motor drive [5–7]. Mostly, NPC is applied for
aircrafts, motor drives, and also in HVDC and AC transmission lines. In this
method, transformation of three phases into two phase speed and time depen-
dent system abc to dq is considered. One of the components defines the mag-
netic flux and other corelates the torque of the motor. Vector control topology is
one of the unique concepts which involves decoupling of flux and torque com-
ponents in order to obtain dynamic responses. Proportional-integral (PI) con-
trollers are typically used in vector control to maintain the measured currents
at their reference levels. It improves torque response, dynamic speed accuracy,
and low power consumption; these are some advantages of the vector control
method. Here, the operation of indirect vector control is discussed in detail.
The fundamental idea behind vector control is to decouple the machine flux
and torque which lets us operate on any of the parameters independently with-
out hampering the performance of the other. The instantaneous component
of the stator currents here get transformed into a frame rotating at synchro-
nous speed that may be aligned with the stator flux, rotor flux , and airgap
flux vectors. In the process, two components, i.e., direct (d)-axis and quadra-
ture(q)-axis components are produced. Both the d and q axes components con-
trol the torque as well as machine flux, respectively. The control becomes easier
and simpler and the performance of the asynchronous machines becomes
dynamic in nature with faster change in load. In our case, the machine used is
a three-phase induction motor. The machine drive is considered to be in vector
control only if the stator current vector component and the decoupled com-
ponents in synchronously rotating reference frames (SRRF) match each other.
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146 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

The makeshift or the transfer of the frames from stationary to rotating is

possible when referred to specific flux vectors. Here, the torque component
is operated only after the transformation is done. This is otherwise termed
as indirect vector control. Here, the challenge or limiting feature of field
orientation is being the method that requires detection of the flux angle
or technically called flux angle estimation. As per application, the control
principle is classified into two categories known as direct and indirect con-
trol topology. The flux sensing devices like flux sensing coils or the hall
effect sensors are used for performing the task in direct topology.
Field-oriented control uses a framework where the d-axis component is
positioned with flux vector of rotor which rotates at the frequency equal to
stator. This typical solution enables flux and torque components to be inde-
pendently operated by the controller system. The rotor flux d-axis compo-
nent of the stator current is expressed as ids and the other component of the
current is expressed as iqs. The independent nature of the torque and flux is
realized only if the position of rotor flux is precisely determined. Generally,
with the advantage of the above method, the rotor oriented flux is used more
often owing to the fact that alignment of SRRF with the rotor flux is much
easier and simpler for obtaining the dynamic behaviors in motor output.
Here, the steady-state and dynamic state capability of the five-level NPC
inverter-based drive were analyzed in the MATLAB platform. The control
schemes for the neutral point clamped inverter (NPCI) feeding the AC
motor drive were illustrated by MATLAB simulations [8–10]. The result
analysis was explained along with the THD percentage. In Figure 9.1, the
block diagram of three-phase, five-level MLI is shown. Figure 9.2 shows the
block diagram of the vector control of an induction motor drive. Figure 9.3
illustrates the simulation of vector control of Induction Motor (IM) drive
using neutral point diode clamped inverter in the matlab platform.
Simulation diagram:

+ S1 + S1 + S1
VC1 C1 VC1 C1 VC1 C1
S2 S2 S2
S3 S3 S3
VC2 C2 VC2 C2 VC2 C2
S4 S4 S4
Vdc
Input S1’ S1’ S1’
VC3 C3 S2’ VC3 C3 S2’ VC3 C3 S2’
S3’ S3’ S3’
VC4 C4 VC4 C4 VC4 C4
S4’ S4’ S4’
– – –

Figure 9.1 Three-phase, five-level NPC inverter.

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MLI-FED Closed Loop Control and Analysis of Induction Motor 147

Vdc INVERTER IM

6 signals ias ibs

PWM Current Controller

Ibes*
Iaes*

Ices*
Current Error Block

Ibs*
Ias*

Ics*
Field Orientation and Reference
Current Generation

Field weakening
Estimator Block for ids* iqs* ω2 *
Block

Ref Torque
T*

Limiter

Torque
T

Speed Controller
ωre

ωr* ωr

Figure 9.2 Block diagram of closed loop vector control.

acurrent
Discrete
Ts = 5e-05 s.

pulses powergui acurrent

DC +

A
Tm is_abc
DC Voltage Source
A
m Wm
m
B B

C Te
DC -
Demax
C
Reference current generation

torque
field orientation and
is_abc*

pulses

Te*

speeda
is_abc
W+

1
–
2
Clock

time

Figure 9.3 Simulation of vector control of IM drive using neutral point diode clamped
inverter (NPC).
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148 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

9.2 Mathematical Modeling

Mathematically, the equations for calculating the two components of d and
q axes of the current are given below:

dimr *
ids (n) imr * (n) r (9.1)
dt

T * (n)
iqs (n) (9.2)
Kimr * (n)

* iqs * (n)
2 (n) (9.3)
r imr (n)

In which, τr is the time constant of rotor and is defined as

Lr
r
Rr
3 p M.
K
2 2 1 r

Where p is the power, and

ids * (n) is assumed to be the flux-oriented component of stator current
at nth time
iqs (n) is a torque-oriented component of stator current during nth
instant of time, and 2 * (n) refers to slip frequency at nth instant of time. M.
here is considered as the mutual inductance of the machine, σr is assumed
as leakage component of the rotor. Lastly, Lr is assumed as the self-induc-
tance of rotor. The mathematical expressions of the above are as follows:

Lr Llr . Llm. (9.4)

Lr (1 r )M . (9.5)

Lr 3
And r 1 where M Lm , Lm is the inductance of magnetism.
M 2
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MLI-FED Closed Loop Control and Analysis of Induction Motor 149

Proportional-Integral (PI) Speed Controller:

Here, PI is discussed with the mathematical elaboration. The PI speed con-
troller used here is quite simple and convenient, and is being compared
with some other speed controllers.
The torque during nth instant is demonstrated as follows:

Tn Tn 1 K p[ re (n) re (n 1) ] Ki re (n) (9.6)

Where Tn is assumed as the torque of the controller at nth time. Gain

constants Kp and Ki are referred to as proportionality and integral gains,
respectively. Ѡre(n-1) acts as net speed at [n–1] instant time [11–13].
The simulation model of the PI speed controller is demonstrated in
Figure 9.4(a). As found in the figure, the corresponding and vital increase
in parameters, specifically, Kp and Ki, were utilized individually with the
limit block and here, the preset value of the torque was determined accord-
ing to the rating of the motor. In Figure 9.4(b), the modeling was done for
estimation of parameters.

9.2.1 Field Weakening Controller

During the weakening of field flux in the closed control of asynchronous
motor drive, the prime field weakening system is keenly operated to observe
the dynamic behavior of machine output characteristics. The control method
is executed at times when the motor speed is measured higher than the
minimum speed. The field flux weakening controller system receives input

1 +
w*
+

2 – +
Kp
w
1
– Gain 1
z
+
Unit Delay

1
Ki + Te*
+
Gain
Unit Delay 1
1
z

Figure 9.4(a) Model of PI controller.

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150 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

2 + 1
imr + ids
-K- du/dt

Tr Derivative

1
T
0.1209 u[1]/(u[2]*u[3]) 2
iqs
k Fcn

0.17296 u[1]/(u[2]*u[3]) 3
w2
Tr 1 Fcn 1

Figure 9.4(b) Parameter estimation model using MATLAB.

regarding the motor’s feedback speed. The system’s output is the excitation
current. The magnetization current remains the same or constant when it is
less than the minimum speed. For speed higher the minimum rated speed,
the magnetization current changes inversely proportional to the speed [14–
19]. The mathematical relation of the mentioned detail is demonstrated,

imr * im , if ωr < minimum required value of speed

i
imr * K f * m , if ωr > = minimum required value of speed. Here,
r
Kf is the minimum required field flux constant.
imr * is assumed as excitation rotor current,
imr is the magnetizing rotor current,
ωr is the feedback rotor speed fed to the PI controller, and
ωb is the minimum required speed of the motor.

9.2.2 Vector Controller

The control is also framed as field oriented control which includes direct
and quadrature coordinate system where direct-axis is in alignment with
rotor field flux system and the frequency of motion matches with stator.
This method helps significantly defined components to be independently
operated. The current ids is a d-axis component of stator and caters to the
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MLI-FED Closed Loop Control and Analysis of Induction Motor 151

flux.The current iqs is the q-axis component of the stator and is actually
controlled for smooth operation. The decoupling or the independence in
the operation between these two components is possible only if the iden-
tification of the rotor flux is done correctly or measured accurately. Direct
flux sensors or flux estimators work fine for the abovementioned [20, 21].
The speed controller produces an output torque and using limiter, (T*) is
considered to be the reference torque. The field weakening controller leads
to an output as magnetizing current, which in turn is proportional to flux.
These input signals are fed to the control system or field-oriented control-
ler for estimating the components, torque (iqs*), and the flux (ids*).
Here, the slip frequency is also estimated along with the other two. The
basic objective remains to operate the AC asynchronous motor similarly
like separately excited DC motor. This phenomenon is achieved as the
torque and flux components remain decoupled in the SRRF [22–25].

9.3 Results
Here, the simulation results of the neutral point diode clamped MLIs
with resistive-inductive load are presented. The Figures 9.5(a) and 9.5(b)
includes the current waveform and harmonic study of five-level MLI
inverter simulated in the MATLAB software. The results helped in imple-
menting the inverter feeding the induction motor with specific parameters.
The inverter was used for performing closed loop simulation and analyz-
ing the output characteristics. The outputs of the induction motor were
also demonstrated in the figures. The outputs can be found as dynamics
of speed which are classified as starting dynamics, reversal dynamics, and
load perturbations.
Figure 9.5 load current waveform of five-level MLI connected to RL
load. The THD analysis is also done on the five-level inverter, as shown in
the figure below.
Simulation was performed on a 1-HP induction motor for the control
logic and the results are explained for starting and reversal below. The
specifications of squirrel cage induction motor are mentioned in the Tables
9.1 and 9.2.

9.3.1 Starting Dynamics

A controlled voltage and frequency source is supplied to the induction
motor drive. Here, the value of reference value of speed is fixed at 250
rad/s. The starting torque was limited under the calculated value. The
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152 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

2.5

1.5

1
current(amp)

0.5

–0.5

–1

–1.5

–2

–2.5
2.5 2.55 2.6 2.65 2.7 2.75 2.8 2.85 2.9 2.95 3
time(s)
(a)
FFT analysis
Fundamental (50Hz), THD = 4.60%

2.5
Mag (% of Fundamental)

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
(b)

Figure 9.5 (a) Lload current waveform of 5 level MLI connected to RL load. (b) THD
analysis of MLI with load current connected to RL load.

Table 9.1 Machine specifications of induction

motor used for obtaining results.
Parameters/specifications Values
Phases 3 AC
Power value in HP 1HP
Voltage value in Volts 415 V
Current in Amps 1.7 A
Pole numbers 4
Frequency used 50 Hz

torque is limited with a value twice the rated value of motor and the result
of which the initial current was limited proportional to the value of torque
limit while the motor gains the speed at required torque in the beginning.
At the speed error reaching nearly equal to zero value in rad/s, the current
in the winding decreases to a value equal to no load and the torque devel-
oped raises to a value balancing the load torque as found in the responses
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MLI-FED Closed Loop Control and Analysis of Induction Motor 153

Table 9.2 Machine equivalent parameters used for

obtaining results.
Equivalent parameters Value
Stator phase resistance (RS) 9.07 Ω
Rotor Phase resistance (Rr) 9.39 Ω
Reactance of stator (Xs) 12.04 Ω
Reactance of Rotor (Xr) 12.04 Ω
Xm/phase (magnetic reactance) 210.999 Ω
Rotational inertia (J) 0.0018Kgm2

in the figure shown below. The speed reaches the desired value at steady
state condition and developed torque becomes minimum, as shown in
Figure 9.6.

9.3.2 Reversal Dynamics

In reversal, the speed of the machine was referred to –250 rad/s from 250
rad/s and the controller leads to the development of regenerative braking
and phase reversal of the current, which can be visualized in Figure 9.7.
The steady state currents are found to be same after reversal and when
steady state is reached in the negative direction of motor. Here, when this
change in the current signal is observed by the controller, the frequency of

200
Ref Iabcs

0
–200
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

200
Act Iabcs

0
–200
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

300
200
Wact

100
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

400
Torque

200
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
time(sec)

Figure 9.6 Starting dynamics of induction motor.

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154 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

200
Ref Iabcs

–200
0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
200
Act Iabcs

0
–200
0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4

200
Wact

0
–200
0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4

0
Torque

–200
–400
0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.35 1.4
time(sec)

Figure 9.7 Reversal dynamics of induction motor.

the currents in the stator showing the responses of the braking is followed
by the reverse of phase current while rotating the rotor in the opposite
motion. As the asynchronous motor runs through the dynamic situation at
no load before and after the reversal of the rotor rotation, the current of the
converter at steady state condition are very much identified to be similar
in both directions of the rotor rotation, i.e., starting and reversal of motor
rotations. In phase sequences, the current magnitudes are observed to be
different in different directions.

9.3.3 Load Perturbation Analysis

The performance analysis of the motor with the above-focused control
topology during load perturbation is specifically done as the speed of the
drive is tracked and it is not supposed to ideally change under any cir-
cumstance of load. The process of study is carried out by implementing
and removing the load on the motor drive during its operation at a speed
of 250 rad/s at steady state condition. When the load is applied on the
rotor, it certainly leads to the immediate fall of the speed of the rotor natu-
rally. The drop in the speed is countered by the increase in the value torque
reference. This leads to improvement of Te, electromagnetic torque. As a
result of which the motor speed tends to improve its speed value and finally
resettling at the desired value. This helps in compensating the drop imme-
diately. Similarly, the load on the motor is removed for a small amount of
time, a sudden increment in the speed occurs or technically called over-
shoot in the speed. All the operations are smoothly handled by the speed
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MLI-FED Closed Loop Control and Analysis of Induction Motor 155

controller by keeping the speed fall or rise in the safe limits during constant
load variations. High overshoot in speed may lead to instability in main-
taining safety in motor application. The motor, as a result, settles at the
value of the reference speed. The load perturbations are demonstrated in
Figure 9.8. In the figure, it can be observed that the load has been applied
and removed at instants and the electrical and mechanical changes in the
output characteristics are responding immediately.
The load perturbations are demonstrated in Figure 9.9. The dramatic
nature of the load current and speed can be seen in the figure.

9.3.4 THD Analysis

After the analysis, the THD was found to be 15.50%, which is quite appre-
ciable and accepted for driving a motor drive application.

5
Ref Iabcs

0
–5
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3

5
Act Iabcs

0
–5
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3

200
Wact

0
–200
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3

10
Torque

0
–10
2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3 3.1 3.2 3.3
time(sec)

Figure 9.8 Load perturbation of induction motor.

Fundamental (50Hz) = 15.45 , THD= 15.50%

100

80
Magnitude

60

40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order

Figure 9.9 THD analysis of rotor current of induction motor.

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156 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

9.4 Conclusion
The NPC topology was adopted for higher level of power applications as it
can achieve better harmonic reduction and the prior existing control strate-
gies help to reduce switching losses. Using this configuration, the stress level
of voltage on high frequency power electronics devices is reduced dynami-
cally compared to conventional low level inverters. Initial uses involved the
railroad traction areas and steel industries in Japan and Europe. There are
several advantages of this structure, which are, major reduction of switch-
ing losses in particular and provides low THD at the output. Here, the study
was applied to induction motor for the realization of the potential of the
methodology. The concept is applicable for smaller and medium applica-
tions. But its advantages can be tested on high rated applications. Analysis
was done using MATLAB simulation tool and the signals can be generated
to realize the same on real time test bed. The converter topology and the
loop controller are well synchronized for obtaining results and the potential
can still be extended during further studies in future.
This scheme can be used in DFIG wind turbine to develop and regulate
the speed of doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) for optimized power
generation especially when the wind energy conversion system is grid tied.
The above results show that the system is dynamic and is reliable. More
reliable algorithm can be implemented for enhancing the results and can
be implemented when hardware for the same is considered. Field program-
mable gate arrays (FPGA) can be one solution for furthering the hardware
and find effective results for practical applications. The model reference
adaptive systems can be one of several other approaches here. The above
results and interface may also have interdisciplinary extensions as the soft
computing techniques are extensively used for smoothening or enhancing
the applicability. Machine learning algorithms also have a large presence in
the recent scenario of technology development.

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10
Hybrid Grey Wolf Optimizer for
Modeling and Control of Electric Drives
Souvik Ganguli1* and Prasanta Sarkar2
1
Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering, Thapar Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technical Teachers’
Training & Research, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Abstract
Permanent magnet synchronous motor drives, or PMSM drives for short, use
integrated nature-dependent metaheuristic algorithms in this chapter to perform
reduced order modeling and controller design in a unified domain. The firefly
algorithm (FA) and the grey wolf optimizer (GWO) are two of the most important
algorithms in computer science. Together, they form a new hybrid architecture
called the hybrid grey wolf optimizer (HGWO). First, a lower-order model of a
permanent magnet synchronous motor drive, comprising of speed and current
controllers, was obtained through a reduction using a signal-processing-based
identification technique. The anonymous proportional-integral (PI) controller
gains can be roughly estimated by matching the reduced system developed in cas-
cade with the controller to a desired system. The gains of the delta operator are
nearly replicated by the gains of the continuous-time controller. This allows for the
development of a unified controller for the drive. Thus, the proposed algorithm is
useful not only for order diminution but also for determining the control param-
eters of PMSM drives. In addition, many commonplace and industrial uses of ac
motor drives of this type can benefit in future research from this unified approach
study.
Keywords: Firefly algorithm (FA), grey wolf optimizer (GWO),
model reduction, controller design, reference model matching

*Corresponding author: souvik.ganguli@thapar.edu

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(159–172) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

159
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160 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

10.1 Background Study

Some of the most widely used applications in control engineering produce
mathematical relations, typically of higher order. These systems are thus
challenging to control. Therefore, it is preferable to reduce its model, as this
helps to lessen computational load and issues with higher-order control-
ler implementation. Although some smart approaches to controlling per-
manent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) drive have been developed
[1, 2], the proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller continues to
enchant industry-related applications thanks to its non-compliant form
and merits in a wide range of operations. Some significant literature per-
taining to the control schemes of permanent magnet synchronous drives
are discussed below, which piques the interest of researchers.
Kumar et al. [3] focused on the development and analysis of an electric
vehicle (EV) equipped with a PMSM using MATLAB/Simulink. The study
investigated the performance of the EV under various drive cycles. The
research also aimed to provide insights into the suitability and efficiency of
the PMSM-based EV system in real-world driving conditions, contribut-
ing to the advancement of electric vehicle technology.
Su et al. [4] presented a novel approach for multi-parameter identifi-
cation of PMSMs using a model reference adaptive system (MRAS) com-
bined with a simulated annealing particle swarm optimization (SA-PSO)
algorithm. The study aimed to accurately estimate the key parameters of
PMSMs, such as stator resistance, rotor flux linkage, and inertia moment,
which are crucial for motor control and performance optimization. The
proposed method demonstrated promising results in terms of parameter
identification accuracy and robustness, offering potential applications in
PMSM control systems.
Zhen et al. [5] proposed a Lyapunov-based robust control strategy for the
PMSM in the modular joint of a collaborative robot. The research focused
on developing a control method that ensures stability and robustness in the
presence of uncertainties and disturbances. The proposed approach uti-
lized the Lyapunov stability theory to design a controller that guaranteed
tracking accuracy and robust performance of the PMSM. The study also
contributed to the advancement of control techniques for PMSMs in col-
laborative robot applications.
Zhou et al. [6] developed an online parameter identification and self-
tuning proportional-integral (PI) controller for PMSMs). The study aimed
to improve the control performance of PMSMs by continuously updating
the motor parameters and adapting the PI controller gains in real-time.
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Hybrid Grey Wolf Optimizer 161

The suggested method enabled accurate parameter estimation and auto-

matic tuning of the controller, leading to enhanced tracking accuracy
and robustness of PMSMs in various operating conditions. The research
also contributed to the development of intelligent control techniques for
PMSMs in robotics and control engineering applications.
Nguyen et al. [7] introduced a direct flux-vector oriented control
(DFVOC) method for interior permanent magnet synchronous motors
(IPMSMs). The article focused on improving the motor’s performance and
efficiency by accurately controlling the flux and torque in the rotor refer-
ence frame. The proposed DFVOC technique simplified the control struc-
ture and enhanced the dynamic response of IPMSMs, making it suitable
for various applications. The study contributed to the advancement of con-
trol strategies for IPMSMs in the field of communications and electronics.
In the study conducted by Huo et al. [8], a novel design technique for
controlling PMSMs was presented. The researchers proposed a fuzzy adap-
tive PI regulator that combines fuzzy logic and adaptive algorithms. This
approach aimed to enhance the dynamic response and tracking accuracy
of PMSMs by adjusting the PI controller gains in real-time based on the
motor’s operating conditions. The findings of this research contributed
to the advancement of control techniques for PMSMs in the field of new
energy and electrical technology.
Zhang and Zhu [9] focused on decoupling control techniques for outer
rotor coreless bearingless permanent magnet synchronous motors (ORCB-
PMSMs). The study investigated the use of LS-SVM (least squares support
vector machine) generalized inverse to achieve decoupled control of torque
and radial force in ORCB-PMSMs. The work aimed to improve the perfor-
mance and stability of ORCB-PMSMs by effectively decoupling the control
variables. The findings contributed to the development of advanced con-
trol strategies for ORCB-PMSMs in the field of electromagnetics.
Zhu et al. [10] worked on the development of a nonlinear active distur-
bance rejection control (NADRC) strategy for PMSM drives. The study
explored the application of NADRC to mitigate the effects of disturbances,
uncertainties, and nonlinearities in PMSM control systems. The proposed
control strategy aimed to improve the dynamic response, robustness,
and tracking accuracy of PMSM drives. The research contributed to the
advancement of control techniques for PMSMs in the field of energy con-
version, offering potential benefits in terms of performance and efficiency.
Khorashadizadeh et al. [11] presented an adaptive control mechanism
of robot manipulators driven by PMSMs using the orthogonal functions
theorem. The study investigated the application of this theorem in design-
ing adaptive control algorithms for PMSM-based robot manipulators.
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162 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

The proposed technique aimed to enhance the tracking performance and

robustness of the manipulator system by adapting control parameters
based on the system dynamics. Further, the research contributed to the
advancement of control techniques for PMSM-driven robot manipulators,
offering potential benefits in terms of precision and stability.
In their work, Zhong et al. [12] proposed a fractional-order feedfor-
ward control method for permanent magnet linear synchronous motors
(PMLSMs) based on the frequency-domain adjustment theory. The study
aimed to enhance the dynamic performance and tracking accuracy of
PMLSMs by utilizing the fractional-order control approach. By incorpo-
rating frequency-domain adjustments, the method proposed allowed for
improved control of PMLSMs, enabling more precise and efficient oper-
ation. The investigation thus contributed to the advancement of control
techniques for PMLSMs in the field of mechanical systems and signal
processing.
In their study, Chen et al. [13] suggested a simplified model predic-
tive control (MPC) method for a twelve-phase PMSM. The work aimed
to improve the control performance of the PMSM by reducing computa-
tional complexity while maintaining accurate control. The proposed sim-
plified MPC approach offered a practical solution for real-time control of
the twelve-phase PMSM, contributing to the advancement of control tech-
niques in the field of industrial electronics.
Kumar and Singh [14] proposed a modified model reference adaptive
control method for sensorless control of a PMSM-driven light electric
vehicle (LEV). The study also focused on developing an online self-tun-
ing speed controller to improve the accuracy and efficiency of the PMSM
control system. The proposed approach offered a practical solution for sen-
sorless control of PMSM-driven LEVs, contributing to advancements in
power electronics, drives, and energy systems.
It is generally accepted that continuous sampling is the foundation upon
which discrete systems are built. Modeling, assessing, and regulating these
systems all make use of a method called z-transform analysis. Having their
poles so close together near (1, 0) makes it impossible for these systems
to remain stable at a high sampling rate. The delta operator, developed
by Middleton and Goodwin [15], can be used to build such discrete-time
systems. Thus, the systems must be simulated in the delta domain so that
high-sampling-rate continuous-time systems can be constructed and bet-
ter control over shift-operator-based discrete-time systems in terms of
computation can be improved. Therefore, delta operator-based systems are
being used more frequently in research and design of systems [16–18].
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Hybrid Grey Wolf Optimizer 163

Among synthesis-based methods used in control engineering, the Truxal

technique is highly prevalent [19]. The controller parameters are determined
by the degree to which the entire closed-loop system with controller in cas-
cade conforms to the reference model, which is achieved by first adjusting
the reference model to meet certain time and frequency domain standards.
The primary shortcoming of the exact matching model [20] is the absence
of a working controller. One possible answer is to use approximate model
matching (AMM) on the unified domain of analysis [21]. Ganguli et al. [22]
developed the unified domain to reduce higher-order systems with a hybrid
grey wolf optimizer (HGWO). This algorithm has been expanded to use the
AMM method for tuning controller parameters in the delta domain and
minimizing the higher-order PMSM drive model.
The remaining text of this chapter is written in the style shown. Section
10.2 explains the methodology used in the work. The simulation results are
described and discussed in Section 10.3. Section 10.4 discusses the final
thoughts on the matter.

10.2 Proposed Approach

This chapter focuses on two major themes. Ganguli et al.’s [22] hybrid
technique is used in the first part to reduce the order of the PMSM drive
model. The second involves creating a PI controller with the same heuristic
approach. Polynomials in the numerator and denominator are found using
the HGWO during the model reduction process. The reduced model with
a fixed structure is implemented using the following three constraints.

• Harmonizing the original’s steady-state gain with the pre-

dicted low-order system
• The reduced system must have poles with negative real parts
that are equivalent to those of the original system.
• Keeping the original model’s non-existence of zeroes on the
right half of the s-plane.

When assessing the appropriateness of a model’s settings, the sum of

squares of errors (SSE) is often used. The model identification procedure
takes as input a pseudo random binary sequence (PRBS).
Hybrid grey wolf optimizer (HGWO), a combination of the firefly algo-
rithm (FA) technique [23] and the grey wolf optimization (GWO) method
[24], is used to reduce the number of higher-order single-input-single-­
output (SISO) systems in the delta domain. The FA is used to make global
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164 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

adjustments in the exploration phase, while the grey wolf optimization meth-
ods is utilized as a local search mechanism to verify exploitation capabilities.
The method is activated with the aid of FA to kick off the quest. The calcula-
tion is repeated for a fixed number of times to find the optimal global posi-
tion in the necessary solution space. Therefore, the GWO algorithm begins
with the result that FA generated. Then, GWO is used as the search method
to accelerate the convergence to the optimal outcome. The combined solu-
tion of FA and GWO methods can successfully find an optimal value in this
fashion.
The particle swarm optimization (PSO) [25], the Harris hawks optimiza-
tion (HHO) [26], the arithmetic optimization algorithm (AOA) [27], the war
strategy algorithm (WSA) [28], and the wild horse optimization (WSO) [29]
are some of the methods used to compare and contrast with the proposed
method. For the sake of comparison, we also use a method that combines the
chaotic grey wolf approach with PSO. The prime motive behind model order
reduction approach is to carry out the control synthesis for a practical low
order PI controller in this chapter. The PID parameters are typically obtained
through auto-tuning or by using traditional old PID tuning rules [30]. In the
Truxal approach [19], which is used in precise model matching control [20],
the coefficients of the reference system are calculated to achieve the desired
outcome, and the controller gains are assessed in a way that is very similar
to the complete closed-loop system. The most significant drawback of this
exact model matching (EMM) method is that the controller’s implementa-
tion in hardware is not assured. To get around this limitation of the EMM
procedure, AMM [21] will be used instead of the current design schemes.
Therefore, the HGWO technique is used in conjunction with AMM tech-
nology to retrieve the controller’s coefficients. Similarly, a set of alternative
algorithms is used to compare with the HGWO method.

10.3 Simulation Outcomes and Discussions

The input-output relation of the PMSM drive system [31, 32] is represented
with the help of

7.94 s 13.23
GHOS (s) 7 3
(10.1)
9.6 10 s 3.99 10 3 s 2 6.97 s 34.63

Ultimately, we want to create a PMSM drive controller that works well. Due
to the higher-order nature of the input-output connection produced from the
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Hybrid Grey Wolf Optimizer 165

available data, the first step is to simplify the model so that it can be used with a
normal PI controller. Due to its ability to reduce drive-related noise and inter-
ruption, PI controllers are frequently chosen over traditional PID controllers.
For a sampling rate of about 1 kHz, the discrete-delta domain transfer function
of the aforementioned model is denoted by Equation 10.1 as

100 2 1200300 1995900

GHOS ( ) 3
(10.2)
2040 2 1061200 5.224200

When creating the reduced models in the delta domain, we assume pop-
ulation sizes of 20 and 100 and use a maximum of 100 iterations. All pub-
lished algorithms are considered, with their default parameters (proposed,
parent, and standard heuristics) taken into account. The unified domain’s
reduced systems are listed in Table 10.1. The minimum values for the fit-
ness function are also listed for your convenience. The optimal outcome is
also highlighted in italics in Table 10.1. The ancestor procedures and a few
other methods are used to draw comparisons.
Some well-known strategies in the literature have been compared with
the proposed HGWO method. This approach, as demonstrated in Table
10.1, has the lowest fitness value. Table 10.2 details the estimated transient
parameters for the simplified models. Results in the table with bolded
results are the most similar to the model’s parameters. In addition to the
methods used for comparing, the newly developed chaotic grey wolf opti-
mizer-particle swarm optimization (CGWOPSO) techniques are also uti-
lized in this table. Ten standard one-dimensional chaotic maps [33] are
used to develop CGWOPSO-1 to CGWOPSO-10 algorithms.
Once again, the integrated method outperforms the alternative algo-
rithms discussed in this section. In addition, the reduced-order models are
evaluated using the standard error metrics from systems and control theory.
The integral of absolute error (IAE) is calculated. It is first of all compared
with the ten variants of the hybrid technique CGWOPSO. Figures 10.1 and
10.2, respectively, show the comparison of HGWO with the different cha-
otic versions used with the hybrid CGWOPSO methods in two parts.
From Figures 10.1 and 10.2, it is clear that the IAE value for the pro-
posed HGWO method is quite less than as compared to CGWOPSO meth-
ods. Further, the parent techniques as well as standard methods are also
compared with HGWO in terms of IAE. The graph is shown in Figure 10.3.
The error corresponding to IAE with the suggested HGWO method
is not only less than the parent FA and GWO approaches but also found
less than some of the latest methods with which comparison is carried out
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166 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 10.1 Model reduction and the minimum cost function of the test system
in the unified domain of analysis.
Second-order models in the Minimum cost
Methods unified domain function
HGWO (proposed) 990.5 1436.0144 2.9563e–04
2
843.3 3759.2

FA [23] 989.4 2435.2118 3.5926e–04

2
843.8 6374.9

GWO [24] 990.5 3685.918 3.0213e–04

2
849.5 9649

PSO [25] 989.7 3742.4158 3.9686e–04

2
845.4 9796.9

HHO [26] 990.4767 155.4423 4.2561e–04

2
841.9306 406.9172

AOA [27] 993 3800.6708 3.4352e–04

2
851.5 9949.4

WSA [28] 954.2497 1995.6 5.2345e–04

2
836.4 5224.2

WHO [29] 991.6 3786.193 3.0635e–04

2
788.44 9911.5

in Figure 10.3. Other metrics of performance like ITAE, ISE, and ITSE
can also be tried out in future to provide the assessment of the proposed
method over the techniques available in the literature.
The final step now is to use the integrated delta domain to determine
the PI controller’s settings. For controller synthesis, the AMM method is
employed. The proposed algorithm allows for a heuristic determination of
the controller’s parameters; Table 10.3 displays the obtained results. Along
with determining the optimal values for the regulatory parameters, the
heuristic scheme also determines the respective fitness value as well. Once
again, bold letters denote the bare minimum fitness level.
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Hybrid Grey Wolf Optimizer 167

Table 10.2 Transient specifications of the second-order PMSM drive model in

the unified domain.
Rise time Settling % peak
PMSM model Methods (tr) time (ts) overshoot
Test system 0.0027 0.7803 204.4378
(original)
Lower-order HGWO 0.003 0.8909 202.8970
models
CGWOPSO-1 0.0034 0.6286 201.4254
CGWOPSO-2 0.004 0.5549 200.4539
CGWOPSO-3 0.004 0.5693 199.4859
CGWOPSO-4 0.0035 0.6288 201.9586
CGWOPSO-5 0.0037 0.6123 201.3424
CGWOPSO-6 0.004 0.5798 198.4981
CGWOPSO-7 0.004 0.5343 200.0289
CGWOPSO-8 0.004 0.5107 200.1456
CGWOPSO-9 0.0036 0.6103 201.0902
CGWOPSO-10 0.0038 0.5924 201.4562
FA [23] 0.004 0.5205 200.1621
GWO [24] 0.004 0.5367 200.2378
PSO [25] 0.004 0.3397 197.2367
HHO [26] 0.004 0.5578 200.9283
AOA [27] 0.004 0.5483 201.9921
WSA [28] 0.004 0.5547 201.2548
WSO [29] 0.004 0.5778 200.1459

The proposed hybrid algorithm obtains the minimum optimum value

when compared to some existing heuristic techniques. Due to its ability to
efficiently generate lower-order PMSM models and make use of approxi-
mate model matching technology, the proposed method is able to gener-
ate a controller (proportional+integral) with the minimum cost function
when compared to the original and other alternate methods.
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168 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Comparison of IAE

0.0059
Error values 0.0058
0.0057
0.0056
0.0055
0.0054
0.0053 O

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
W

SO

SO

SO

SO

SO
HG

OP

OP

OP

OP

OP
W

W
CG

CG

CG

CG

CG
Methods

Figure 10.1 Comparison of IAE between HGWO and CGWOPSO 1–5 methods.

Comparison of IAE

0.0058
0.00575
0.0057
Error values

0.00565
0.0056
0.00555
0.0055
0.00545
0.0054
0.00535
O

-6

-7

-8

-9

0
-1
W

SO

SO

SO

SO

SO
HG

OP

OP

OP

OP

OP
W

W
CG

CG

CG

CG

CG

Methods

Figure 10.2 Comparison of IAE between HGWO and CGWOPSO 6–10 methods.

Comparison of IAE

0.006
0.0059
0.0058
Error values

0.0057
0.0056
0.0055
0.0054
0.0053
0.0052
HGWO FA [23] GWO PSO HHO AOA WSA WHO
[24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29]
Methods

Figure 10.3 Comparison of IAE between HGWO and some standard heuristics.
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Hybrid Grey Wolf Optimizer 169

Table 10.3 Parameters of the controller and the cost function values of the
reduced-order PMSM drive system in the combined domain.
Fitness function
Algorithms KP KI value
HGWO 1.8679 1.4967e–05 7.3715e–05
GWOPSO-1 0.0010 4.3879 7.6759e–05
GWOPSO-2 0.0041 2.1390 7.9023e–05
GWOPSO-3 0.0187 2.8646 7.3853e–05
GWOPSO-4 0.0009 4.3969 7.6776e–06
GWOPSO-5 0.0011 3.2887 7.7516e–05
GWOPSO-6 0.0019 4.3868 7.7428e–05
GWOPSO-7 0.0011 4.3923 7.6763e–05
GWOPSO-8 0.0027 4.3908 7.8690e–05
GWOPSO-9 0.0010 4.3888 7.6759e–05
GWOPSO-10 0.0014 4.3861 7.6850e–05
FA [23] 0.7172 3.3084e–04 7.5926e–05
GWO [24] 1.8012 1.3171e–04 7.388e–05
PSO [25] 0.8281 4.4387 7.7782e–05
HHO [26] 0.0013 4.3772 7.6833e–05
AOA [27] 0.0043 2.2451 7.5692e–05
WSA [28] 0.0025 4.4372 7.6717e–05
WSO [29] 0.0021 4.3328 7.5622e–05

10.4 Conclusions
The PMSM drive’s discrete delta domain controller architecture and order
reduction are discussed here. The PMSM drive’s reduced-order models are
enhanced using a constrained global optimization method. For this pur-
pose, a hybrid approach involving the GWO and FA methods was used
effectively. In addition, its PI controller’s parameters are derived using
ideas from approximate model matching. This technique is advantageous
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170 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

because it relies solely on the feedback from the output. The control mecha-
nism was developed in such a way that it closely tracks the target model. In
this chapter, we also discussed one practical use of the combined domain
approach for modeling and control of the PMSM drive system. Similarly,
induction motor drives, which are a common type of drive, can have their
size minimized and a controller designed for them using the same kinds of
smart methods. Similar modeling and control methods can be applied to
other common drives, like switched reluctance motor (SRM) and brushless
direct current (BLDC) motor drive systems.

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11
Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC
Model of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric
Vehicles Using Slime Mould Algorithm
Ramdutt Arya1, Shatrughan Modi2 and Souvik Ganguli3*
1
Centre for Energy & Environment, Malaviya National Institute of Technology,
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
2
School of Computing, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Una,
Himachal Pradesh, India
3
Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering,
Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, Punjab, India

Abstract
Electric vehicles (EVs) are being considered as the promising solution for car-
bon-free transportation and the future of mobility. Battery electric vehicles (BEV)
are the true EVs that completely run from electricity supplied by their batteries
(Li-ion). For dynamic simulation of BEV and use of the battery effectively, it is
essential to model the battery and estimate its parameters accurately. Generally,
estimation of the battery parameters requires complex, time-consuming, and
expensive methods. This chapter focuses on a simple equivalent circuit methods
(ECM) is used for battery modeling. Estimation of battery parameters is done by
comparing the proposed model output to the known catalogue output with the
help of a newly formed heuristic optimizer-slime mould algorithm (SMA). Slime
mould algorithm is based on the morphological transformations, oscillation, and
foraging of slime mould found in nature, and have shown remarkable exploration
and exploitation capabilities. The evaluation of 31 parameters for first-order ECM
is done by taking the fitness function as the sum of squared-error of model voltage
and catalogue voltage, for charging as well as discharging scenarios. Additionally,
four well-known algorithms, ant lion optimizer (ALO), dragonfly algorithm (DA),
grey wolf optimizer (GWO), and sine-cosine algorithm (SCA), are examined for
comparison of performance and efficiency in terms of the parameters, accuracy

*Corresponding author: souvik.ganguli@thapar.edu

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(173–196) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

173
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174 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

(minimized error), and convergence. A statistical study of the mean, standard

deviation, and best and worst values for each method is also performed to ensure
that the results are stable and reliable. Finally, a Wilcoxon rank-sum test with
Holm-Bonferroni adjustments and a Kruskal-Wallis test are used to evaluate and
verify the significance of the data. For first-order ECM, performance is slightly
better than other algorithms.

Keywords: First-order RC model, parameter estimation, slime mould algorithm

(SMA), Wilcoxon test, Kruskal-Wallis test

11.1 Introduction
The global environment is facing huge challenges. Air pollution and GHG
(Green House Gases) emissions due to the burning of fossil fuels are among
the major challenges. This burning of fossil fuel is done mainly in the
transportation, power, and industrial sectors. The transport sector obtains
90% of its energy need from burning of fossil fuels [1]. Invalid source spec-
ified. In order to decrease dependency on fossil fuels and replacing them
with clean and environmentally friendly solutions, the electrification of the
transport sector is the main focus of every nation. In this perspective, elec-
tric vehicles (EVs) have become the best choice to fulfil the need for a clean
source of transportation that produces very low or no carbon emission and
give enhanced fuel economy. This has increased the demand for EVs as
these are now being considered as the favorable transportation mode [2]
Invalid source specified.
Electric vehicles are those vehicles in which there is an electric drive or
vehicles in which propulsion power (either fully or partially) is received
from the electricity. There are mainly three types of EVs: hybrid electric
vehicle (HEV), plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), and battery electric
vehicle (BEV). Among these, BEVs are considered as the true EV and fully
green mode of transport if the battery is charged from the green sources
only [3].
Electric vehicles’ success mainly depends on their battery/battery
pack. The battery serves as the energy source for the EV. This is a crucial
part of the EV, as most of the important aspects related to EV like range,
charging time, cost, weight, size, and safety are mainly dependent on it [4].
The battery pack consists of various cells packed and connected in a spe-
cific manner to achieve a certain voltage/power requirement. These cells
are made of materials that possess electrochemical properties. There are
various types of batteries available in the market based on materials like
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Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC Model 175

lead-acid batteries, lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, nickel-cadmium batter-

ies, and nickel-metal hydride batteries [5]. Lithium-ion batteries are the
most favorable type of batteries to use in an EV because of their highly
specific power, low self-discharge rate, high energy density, high efficiency,
and long operating life [6]. The battery mentioned further in this chapter
will refer to the Li-ion battery unless otherwise specified.
There are various parameters associated with the battery like termi-
nal voltage, open circuit voltage (OCV), battery internal resistance, tem-
perature, cycle life, charging/discharging rate, state-of-charge (SoC), and
depth-of-discharge (DoD). Some parameters are directly measured while
others are estimated through various techniques. To facilitate this and pro-
vide an interface between the designer/user and the battery, every EV is
installed with a BMS (battery management system). The BMS ensures the
reliable, efficient, safe, long, and cost-effective usage of the battery by accu-
rately estimating and evaluating all associated parameters. For this, a BMS
has to be advanced enough and equipped with a precise parameter estima-
tion algorithm [7].
The battery behavior and characteristics are nonlinear and complex
due to its internal electrochemical properties. Capturing exact behavior
and accurate battery parameter estimation through various battery mod-
eling techniques are still under study. Several battery models have been
developed with different capabilities and different levels of accuracy and
complexity. Broadly, these models are categorized in four types [8], viz.,
electrochemical model—based on detailed electrochemistry of battery,
experimental—based on rigorous experimentation, mathematical—based
on stochastic approach, and electric circuit model (ECM)—based on elec-
trical equivalent or lumped model.
Plett [9] deliberated upon few equivalent circuits or say lumped mod-
els like zero-hysteresis, one-state hysteresis, simple, and enhanced self-­
correcting (ESC) combined models. Another set of equivalent circuit
model which is based on resistance-capacitance (RC) networks such as
first-order RC equivalent model [10], second-order RC equivalent model
Invalid source specified.[11], and third-order RC equivalent model [12],
which represent dynamic characteristics of the battery. These RC models
were further compared for feasibility, complexity, and accuracy, especially
for Li-ion batteries. It was observed that as the order of the RC model
increases, the accuracy, complexity, uncertainty, and cost increase [13].
Battery models needed for real-time applications like in EV must be sim-
ple, fast, and accurate. So, in this chapter, we will be using the first-order
RC equivalent circuit model for battery parameter estimation.
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176 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

From various studies, it is observed that the precise estimation of the

internal battery parameters is a difficult task because of its nonlinear
behavior. Traditional methodologies for battery parameter estimation use
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), rigorous electrochemical
modeling, etc. [8]. These methodologies are complex, time-consuming,
expensive, and require special equipment and facilities. Also, many a time,
it is required to use different batteries from different ratings and manu-
facturers to assess and study the performance of a particular EV. It is not
feasible and efficient to perform all the detailed methods of estimating the
battery parameters. Also, conventional algorithm-based methods are quite
complex and require high computation power, which includes the chance
of some numeric uncertainties.
In order to resolve the abovementioned issues, the authors in Reference
[14] suggested battery parameter estimation as a problem solvable by opti-
mization techniques and used a multi-objective genetic algorithm-based
approach for estimation. In Reference [15], authors used the genetic algo-
rithm (GA), grey wolf optimizer (GWO), and particle swarm optimization
(PSO) for battery parameter estimation and compared the performances.
Analysis showed that the accuracy of the GWO is best as compared to
other metaheuristic optimization techniques used in battery parameter
estimation. Metaheuristic optimization techniques are simple, flexible, use
derivation-free mechanisms, and are superior in local-optima avoidance.
Due to these advantages, these metaheuristic techniques have emerged
as the best choice for solving optimization problems [16]. Although vari-
ous metaheuristic optimization and soft-computing techniques have been
developed to estimate the parameters of the batteries, there is not yet a
metaheuristic technique best suited for finding solutions to all optimiza-
tion problems, which is proved by mathematical logic in the no free lunch
(NFL) theorem [17].
In this chapter, for estimation of battery parameters, we used a newly
formed metaheuristic optimization technique named slime mould algo-
rithm (SMA) [18], which has shown remarkable exploration and exploita-
tion capabilities in various optimization problems. Detailed statistical
analysis and non-parametric assessment are also performed to validate
the efficiency, reliability, and significance of the results obtained from
SMA with four other well-known metaheuristic algorithms, viz., ant lion
optimizer (ALO), dragonfly algorithm (DA), GWO, and sine-cosine algo-
rithm (SCA). This chapter is further organized as per the following sec-
tions. Section 11.2 consists of mathematical modeling of the first-order RC
equivalent model of battery. Section 11.3 explains the SMA, Section 11.4
explains the methodology followed. Section 11.5 covers the simulation
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Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC Model 177

results and discussion. Concluding remarks with future scope of work is

delineated in Section 11.6.

11.2 Brief Overview of the Battery Models

The battery is considered the most important component of an EV. There
are different types of batteries available in the market based on the mate-
rials used for the electrodes, based on the electrolyte used, etc. Among all
these types, Li-ion batteries are most suitable for EVs due to their unique
characteristics like large energy density, large specific power, long cycle life,
less self-discharge rate, low maintenance, and safe use [6].
For optimum and safe utilization of the battery, continuous monitor-
ing and necessary steps in real-time are required. To achieve this, various
parameters associated with batteries like SoC, charging rate (Cr), dis-
charging rate (Dr), and DoD are estimated with the help of various battery
models. These models capture the complex and dynamic battery circuit
features. For utilization in the EV, these models are supposed to be sim-
ple and precise. In literature, these models are categorized mainly in four
categories:

1. Electrochemical models - these models are highly precise,

however, necessitates detailed knowledge of the electro-
chemistry of the batteries and use complex nonlinear differ-
ential equations [8].
2. Experimental models - these models involve various types
of experimental analysis to evaluate the internal parameters
of the batteries. These models are not convenient and best fit
for depicting the cell dynamics in order the estimate the SoC
of battery packs [19].
3. Mathematical models - these models follow the heuristic
approaches to anticipate the runtime behavior of battery
packs. These models and the previous two models, generally,
are quite complex and require intensive computation. Due
to this, it is difficult to use these models in circuit simula-
tions to anticipate the performance. Also, these models are
not well-suited for real-time power management [19].
4. Equivalent circuit models (ECM) – ECM [10] have high
potential with respect to parametrization and accuracy in
representing the dynamic characteristics of EV batteries.
These are lumped models and use very few numbers of
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178 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

parameters. This is the simplest equivalent circuit model of

the battery which consists of a voltage source and a resis-
tor in series with it. This series resistor denotes the battery’s
internal resistance. This simple battery model does not con-
sider the dynamic behavior of the battery. It also does not
account for SoC, Cr, and Dr. In Reference [8], the author dis-
cussed a few other equivalent circuit models or say lumped
models like zero-hysteresis, one-state hysteresis, simple, and
ESC combined models. These models were further com-
pared with the test data sets of an HEV Li-polymer battery
cell [13].

Another set of equivalent circuit models which are based on resis-

tance-capacitance networks such as first-order RC ECM, second-order RC
ECM, and third-order RC ECM, represent dynamic characteristics of the
battery. These models use a parallel RC circuit connected in series with the
internal resistance and the voltage source. The single parallel RC pair is
known as the Warburg impedance. The number of these RC circuits deter-
mines the order and the complexity of the model [11, 20].

11.2.1 Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) of Li-Ion Battery

Equivalent circuit models (ECMs) for Li-ion batteries are quite simple and
based on Thevenin’s equivalent. These ECMs can predict the current-voltage
(I-V) characteristics of the battery accurately. To construct an ECM with
RC circuit, we use open-circuit voltage (V0) with a series resistance (R0)
as equivalent ohmic-resistance and one parallel combination of resis-
tance-capacitance pair, C1 and R1, as shown in Figure 11.1 [20]. From the
electrochemical point of view, current collector and terminal resistances
are represented by the series resistance whereas charge-transfer phenom-
ena, double-layer capacitance, and reaction kinetics are represented by the
RC pair. The parameters of the battery are represented by the multivariable
functions of SoC, DoD, Cr, Dr, cycle number, and temperature number,
which have nonlinear behavior [15].
Higher-order models where n ≥ 2 are complex and require more compu-
tational power than the first-order RC model. Complexity, computational
power, cost, and unpredictability generally increase as the order increases
[12].
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Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC Model 179

11.2.2 First-Order RC Equivalent Circuit Model

The first RC model is the simplest model in the RC ECM group. The
parallel RC network in which R1-C1 characterizes the self-discharge
energy and simulates the transient response whereas the parameters V0
represents the usable capacity, and R0 characterizes the instantaneous
voltage-­drop [15].
These battery parameters depend on multi-variable functions of SOCcr,
DODcr, Cr, Dr, cycle number, and temperature, which have nonlinear
behavior. These parameters have an exponential nature [20] and are rep-
resented as polynomials functions, formulated in the below equations to
express the electrical behavior of the battery.

4y
R0 ( 1 2 x 3 x 2 )e ( 5 6 x 7 x2 ) (11.1)

11 y
R1 ( 8 9 x 10 x 2 )e ( 12 13 x 14 x2 ) (11.2)

18 y
C1 ( 15 16 x 17 x 2 )e ( 19 20 x 21 x2 ) (11.3)

25 y
V0 ( 22 23 x 24 x 2 )e
( 26 27 y 28 y2 29 y3) 30 x 31 x2 (11.4)

where α1, α2, α3, ……, α31 are coefficients of the equations formulated as a
mix of polynomials and exponential and V0 represents the terminal voltage
when no-load is connected (open circuit voltage).
Equations 11.1–11.5 are used to estimate the parameters and terminal
voltage of the battery when the load is connected to its terminals for charging
as well as discharging scenario for the first-order RC equivalent model.
During operations when current is kept constant, the time-­dependent,
nonlinear expression for the battery terminal voltage is represented by the
following polynomial equation [14],

Q0
VM V0 IR1 e t / R1C1
I (R0 R1 ) (11.5)
C1
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180 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Here, Q0(0) is the nominal rated capacity of the battery at the time of
start and ‘t’ is the time duration since charging and discharging starts, both
these values are provided by the manufacturer.
In Equations 11.1–11.4, by replacing x with Cr and y with SoCcr for
charging scenario, and replacing with Dr and (1-DoDdr) for discharging
scenario, respectively, we can obtain the parameters for the battery model.
For discharging scenario, (1-DoDdr) is chosen, as with the increase in
DoDdr , V0 decreases [15].
Charge rate (Cr) and Dr can be controlled as per requirements of the
application. The Cr and Dr are kept constant for a specific BEV operation
and can be determined from the following equations,

I
Cr = (11.6)
Q0

I
Dr = (11.7)
Q0

The SOCcr and DODdr can be determined from the following equations,

I t
SoCcr SoCini (11.8)
Q0 .3600

I t
DoDdr DoDini (11.9)
Q0 .3600

Using the above equations, the model which is formed can be deployed
as a battery pack in any BEV simulation after estimation of polynomial
coefficients and battery parameters along with the battery charging and
discharging characteristics identification [15].

11.2.3 Fitness Function for Optimization

Optimization is mainly used in estimating the battery model parameters
for first-order RC equivalent model using Equations 11.1–11.4. These are
used to obtain the voltage-SoC characteristic curve for this model, which
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Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC Model 181

best fits the voltage-SoC characteristics curve taken from the manufactur-
er’s battery.
Here, the fitness is formulated in the form of sum of the squared error
between voltage values obtained from the model presented and catalogue
values at various sample data points for both chargings as well as discharg-
ing cases. This fitness function can be mathematically expressed as

n
F (x ) i 1 (Vi M ViC )2 (11.10)

with constraint as

0 1 ,0 2 ,0 3 ,. . . ..0 31

where Vi C denotes the ith voltage value taken from the catalogue and Vi M
is the ith value of model output voltage obtained from Equation 11.5 for the
first-order RC equivalent. The optimization is done with the help of SMAa
newly formed metaheuristic optimization technique at different SoC and
DoD values.

11.3 Slime Mould Algorithm (SMA)

Slime mould algorithm (SMA) is a newly formed metaheuristic optimiza-
tion algorithm that is developed based on the diffusion, oscillation mode,
morphological changes, and foraging of the slime mould found in nature.
With its exceptional exploration capacity and exploitation intensity, slime
mould uses the bio-oscillator-based idea of adaptive weights to plot out the
most efficient route to its food source [18].
Slime mould is formed by an organism composed of one or more cells
with visibly evident nuclei and organelles. It is found in cool, moist, and
dark spots. Plasmodium is the primary nutritional phase and it is also the
dynamic and active stage of slime mould. In this stage, organic content
explores food, slowly wraps the food from all sides, and releases enzymes so
that it can absorb it. Further, during the process of migration, the mould’s
front end expands into a fan-shaped structure. After this is a network of
veins that carry cytoplasm throughout the body. They are able to construct
the venous structure connecting the meals because they have distinctive
patterns and properties that allow them to absorb nutrients from multiple
sources simultaneously [21].
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182 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

When a vein gets close to a food supply, the bio-oscillator sends out
a wave that spreads outward. This enhances the flow of cytoplasm inside
the vein. This rate of flow of cytoplasm determines the thickness of the
vein, i.e., fast flow will lead to a thick vein and vice versa. With the help of
this positive and negative feedback combination, the optimal path can be
established by the slime to connect the food source in better and efficient
way [22].
It is a three-stage process to discover an optimal path to the food. The
first one is searching and approaching the food that depicts the exploration,
oscillation, and wrapping of the food, which demonstrates the exploitation
characteristics of slime mould [18].

➢ Approaching the food

According to the intensity of the smell of the food in the air, the slime
mould approaches the food. Mathematical formula for this approaching
behavior is given as below [18]

Xb (t ) vb. W . X A (t ) X B (t ) , r p
X (t 1) (11.11)
vc. X (t ), r p

where vb is a parameter that varies from –a to a and the parameter vb fol-

lows the linear variation from one to zero. t denotes the current iteration,
Xb is the position of an individual from the population where the odor
density found is highest, X denotes the position of slime mould, XA and
XB are the two individuals selected randomly from the population of slime
mould, W denotes the adaptive weight of the slime-mould, and p is repre-
sented by the below equation [18]

p tanh|S(i) DF| (11.12)

here, i 1, 2, 3, ., n, S(i) denotes the fitness of all individuals from X, DF

denotes the best-fitness attained so far in all iterations.
The equation of vb is as below

vb [ a, a] (11.13)

where the formula for a can be given

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Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC Model 183

t
a arctanh 1 (11.14)
max _ t

and the formula for W is given as below [29]

bF S(i)
1 r . log 1 , condition
bF wF
W Smellindex(i)
bF S(i)
1 r . log 1 , other
bF wF
(11.15)

SmellIndex = sort (S) (11.16)

here, condition tells that half of the population is ranked by S(i), r rep-
resents the random value in the [0,1] interval. max_t shows the maximum
number of iterations, bF and wF represents the best fitness and the worst
fitness value, respectively, obtained in the current iteration. SmellIndex
represents the sorted fitness values.

➢ Wrapping the food

This process demonstrates the stage of contraction of the venous tissue
structure of slime mould while searching for food. The bio-oscillator gen-
erates a stronger wave whenever the vein contacts a higher concentration
of food. Due to this, the cytoplasm flows faster which results in a thicker
vein. The positive and negative feedback between the width of the vein
and the food density that was explored is mathematically simulated by
Equation 11.15 [18].

➢ Oscillation
The propagation wave, generated by the biological oscillator, redirects the
slime mould’s cytoplasm in its veins to a more favorable location in terms
of food density. Variations of the venous width of slime mould are being
simulated by W, vb, and vc. Synergistic characteristics between vb, and vc
resemble the selective nature of slime mould. Once it finds a good source
of food, it keeps trying to search for a better source of food. To achieve
a higher quality of food from the previous one, it separates some of its
organic matter to explore other locations, instead of investing all of it only
a single source of food [18].
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184 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

11.4 Methodology
In this work, SMA is employed. This metaheuristic algorithm is used to
estimate the 31 polynomial coefficients of the first-order RC equivalent
circuit model of the battery, for the charging scenario as well as discharg-
ing scenario. It further helps to determine the modeled battery parameters
R0, R1, C1, and V0, which are nonlinear multivariable functions of SOCcr,
DODcr, Cr, and Dr. The values of Cr and Dr are taken as 1 and remains con-
stant for a particular BEV. The values of SOCcr and DODcr were taken from
the manufacturer datasheet. These modeled battery parameters are esti-
mated with four other well-known metaheuristic algorithms, viz., ALO,
GWO, DA, and SCA using Equations 11.1–11.4, which in turn calculate
the terminal voltage from Equation 11.5 and compared with catalogue val-
ues to determine the best fitness using the fitness function, Equation 11.19.
For the discharging scenario, we performed the abovementioned process
except that we used the value of x as Dr and y as (1-DODcr) because the
value of terminal voltage is decreasing with the increase in discharge.
The optimal parameters are estimated from the SMA and the other
four standard algorithms taken as reference. The SMA-estimated optimal
parameters are then evaluated with those obtained from alternative opti-
mization methods. The rate of convergence in estimating parameters and
fitness values from each algorithm is also determined. The fitness value
is defined as the sum of squared error. For the statistical analysis, we also
determined the best and worst fitness values, as well as the mean and stan-
dard deviation of these values.
Apart from the detailed statistical analysis, the obtained results are
were tested for significance. To check the significance, there are various
parametric and non-parametric tests. Parametric tests are used when
the data is uniformly distributed or follow some pattern, while non-­
parametric tests are those in which there is no uniformity in the data
or the data is minimal [23]. In our case, the obtained results data do not
have any pattern.
We used the non-parametric Wilcoxon rank-sum test to obtain the
results of our first-order ECM for charging as well as discharging case. This
test provides the p-values for every algorithm compared with the proposed
algorithm [24]. Generally, the p-values, which are less than 0.05, confirm
that the results obtained by the proposed algorithm are significant in com-
parison with other algorithms [25]. This p-value can be decided by our
requirements to check the significance. Here, we have taken it as a standard
choice, i.e., p < 0.05.
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Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC Model 185

The Holm-Bonferroni correction method is applied after getting the

p-values from the Wilcoxon rank-sum test. This correction method adjusts
the p-values in such a way that any ambiguity or error that occurred during
the calculation of p-values is mitigated [26].
We also performed another non-parametric test named Kruskal-Wallis
which gives a graphical representation of the significance of the obtained
results. It is a popular technique for the comparison of more than two sam-
ples [27].

11.5 Simulation Results and Discussions

For the purpose of the estimation of the parameters, we used an energy
innovation group (EIG) Li-ion battery having 8 Ah as the rated capac-
ity and nominal voltage of 2.5 V. The battery specifications are given in
Reference [28]. The voltage-SoC curve characteristics during charging and
discharging of the battery for various charging rates and discharging rates
are from the catalogue.
Slime mould algorithm (SMA) is utilized for parameter estimation of
the first-order RC model. The parameters are also estimated with four
other metaheuristic algorithms as stated above for comparison purposes.
The population size and the maximum number of iterations for each algo-
rithm are taken as 30 and 500, respectively. The dimension size is 31 for this
first-order RC ECM. Each algorithm is being run 20 times. The optimal
parameters, best and worst fitness values, along with mean and standard
deviation, are studied carefully. The optimal parameter values are reported
in Tables 11.1 and 11.2.
The obtained values of optimal parameters with SMA are quite close to
the optimum values of the parameters from the literature. From the con-
vergence point of view, for the first-order charging scenario, there is not
much difference in the convergence of SMA from other algorithms. Still,
the SMA is performing a little bit better than other algorithms, as we can
see in Figure 11.1(i). While in the case of the first-order discharging sce-
nario, it can be seen from Figure 11.1(ii) that the SMA is converging faster
than the DA and a little bit faster than GWO and ALO. The convergence of
the SMA and SCA are quite similar.
From a statistical point of view, the fitness value (sum of squared
error) analysis for each algorithm is tabulated in Table 11.3. In this table,
the best, worst, and mean fitness values, along with the standard devia-
tion, are determined for analysis purposes. For the charging scenario, the
SMA is performing well except for the ALO. However, for the discharging
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186 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 11.1 Optimal parameters α1 to α31 of first-order RC equivalent model-

charging scenario.
Charging
SMA DA GWO ALO SCA
α1 0.19026 1.42E–01 0.03142 0.2592 0.08407
α2 0.00325 0.08461 0.14588 0.16657 0
α3 0.00149 4.93E–02 0.01149 0.08442 0
α4 35.5184 38.3434 41.5743 32.1945 37.4525
α5 0.11365 1.22E–01 0.07509 0.10695 0
α6 0.01709 1.75E–02 0 3.20E–02 0
α7 0.00099 2.00E–03 5.29E–04 0.00478 0
α8 0.10669 0.16532 0.06618 0.29677 0
α9 0.00042 0.01284 0.00377 0.03043 0
α10 0.12277 2.93E–02 0.07064 0.04574 9.87E–02
α11 23.315 30.2619 31.4038 26.3019 27.6545
α12 0.13582 0.14868 0.15231 0.1524 0.0656
α13 0.00784 8.40E–03 1.35E–03 0.0084 0
α14 0.06243 8.88E–02 0.03006 0.07917 0.07973
α15 207.049 232.598 272.081 208.619 263.866
α16 1.13579 0.01767 0.46359 1.18202 0
α17 0.43917 0.16892 0.33342 1.17935 0
α18 16.6422 24 17.5118 16.1644 22.8696
α19 699.366 704.04 693.278 602.102 509.972
α20 1.17513 0.25752 1.03647 1.13982 0.01756
α21 0.80647 0.00823 1.02686 1.11308 0
α22 0.888 0.01842 0.43112 0.66406 0.75837
(Continued)
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Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC Model 187

Table 11.1 Optimal parameters α1 to α31 of first-order RC equivalent model-

charging scenario. (Continued)
Charging
SMA DA GWO ALO SCA
α23 0.85209 0.858 0.03277 0.85203 0.37747
α24 0.6024 0.46379 0.50208 0.6024 0
α25 16.288 18.696 16.288 16.288 17.3324
α26 0.09074 0.18304 0.11127 0.264 0
α27 0.01553 0.0156 0.0156 0.0156 0.01268
α28 0.00031 1.20E–03 1.83E–04 0.0012 0.00E+00
α29 0.00022 0.00E+00 0.22564 0.234 1.24E–01
α30 0.00633 0.678 0.12319 0.65862 0
α31 0.00096 1.45E–02 0.00146 0.0324 0

scenario, the SMA is outperforming the other algorithms, which can be

observed from Table 11.3. This signifies the reliability and the efficiency of
the SMA over other algorithms.
Apart from the statistical analysis of the obtained results, we performed
the non-parametric assessment to check and validate the significance of
the obtained results. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test, Kruskal-Wallis test,
and rank-sum test with Holm-Bonferroni corrections were used for this
purpose.
The test results for the Wilcoxon rank-sum test are tabulated in Table
11.4. We can see that the p-values for the SMA, when compared with other
metaheuristic algorithms, are less than 0.05, i.e., the results are significant
and null-hypothesis is rejected [29, 30].
The adjusted p-values of the proposed algorithm for the Wilcoxon test
after applying Holm-Bonferroni corrections are mentioned in Table 11.5.
From this table, we again see that the p-values are much less than the
threshold value of 0.05. This also gives the validation of the significance of
the results.
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188 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 11.2 Optimal parameters α1 to α31 of first-order RC equivalent model-

discharging scenario.
Discharging
SMA DA GWO ALO SCA
α1 0.00358 3.60E–03 0.00229 0.002 2.63E–03
α2 0.2544 0.2544 0.2544 0.2544 0.2544
α3 0.0316 0.0316 0.0313 0.026 3.45E–03
α4 28.013 28.3173 27.992 27.992 27.992
α5 0.43786 0.4428 0.44263 0.43183 2.63E–01
α6 0.00077 9.92E–02 1.08E–01 0.19197 2.12E–01
α7 0.27464 4.10E–01 0.15582 0.35246 2.86E–01
α8 5.26E–16 0.00793 1.19E–04 0.00018 0.00E+00
α9 2.72E–11 3.60E–03 2.45E–05 0.00194 0.00178
α10 1.69E–13 8.31E–05 1.34E–03 0 0.00E+00
α11 33.3559 39.552 27.241 26.368 36.8966
α12 3.27E–08 1.43E–05 0.0004 2.36E–03 0.00E+00
α13 2.06E–05 6.97E–04 9.83E–04 0.00119 0.00E+00
α14 5.77E–06 0.01318 8.57E–05 0.00404 4.14E–03
α15 131.073 102.936 133.586 104.083 102.208
α16 0.00057 1.1616 0.57839 0.52199 0
α17 0.02776 0.44499 0.009 1.02224 0
α18 20.3842 20.712 14.5013 13.8092 18.2589
α19 718.283 544.919 547.835 516.275 515.12
α20 0 1.27E–01 0.01687 0.20793 2.24E–01
α21 0.03202 1.48E–01 0.08251 0.09718 5.16E–02
α22 0.04258 0.02997 0.02201 2.53E–02 0.00E+00
α23 0.00512 4.32E–03 0 0.0096 0.0096
(Continued)
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Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC Model 189

Table 11.2 Optimal parameters α1 to α31 of first-order RC equivalent model-

discharging scenario. (Continued)
Discharging
SMA DA GWO ALO SCA
α24 0.06051 0.02562 0.01094 0.05337 3.75E–02
α25 29.908 27.2212 28.3482 24.1168 28.1856
α26 4.25335 5.35951 3.87943 4.41369 4.26034
α27 6.61E–13 0.05437 0.04162 0.02355 0
α28 0.12911 1.09E–01 0.11337 0.11593 1.39E–01
α29 0.0624 2.98E–02 6.92E–04 0.06222 6.24E–02
α30 0.31674 3.17E–01 0.04519 0.30802 0
α31 3.89115 4.45181 3.89873 5.69485 3.86E+00

Convergence curve
25
DA
GWO
ALO
SCA
20 SMA
Best Fitness value

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Iteration
(i)

Convergence curve
45
DA
GWO
40 ALO
SCA
SMA
35

30
Best Fitness value

25

20

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Iteration
(ii)

Figure 11.1 (i) Convergence curve for the first-order ECM charging. (ii) Convergence
curve for the first-order ECM discharging.
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190 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Table 11.3 Fitness value analysis for the results of first-order RC ECM.
Charging Discharging
Standard Standard
Algorithm Best Worst Mean deviation Best Worst Mean deviation
SMA 1.25876 1.47741 1.34339 0.06224 0.08789 0.13355 0.10736 0.01183
DA 1.34443 1.75473 1.48143 0.09209 0.11789 2.57200 0.88574 0.65209
GWO 1.32021 1.53535 1.39020 0.05435 0.10643 0.19519 0.14297 0.02716
ALO 1.25498 1.41495 1.30158 0.04459 0.10831 0.79773 0.17523 0.14888
SCA 1.41466 2.40946 1.67595 0.27255 0.15419 6.62060 1.24497 1.67679
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Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC Model 191

Table 11.4 Wilcoxon rank-sum test for first-order RC ECM ( p-values).

p-values
Proposed
Battery ECM method ALO DA GWO SCA
First-order SMA 2.5639E– 5.1658E– 1.6669E– 1.6571E–
charging 02 06 02 07
First-order SMA 3.4995E– 1.2346E– 2.3025E– 6.7956E–
discharging 06 07 05 08

Table 11.5 Modified p-values for Wilcoxon test for first-order RC ECM with
addition of Holm-Bonferroni corrections.
Corrected p – values
Proposed
Battery ECM method ALO DA GWO SCA
First-order SMA 2.5639E– 1.5497E– 3.3338E– 6.6283E–
charging 02 05 02 07
First-order SMA 6.9989E– 3.7039E– 2.3025E– 2.7182E–
discharging 06 07 05 07

The Kruskal-Wallis test provides us with the graphical representation

of the mean ranks for the first-order ECM. Figure 11.2(i) shows the mean
ranks for the charging scenario. In this figure, the proposed SMA group
(Group 1) of results are shown with a blue color line while other groups
(Groups 2–4) are shown with red color lines if these are significantly differ-
ent from Group 1. If the other groups’ results are not significantly different,
it is shown in grey color (faded out). Here, we can see that the mean rank
Group 1 is different from the mean ranks of Groups 3 and 5, whereas the
mean rank of Group 1 is not different from the mean ranks of Groups 2
and 4, and we can see these are overlapping to some extent.
In Figure 11.2(ii), we can see that the mean rank of Group 1 is different
from all other groups, i.e., Groups 2–5. None of the groups is overlapping
with Group 1.
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192 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

Click on the group you want to test

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
2 groups have mean ranks significantly different from Group 1
(i)
Click on the group you want to test

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
4 groups have mean ranks significantly different from Group 1
(ii)

Figure 11.2 (i) Kruskal-Wallis test results for the First-order ECM charging. (ii) Kruskal-
Wallis test results for the first-order ECM discharging.

11.6 Conclusions
This chapter demonstrates the mathematical modeling of the first-order
RC ECM of battery which constitutes 31 parameters for charging as well
as discharging scenarios. The battery chosen is of Li-ion type, which is the
most suitable for EV applications. Then, the estimation of the parameters
of this model is done with the help of a newly formed metaheuristic tech-
nique named SMA. The results obtained from SMA are then contrasted
with four other standard metaheuristics techniques like DA, GWO, ALO,
and SCA. Simple statistical analysis like mean, standard deviation, and best
and worst fitness values are done. The compelling and statistical results
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Parameter Estimation of First-Order RC Model 193

demonstrate that SMA has the advantage over other algorithms in the
sense that the sum of square error is the least as compared to standard
algorithms. Slime mould algorithm (SMA) is useful as it gives the least
error and very good standard deviation. This tells the high reliability and
efficiency of SMA over other algorithms. From the convergence curves, we
see that there is not much significant advantage of SMA in terms of con-
vergence. The non-parametric assessments, viz., Kruskal-Wallis test and
Wilcoxon rank-sum test with added Holm-Bonferroni corrections, also
validate the better significance of SMA. We see that the p-values are quite
low as compared to the threshold value (0.05) taken. Overall, the results
obtained from SMA are good and acceptable in comparison to other algo-
rithms. The SMA is useful for the modeling of the Li-ion battery, especially
for EV applications where the range of computation time and accuracy is
large. Although the first-order ECM captures the battery behavior consid-
erably well, it is not able to furnish any useful information regarding the
lifetime of the battery. The performance is somewhat below average when
the number of nonlinearity increases. Since the convergence of SMA is
quite fast, we can include other critical battery parameters one by one and
assess the performance of this algorithm. Also, we can hybridize the SMA
with other good metaheuristic algorithms like ALO and GWO to yield bet-
ter results. The SMA is a newly formed heuristic algorithm that can further
be modified/improved for better results and suitability to various applica-
tions and superior performance.

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12
Harmonic Distortion-Based Performance
Analysis and Fault Diagnosis of
Inverter Connected with BLDC
Motor Using Starting Transients
Surajit Chattopadhyay*, Chiranjit Sain, Purnendu Burui, Sk Rased Ali
and Soumya Saha

Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Ghani Khan Choudury,

Institute of Engineering and Technology, Malda, West Bengal, India

Abstract
This work deals with “harmonic distortion-based performance analysis and fault
diagnosis of inverter connected with brushless DC (BLDC) motor using starting
transients.” In the field of electrical engineering, advancement has been observed
almost in all fields like machinery, inverter technology, grid technology, and con-
trol methodology. Simultaneously, changes have been observed in material science,
power electronic devices, sensor technology, communications, etc. In this era, any
utility system depends on multi-disciplinary units and technologies. Therefore,
the performance of a device or unit, or system depends on not only itself but also
on various aspects. In this respect, the performance of the inverter also depends on
various aspects. In addition, faults may occur outside the system as well as inside
the system. It has a become a great challenge to monitor the performance of a sys-
tem and to detect faults effectively and accurately. Here, an attempt has been taken
to find some solutions for performance analysis and fault detection conveniently
and accurately. Inverters of various configurations consisting of different power
electronics devices connected with solar photovoltaic resources and BLDC motors
have been considered as a system of study. The output of the inverter unit has been
captured by the data acquisition system (DAS). Current signals are then analyzed
by the fast Fourier transform (FFT). The performance analysis and fault diagnosis
were carried out. A comparative study was performed that shows different results

*Corresponding author: surajitchattopadhyay@gmail.com

Tamal Roy, Suman Lata Tripathi and Souvik Ganguli (eds.) Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling,
(197–214) © 2024 Scrivener Publishing LLC

197
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198 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

for different Inverter configurations. The modeling and simulation performed for
various types of inverters like insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), and metal-­
oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)-based inverter units have
shown satisfactory outcomes both in healthy and faulty conditions. Starting tran-
sient-based total harmonic distortion (THD) shows significant variations in fault
condition from the healthy condition in those inverters. Also, intermediate fault
conditions can be discriminated against THD values. In the end, major achieve-
ments and scopes for extension of this work have been presented.
Keywords: Brushless DC motor, fault diagnosis, harmonic distortion, inverter
switch, performance analysis, semiconductor switch, starting transients, total
harmonic distortion

12.1 Introduction
a. Need
In the last few decades, technology has advanced in several directions. In
the field of electrical engineering, advancement has been observed almost
in all fields like machinery, inverter technology, grid technology, and con-
trol methodology. Simultaneously, changes have been observed in material
science, power electronic devices, sensor technology, communications, etc.
In this era, any utility system depends on multi-disciplinary units and tech-
nologies. Therefore, the performance of a device or unit or system depends
on not only itself but also on various aspects. In this respect, the perfor-
mance of the inverter also depends on various aspects. In addition, faults
may occur outside the system as well as inside the system. It has become a
great challenge to monitor the performance of a system and to detect faults
effectively and accurately.
Along with the development of engineering and technology, various
mathematical tools have been introduced by different researchers in the
last few decades. Some of them have been observed very effective in ana-
lyzing images, signals, etc.
Therefore, it has become necessary to find some solutions to monitor
performance, detect faults, and cope with other various challenges.

b. Recent Research
Inverter technology and signal assessment have gone through tremendous
advancement. At the beginning of this work, a detailed literature survey
was carried out. Major observations are presented below.
M. Daniel Pradeep (2015) explained the voltage control method to con-
trol the speed of the brushless DC (BLDC) motor [1]. Abhishek Jain (2015)
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Harmonic Distortion-Based Performance Analysis 199

provided a detailed description of an instrumentation technique useful for

speed control of a permanent magnet brushless direct current (PM-BLDC)
motor [2]. Yasser Ali Almatheel (2017) used fuzzy logic for speed control
[3]. Pranoti S.Chaudhari et al. (2015) implemented a BLDC motor in a
water pumping system [4]. Vinod KR Singh Patel et al. (2013) carried out a
performance analysis of different proportional–integral–derivative (PID)-
controlled BLDC motors [5]. R. Civilian et al. (1995) introduced a spindle
drive system [6].
Ching-Tsai et al. (2015) performed a simulation for torque control using
MATLAB [7]. Sanita C S et al. (2012) used the hysteresis feature for torque
control [8]. P.Nagasekhar Reddy (2013) analyzed the proportional–inte-
gral (PI) control system used for the BLDC motor [9]. Salih Baris Ozturk
(2011) used both direct and indirect methods to control the speed of the
BLDC motor [10]. K. Kamalapathi et al. (2015) used torque control for the
BLDC motor [11].
T. Chun et al. (2014) introduced a BLDC motor drive for pumping
purposes by comparison of hysteresis based on sensorless control [13]. A.
Usman et al. (2019) introduced a demagnetization fault in BLDC motor by
numerical based as well as using hybrid electrical circuit [14]. W. Li et al.
(2016) introduced a sensorless position control high-speed BLDC motor
that acts without phase shift [15].
M. Baszynski et al. (2018) carried out closed-loop control for a BLDC
motor with unipolar modulation [16]. G. Liu et al. (2017) introduced a
sensorless BLDC motor with a low start-up current for small induc-
tance [17]. S. Chen et al. (2018) carried out a position correction-based
sensorless BLDC motor that has low stator inductance [18]. R. Horvat et
al. (2014) introduced an field programmable gate arrays (FPGA)-based
BLDC motor using event-driven current control [19]. X. Zhou et al. (2017)
introduced a low-induction BLDC motor that compensates by itself using
rapid self-compensation for commutation phase error [20]. S. Neethu et al.
(2014) introduced a hysteresis control BLDC motor that has an open phase
fault controller [21].
S. K. Chari et al. (2018) introduced a simulation-based hysteresis cur-
rent control inverter design that has been used for BLDC motor [22]. H.
Suryoatmojo et al. (2018) carried out the current control mechanism using
hysteresis to control the speed of a BLDC motor [23]. Y. K. Lee et al. (2019)
made an attempt to minimize the torque ripple and switching power loss of a
BLDC motor [24]. Ebin Joseph T et al. (2015) performed direct torque control
to achieve better speed control of the drive [25]. J. E. Muralidhar et al. (2014)
introduced closed-loop control to minimize torque ripple [26]. M. S. Trivedi
et al. (2017) introduced predictive control using hysteresis current [27].
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200 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

C. Chhlonh et al. (2019) used the fuzzy controller to control the speed
of the rear wheel using BLDC [28]. A. Azarudeen et al. (2017) analyzed the
performance of the pulse width modulation (PWM) controller used for
the BLDC motor [29]. M. Ebadpour et al. (2017) introduced a model for
dual BLDC motor drives connected in parallel [30]. M. Nicola et al. (2019)
utilized a back electromotive force (EMF) observer to achieve sensorless
control of the motor [31]. A. Usman et al. (2019) made a detailed analysis
of faults that occurred due to the demagnetization effect [32].
N. Seth et al. (2017) made a detailed review on inverter topologies that
are useful for industries [33]. Tomoya Sugimoto et al. (2019) applied T
type boost inverter that gives better performance with the help of switch-
ing capacitors [34]. Tomoya Sugimoto et al. (2018) reduced switching loss
using multilevel topology with multiple numbers of inverters [35]. Pablo
Montero Robina et al. (2018) utilized a converter with a five-level diode
combination to interface with the solar grid [36].
S. Bernet et al. (1999) compared the performance of different types of
inverters [37]. H. Miyazaki et al. (2000) used IGBT-based clamped inverter
for industry applications [38]. H. A. Mantooth et al. (1997) made a sim-
ulation of a PWM inverter considering electro-thermal features [39]. A.
Ramamurthy et al. (1999) modeled voltage change during switching off the
condition for IGBT applications [40].
B. Chen et al. (2015) modeled MOSFET-based microinverter with high
efficiency [41]. O. Sivkov et al. (2018) compared silicon-based inverters
[42]. H. Kernstock et al. (2012) used soft switching methods to improve
efficiency [43]. S. Mangkalajarn et al. (2019) used class-E inverter to
achieve optimum performance [44].
Literature survey shows that a lot of works have been carried out to model,
design, and to analyze the performance of different converters used in drives’
applications. However, very few works have been noticed to utilize harmonics
patterns for performance analysis and fault diagnosis. This has motivated the
authors to find some solutions for performance analysis and fault detection
conveniently and accurately. The inverter of various configurations consisting
of different power electronics devices connected with solar photovoltaic (PV)
resource and BLDC motor have been considered as a system of study.

c. Challenges
The challenges and needs mentioned in the previous sections have moti-
vated the work team to find some solutions for performance analysis and
fault detection conveniently and accurately. The inverter of various config-
urations consisting of different power electronic devices connected with
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Harmonic Distortion-Based Performance Analysis 201

solar PV resource and BLDC motor have been considered as a system of

study. Finally, the work aims to do the following:

a. To model the inverter of various configurations consisting of

different power electronics devices connected with solar PV
resource and BLDC motor
b. To monitor the performance of inverter in terms of har-
monic distortion
c. To detect fault that often occurs at power electronic switches
inside an inverter

12.2 Modeling
With the advancement of various types of inverter technology and the
advancement of electrical machinery, the use of inverter-connected motor
applications has increased to a great extent. Therefore, it has become a nec-
essary and urgent job to monitor the performance of the inverter-driven
motor unit.
In this work, an attempt has been taken to monitor the performance of
a solar PV-driven inverter that feeds power to a BLDC motor and to detect
short circuit faults inside the inverter unit.
Modeling was done by using MATLAB (R2018a) with different types
of inverter configurations. This analysis was done in two conditions, as
follows:

I. Normal condition (assuming on-state resistance R = 0.001 Ω)

II. Fault condition (by multiplying the on-state by 10, from R =
0.01 to R = 106 Ω)

PowerGUI tool was used to carry out fast Fourier transform (FFT) anal-
ysis of the phase currents.

a. Inverter- BLDC Motor Model With Hysteresis Current Control

The block diagram of the BLDC motor with hysteresis current control is
shown in Figures 12.1, 12.2, and 12.3. It consists of four major units, as follows:

1. Energy unit
2. Converter unit
3. Motor unit
4. Data capture unit
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202 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

I
N
V
E BLDC
DC Source R
T Motor
E
R

Capture Phase
Currents, RPM
Torque and
Analysis through
MATLAB

Figure 12.1 Block diagram of BLDC motor with hysteresis current control.

BATTERY

CHARGE INVERTER MOTOR

CONTROLLER

DATA
ACQUISITION
SYSTEM

ANALYSIS THE
SIGNAL USING
MATLAB

Figure 12.2 Block diagram of solar PV-connected BLDC motor model.

b. Energy Unit
The energy unit consists of a battery unit. The unit is charged by solar PV
resources through the charge controller.

c. Converter Unit
The converter unit consists of inverters to provide a three-phase supply to
the motor unit. Mainly, there are three types of inverter configurations that
were considered for modeling and simulation.
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Harmonic Distortion-Based Performance Analysis 203

Control
1-D T(u) iReq

Current ramp Hall Hall

S
Vdc Vdc

iabc iabc
Scopes

Gate driver d(x) = 0

G S
w,Hall
Vdc n C

S
R TL w
iabc R trq C
TL = f(w^2)
BLDC
Inverter

Figure 12.3 Modeling of BLDC motor with hysteresis current control (MATLAB 18).

d. Motor and Data Capture Unit

In this, the BLDC motor was considered as load.
The output current of the inverter unit was captured by the data acqui-
sition system (DAS). Current signals were then analyzed by FFT. The per-
formance analysis and fault diagnosis were carried out.
The sub-part consists of three-phase current monitoring scopes, revolu-
tions per minute (RPM) and torque monitoring units. A power GUI tool
was added to analyze the FFT of current signals.

e. Layout Diagram of Proposed Work

The block diagram of the solar PV-connected BLDC motor model is shown
in Figure 12.2. It consists of solar PV resources connected to the battery unit
charge controller. The charge controller is connected to the battery. The bat-
tery is connected to the inverter and supplies power to the BLDC motor
through the inverter. The inverter’s output current is captured through the
data acquisition system and analyzed to monitor the performance of the
inverter-motor configuration and to detect faults in the inverter unit.

12.3 THD Comparison of Phase Currents of

Different Inverters
Harmonic distortion for different captured current signals was deter-
mined for different inverter configurations. Three different time
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204 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

durations were considered for the determination of THD. Outcomes of

THD for different inverter configurations are presented in the following
subsections.

a. IGBT Inverter
Total harmonic distortion (THD) for IGBT inverter output currents
drawn by the BLDC motor during starting conditions are presented in
Table 12.1. The THD values for different phases are compared, as shown
in Figure 12.4.

Table 12.1 THD for IGBT inverter in the healthy condition.

Duration (sec) t = 0.0 to 0.5 (s) t = 0.5 to 1 (s) t = 0.0 to 1 (s)
THD of ia 518.7 6086.57 1756.69
THD of ib 538.24 6016.06 1841.55
THD of ic 531.7 6413.79 1803.47

THD of IGBT type Inverter

7000
6000
THD(%)

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
t=0.0 to 0.5 t=0.5 to 1 t=0.0 to 1
THD of ia 518.7 6086.57 1756.69
THD of ib 538.24 6016.06 1841.55
THD of ic 531.7 6413.79 1803.47
Time(s)
THD of ia THD of ib THD of ic

Figure 12.4 THD for IGBT inverter in the healthy condition.

Table 12.2 THD for MOSFET inverter in the healthy condition.

Duration (s) t = 0.0 to 0.5 (s) t = 0.5 to 1 (s) t = 0.0 to 1 (s)
THD of ia 553.09 11,977.67 1690.01
THD of ib 549.47 14,690.87 1530.75
THD of ic 525.41 7118.72 1682.7
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Harmonic Distortion-Based Performance Analysis 205

THD of MOSFET type Inverter

16000
14000
12000
10000
THD

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
t=0.0 to 0.5 t=0.5 to 1 t=0.0 to 1
THD of ia 553.09 11977.67 1690.01
THD of ib 549.47 14690.87 1530.75
THD of ic 525.41 7118.72 1682.7

Time

THD of ia THD of ib THD of ic

Figure 12.5 THD for MOSFET inverter in the healthy condition.

b. MOSFET Inverter
The THD for MOSFET inverter output currents drawn by the BLDC motor
during starting conditions is presented in Table 12.2. The THD values for
different phases are compared, as shown in Figure 12.5.

c. Ideal Semiconductor Switch Inverter

The THD for the ‘ideal semiconductor switch inverter’ output currents
drawn by the BLDC motor during starting conditions are presented in
Table 12.3. The THD values for different phases are compared, as shown
in Figure 12.6.

d. Comparative Study and Specific Outcome

Harmonic distortions (THDs) of different configurations of the inverter
units were compared for different time durations. The results of the com-
parison are presented in Figures 12.7 to 12.9. The THD comparison of
different types of inverters for t = 0.0 s to 0.5 s are shown in Figure 12.7.

Table 12.3 THD for ideal semiconductor switch inverter in the healthy condition.
Duration t = 0.0 to 0.5 (s) t = 0.5 to 1 (s) t = 0.0 to 1 (s)
THD of ia 533.09 11977.01 1690.01
THD of ib 549.47 14,690.87 1530.75
THD of ic 525.41 7118.72 1682.7
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206 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

THD of Ideal Semiconductor Switch Type Inverter

16000
14000
12000
10000
THD

8000
6000
4000
2000
0
t=0.0 to 0.5 t=0.5 to 1 t=0.0 to 1
THD of ia 533.09 11977.01 1690.01
THD of ib 549.47 14690.87 1530.75
THD of ic 525.41 7118.72 1682.7

Time
THD of ia THD of ib THD of ic

Figure 12.6 THD for ideal semiconductor switch inverter in the healthy condition.

THD Comparison of Different Types of Inverters

t=0.0 to 0.5 s
560
550
540
THD(%)

530
520
510
500
Ideal Semiconductor
MOSFET IGBT
Switch
THD of ia 553.09 518.7 533.09
THD of ib 549.47 538.24 549.47
THD of ic 525.41 531.7 525.41

Time(s)
THD of ia THD of ib THD of ic

Figure 12.7 THD comparison of different types of inverters for t = 0.0 s to 0.5 s.

The THD comparison of different types of inverters for t = 0.5 s to 1 s are

shown in Figure 12.8. The THD comparison of different types of inverters
for t = 0.0 s to 1 s are shown in Figure 12.9. These bar charts show differ-
ent harmonic distortions for different inverter configurations. Therefore,
harmonic distortion-based performance analysis should have prior knowl-
edge of inverter configuration.
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Harmonic Distortion-Based Performance Analysis 207

THD Comparison of Different Types of Inverters

t=0.5 to 1.0 s
16000
14000
12000
THD(%)

10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Ideal
MOSFET IGBT Semiconductor
Switch
THD of ia 11977.67 6086.57 11977.01
THD of ib 14690.87 6016.06 14690.87
THD of ic 7118.72 6413.79 7118.72

Time(s)
THD of ia THD of ib THD of ic

Figure 12.8 THD comparison of different types of inverters for t = 0.5 s to 1 s.

THD Comparison of Different Types of Inverters

t=0 to 1.0 s
2000
1800
1600
1400
THD(%)

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Ideal
MOSFET IGBT Semiconductor
Switch
THD of ia 1690.01 1756.69 1690.01
THD of ib 1530.75 1841.55 1530.75
THD of ic 1682.7 1803.47 1682.7

Time(s)
THD of ia THD of ib THD of ic

Figure 12.9 THD comparison of different types of inverters for t = 0.0 s to 1 s.

12.4 Variation of Harmonic Distortion of IGBT

Inverter During Fault
Captured signals from the output of the inverter made by IGBT and cor-
responding THD values at different durations of starting transient are pre-
sented here. From these outcomes, the THD for different intermediate and
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208 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

IGBT Type Inverter

3000
2500
2000
THD(%)

1500
1000
500
0
Case1 Case2 Case3 Case4 Case5 Case6 Case7 Case8 Case9
THD of Ia 1594.95 1729.75 552.74 1875.4 2429.62 983.78 984.49 984.57 984.57
THD of Ib 1502.18 1680.88 633.55 1399.9 605.37 983.78 984.49 984.57 0
THD of Ic 1582.22 1897.72 614.55 1304.9 528.72 983.77 984.49 984.57 984.44

THD of Ia THD of Ib THD of Ic

Figure 12.10 Variation of THD in the output current of inverter made by IGBT switches.

extreme faults are noted and presented in Figure 12.10. The figure clearly
shows that the fault in the power electronic switch is reflected in the varia-
tion of equivalent resistance that results in a significant change in THD val-
ues. The THDs are found slightly different in different phases at incipient
fault conditions. The THD becomes constant when switches get completely
damaged in cases 6, 7, 8, and 9.

12.5 Variation of Harmonic Distortion of MOSFET

Inverter During Fault
Captured signals from the output of the inverter made by MOSFET and
corresponding THD values at different durations of starting transient are

MOSFET Type Inverters

3000
2500
2000
THD (%)

1500
1000
500
0
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6 Case 7 Case 8 Case 9
THD of Ia 1776.7 1656.6 565.59 2844.5 604.83 983.74 984.49 984.57 984.57
THD of Ib 1776.7 1656.6 565.59 2844.5 604.83 983.78 984.49 984.57 984.57
THD of Ic 1776.7 1656.6 565.59 2844.5 604.83 983.78 984.49 984.57 984.57

THD of Ia THD of Ib THD of Ic

Figure 12.11 Variation of THD in the output current of inverter made by MOSFET switches.
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Harmonic Distortion-Based Performance Analysis 209

Ideal Switch Type Inverter

3000
2500
2000
THD (%)

1500
1000
500
0
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5 Case 6 Case 7 Case 8 Case 9
THD of Ia 1776.72 1656.6 565.59 2844.46 604.83 983.78 984.49 984.57 984.57
THD of Ib 1687.57 1879.42 592.65 2493.63 861.63 983.78 984.49 984.57 984.46
THD of Ic 1554.36 1703.49 530.91 1366.54 326.78 983.77 984.49 984.57 984.46

THD of Ia THD of Ib THD of Ic

Figure 12.12 Variation of THD in the output current of Inverter made by ISS switches.

presented here. From these outcomes, the THD for different intermediate
and extreme faults are noted and presented in Figure 12.11. The figure clearly
shows that the fault in the power electronic switch is reflected in the varia-
tion of equivalent resistance that results in a significant change in THD val-
ues. Unlike inverters with IGBT, here, THD values are the same in all phases.
During completely damaged condition (equivalent to opening or breaking of
the switching path), THD becomes constant in the last four cases.

12.6 Variation of Harmonic Distortion of Ideal

Switch Inverter During Fault
Captured signals from the output of the inverter made by ideal semicon-
ductor switch (ISS) and corresponding THD values at different durations
of starting transient are presented here. From these outcomes, the THD
for different intermediate and extreme faults are noted and presented in
Figure 12.12. The figure, clearly shows that the fault in the power electronic
switch is reflected in the variation of equivalent resistance that results in a
significant change in THD values. The THD variation is found almost the
same as IGBT-based inverter. It shows the different THD values during
intermediate fault conditions and constant values in extreme conditions in
the last four cases.
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210 Linear and Nonlinear System Modeling

12.7 Conclusion
A comparative study performed in the previous sections shows different
results. The modeling and simulation performed for IGBT and MOSFET-
based inverter units showed satisfactory outcomes capable of differenti-
ating the healthy and faulty conditions. Starting transient-based THD
shows significant variations in fault conditions from the healthy condition
in those inverters. Also, intermediate fault conditions can be discrimi-
nated against using THD values. However, ideal switch-based inverter
units have shown satisfactory outcomes in healthy conditions and failed
to run the motor to provide necessary torque and speed to the mechan-
ical load during fault conditions. Hence, in this work, THD-based fault
analysis of the inverter with ideal switch could not be completed using
starting transient. Major achievements of this work are as follows:
(a) modeling of battery-inverter-BLDC motor system, (b) effective utili-
zation of various inverter configurations with different power electronic
switches, (c) capture of starting transient, (d) determination of harmonic
distortion and THD values of starting transients at healthy condition, (e)
determination of harmonic distortion and THD values of starting tran-
sients at faulty condition, (f) comparison of THD values, and (g) discrimi-
nation of healthy and faulty conditions. The work may further be extended
to carry out the following: (a) the work may be extended for performance
analysis and fault diagnosis of motor units, (b) motor other than BLDC
can be used in further study, (c) different energy resources can be used in
further study, (d) grid-connected inverter unit can be tested, (e) steady-
state and switching off transients can be analyzed, (f) other mathemati-
cal tools can be used to analyze current signatures, and (g) the work may
be extended for analysis and diagnosis from remote end using Internet of
Things and the Cloud.

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About the Editors

Tamal Roy, PhD, received his PhD from Jadavpur University in 2016.
In 2008, he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Hooghly
Engineering and Technology College as a Lecturer with 15 years of aca-
demic experience. Since 2011, he has been working as an assistant profes-
sor in the Electrical Engineering Department of the MCKV Institute of
Engineering and presently is Head of the Department. His current research
interests include adaptive control, uncertainty modelling, and robust con-
trol of nonlinear systems.

Suman Lata Tripathi, PhD is a professor at the Lovely Professional

University with more than 20 years of experience in academics. She is also a
remote post-doctoral researcher at Nottingham Trent University, London,
UK. She has published more than 74 research papers in refereed science
journals and conferences, as well as 13 Indian patents and two copyrights.
Additionally, she has edited and authored more than 17 books in different
areas of electronics and electrical engineering.

Souvik Ganguli, PhD is associated with the Thapar Institute of Engineering

and Technology, Patiala as an assistant professor since June 2009 with four-
teen years of experience in academics. Before joining academics he served
the industry for more than two years. He has published eight Science
Citation Index journal papers and nearly 50 Scopus indexed papers, book
chapters, and conferences. Recently, he has been granted an Australian
Innovation patent for his contribution to the industrial cyber-physical sys-
tem and eight of his patents are already published and awaiting grants.

215
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Index

AC Microgrid, 33, 34, 35, 36 FFT, 4

Active power filter, 49, 50, 58, 63 Firefly algorithm, 89, 90, 106, 107
Admittance Matrix, 20, 21, 26 First-Order RC Model, 173, 174, 178, 185
Approximate model matching, 163, Flight Control, 71
164, 166
Gain constants, 149
Bacterial foraging algorithm, 89, 90 Grid connected mode, 37, 38, 40
Bioinspired, 89, 90, 91, 94, 96, 100, Grid stability, 109
105, 106
Harmonic distortion, 206, 208, 209
Charging, 173, 174, 175, 177, 179, 180, Harmonic Operating Point, 25
181, 184, 185, 186, 189, 190, 191, Harmonics, 2, 3, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25,
192 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31
Controller design, 159, 170 Holm-Bonferroni, 174, 185, 187, 191,
CT Primary Current Assessment, 140 193
Current Transformer Simulation, 129 Hybrid firefly algorithm, 90
Hybrid Grey Wolf Optimizer, 159, 163
DC Component, 5, 6 Hybrid Microgrid, 33, 34, 36
DC Microgrid, 33, 34, 35 Hybrid synchronous reference frame
Direct Current Control (DCC), 111, 120 theory (HSRF), 109, 110, 111,
Discharging, 173, 174, 175, 177, 179, 113, 117, 118, 121, 123, 124
180, 181, 184, 185, 188, 189, 190, Hybrid System, 3
191, 192 Hysteresis Current Control, 201
Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), 7,
135, 136 Ideal switch, 205
Drone control sytems, 69, 70 IEC 61850-7-420 Microgrid, 33, 34, 44
Drone surveillance, 85 IEEE 14 Bus Microgrid, 33, 34, 42
Dynamic system, 68 IEEE 9 Bus Microgrid, 33, 34, 43
Dynamics Analysis, 151, 152, 153 IGBT Inverter, 204, 206
Indirect Current Control (ICC), 111,
Electric drives, 159 119
Electric vehicles, 173, 174, 193, 194 Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory
Environmental monitoring, 86 (IRPT), 111, 114, 115, 116
Exact model matching, 163, 171 Inter harmonics, 28, 29

217
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218 Index

Inter-Harmonic Group, 4, 6 Reference model matching, 159

Island mode, 37, 38, 40 RMS, 7, 9

Kruskal-Wallis test, 174, 187, 191, 192, Single-input-single-output, 163

193, 195 Six degrees of freedom (6DOF), 73
Kurtosis, 7, 8 Skewness, 7, 9
Skewness Analysis, 136, 137
Lithium-ion batteries, 173, 175, 194 Slime mould algorithm, 173, 174, 176,
Load perturbation analysis, 154, 155 181, 185, 193
solar PV, 49, 50
MATLAB, 68, 69 Spectrum Analysis, 131, 132, 133, 134,
Mean, 7, 8 135
Model reduction, 159 Stability Model, 2, 21
Modeling and Control, 159, 170 Statistical Parameter, 7
Modes of Operation, 36, 45 Sub harmonics, 26, 27, 28, 29
Modified bacterial foraging algorithm, swell, 49, 50, 52, 53, 55, 64
90 SwitchingTransients, 132, 135
MOSFET Inverter, 204, 208 Synchronously Rotating Reference
Multi-Resolution Analysis, 138 frame (SRRF), 146, 151
System Stability, 2, 16, 17, 25, 30, 31,
Neutral point clamped MLI, 144, 145, 32
146, 151
Nonlinear load, 109 THD, 5, 6, 143, 144, 146, 152, 155, 156,
Notch Assessment, 138, 139 203
Thrust parameter, 83
Parameter estimation, 91, 107 Time Constant, 130
Permanent magnet synchronous Transition, 36, 37, 38
motor, 159, 160, 161, 170, 171 Two-diode model, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95,
Photo voltaic PV-DSTATCOM, 109, 96, 100, 102, 103, 105, 106
111, 112, 113, 115, 117, 119, 121,
123, 124, 125 Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), 67
Photovoltaic, 89, 90, 91, 93, 100, 102,
105, 106, 107 Vector control, 145, 146, 150
PI controller, 145, 149 voltage sag, 51, 52, 64
Power Quality Issues (PQ), 109, 110, 112
Proportional integral (PI), 113 Weighted sum of square error, 89, 94
Protection, 33, 34, 41, 42, 44, 45 Wilcoxon test, 96
Pseudo random binary sequence, 163 Wildlife conservation, 85
PSS, 16, 17, 30 wind energy, 49, 50, 54
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