UNIT – II

SEMESTER 5TH
SUBJECT – PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY

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 ALKALOIDS

• Alkaloids are basic nitrogen containing compound obtained from plant,animal and
microorganism having marked physiological action.
• Term alkaloids was coined by Meissner in 1819.
• Term alkaloids are derived from “alkali like” they are basic in nature, they contain one or
more nitrogen atom (usually in heterocyclic ring).

PROPERTIES
❖ Most of alkaloids are basic in reaction due to the availability of lone pair of electron on
nitrogen.
❖ The alkaloid contain one or more number of nitrogen and it may exist in the form as
 Primary amine – Mascaline
 Secondary amine – Ephedrine
 Tertiary amine – Atropine
 Quarternary amine – Tubocurarine Chloride
❖ Alkaloids one colorless, crystalline, non-volatile, solid and bitter in taste.
❖ Alkaloids are generally optically active, among the leavo isomers are more active.
Optically inactive are – Papavarine, Atropine

CHEMICAL TEST FOR ALKALOIDS :

Table-1

S.NO. Reagent Observation

1 Mayer’s Reagent Creamy precipitate
(Pottassium mercuric iodide solution)
2 Wagner’s reagent Reddish brown precipitate
(Potassium triiodide solution)
3 Dragendroff’s reagent Reddish brown precipitate
(Potassium bismuth iodide solution)
4 Hager’s reagent(Picric acid) Yellow precipitate
5 Sonnenschein’s reagent Precipitate
(Phospomolybdic acid)
6 Scheibler’s reagent Precipitate
(Phospotungstic acid)
7 Tannic acid test Precipitated the alkaloid
8 Ammonia reineckae test Pink precipitate
(Saturated solution of ammonia reinecket)
9 Murexide test Purple color and when added
(Caffeine + Hcl +Kcl3) alkali color loss
10 Colchicine + Mineral acid Yellow color
11 Van Urk’s test (Ehrlich Reagent) Blue color
(Ergot powder + p-dimethyl aminobenzal dehyde)

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 VINCA
Synonym : Periwinkle, Sadabahar
Biological source : Vinca is obtained from dried whole plant of Cataranthus roseus. It is
also known as Vinca rosea.
Family : Apocynaceae
Microscopy :

Figure-1
 Upper surface shows presence of single layer of rectangular celled epidermis with
unicellular covering trichomes.
 Spongy parenchyma.
 Cruciferous stomata / Anisocytic stomata present.
Chemical Constituents –
 Vincristine
 Vinblastine
Uses :
 Used as a antineoplastic agent.
 Used in Hodgkin’s lymphomas.
 Used in acute lymphocytic leukemia in child.
 Antidiabetic action.

RAUWOLFIA
Synonym : Chhotachand, Sarpagandha
Biological source : Rauwolfia is obtained from dried roots and rhizomes of plant Rauwolfia
serpentina.
Family : Apocynaceae
Microscopy :
 T.S section of root shows externally by stratified cork with 2-7 layers of small cells that
is followed by phelloderm.

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  Both bark and wood contains abundant starch.
 Xylem is entirely lignified.
 Sclerenchyma is absent
 Tetrastichious arrangement present.

Figure-2
Chemical Constituents –
Contains more than 30 alkaloids –
 Ajmaline (Rauwolfine), Ajmaliline, Ajmalacine, Serpentine, Serpentinine.
 Chief important therapeutically active alkaloids – Reserpine, Rescinnamine.
Uses :
 Therapeutically Rauwolfia is antihypersensitive in nature.
 Used in neuropsychiatric disorder.
 Ajmaline is used in the treatment of arrhythmia.
 Ajmalacine used in the relief of obstruction of normal cerebral blood flow.

BELLADONNA
Synonym : Deadly night shade leaf.
Biological source : Belladona is obtained from dried leaves and other aerial parts of Atropa
acuminate (Indian belladonna), Atropa belladonna (European belladonna).
Family : Solanaceae
Microscopy : Epidermal cell with slightly sinuous anticlinal wall and striated cuticle
with anisocytic type of stomata.

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  Have less non-glandular and more glandular trichome → Uniseriate and with unicellular
heads.
 Occasionally covering trichomes → Uniseriate and multicellular heads.
 Cells of spongy mesophyll filled with microsphenoidal crystals of Ca oxalate.
 The palisade ratio is 5 to 7.

Figure-3
Chemical constituents
 It contain about 0.3-1.0% of alkaloids
 Main alkaloids are l-hyoscyamine and its racemic form is atropine.
 The leaves also contain afluroscent substance scopoletin.
ADULTANTS AND SUBSTITUTE:
 Phytolacca Americana- Idioblast present and anommocytic stomata.
 Solanum nigrum-Pallisade ratio.
 Alianthus glandulosa-Lignified trichome present.
Uses: It is a Parasymphathetic drug with anticholinergic property.

OPIUM
Synonym : Afim.
Biological source : Opium is obtained from dried latex obtained by incision of the unripe
capsule of Papaver somnifarum.

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Variety : Papaver somnifarum album (Indian)
Papaver somnifarum glabrum (Turkey)
Papaver somnifarum nigrum (European)
Family : Papaveraceae.
Microscopy :
 Microscope shows agglomerated latex granules in irregular mass.
 Stomata – Anomocytic
 Pointed trichomes, few starch granules present.
Chemical constituents
 The present alkaloids has combined with organic acid i.e. Meconic acid.
OPIUM ALKALOIDS

Benzylisoquinoline Phenantherene ring

- Noscapine - Morphine
- Narceine - Codeine
- Narcotine - Thebaine
- Papaverine (optically inactive)
 Morphine is monoacidic, phenolic alkaloids.
 Morphine is laevorotatory in nature.
 Opium alkaloids are present as salt of meconic acid.
 Opium also contains sugar, wax, mucilage and salt of calcium, potassium and
magnesium.

Morphine
Codeine
Figure-4
Other Species (Allied plants) :
Papaver bracteum contains no morphine, they contains high percentage of thebaine so causes no
addiction.
Chemical Constituents :
1) Marquis test – Morphine + Conc. H2SO4 + HCHO → Dark violet color
2) Meconic acid + FeCl3 → Deep reddish purple color
3) Morphine + SiO2 → Blue color
4) Papaverine solution in HCl and potassium ferricyanide develops a lemon yellow color.
5) Morphine, when sprinkled with concentrated HNO3, shows an orange red color, this is
not allowed by codeine.

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 6) Morphine solution when treated with ferric chloride and potassium ferricyanide gives a
bluish-green color.

Uses :
 Morphine is used as a Analgesic.
 Sedatives and hypnotics
 Morphine also produces respiratory depression and constipation.
 Codeine – Cough syrup preparation.
 Papaverine – smooth muscle relaxants.
 Apomorphine – Emetic (for treating poisoning cases).

PHENYLPROPANOIDS AND FLAVONOIDS

PHENYLPROPANOIDS :
• The phenylpropanoids are diverse family of organic compounds that are synthesized by
plants from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine.
• The name is derived from the six-carbon, aromatic phenyl group and the three-carbon
propene tail of coumatic acid, which is the central in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis.

FLAVONOIDS :
• Flavonoids are synthesized through the phenylpropanoid pathway transforming
phenylalanine into 4 coumaroyl-CoA, which finally enters the flavonoids synthesis
pathway.
LIGNANS
Biological source : The lignans are a large group of polyphenols found in plants. Lignans are
macromolecules, polymers of basic units of C6-C3 n-propylbenzenes
which are linked by the β carbon by their side chains.
Uses :
 Lignans have been found to exhibit antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antimitotic and
antitumor properties.
 Lignans have been used as preservatives in the food, agriculture, rubber and
pharmaceutical industries.
 These are used as stabilizing agents for lubricants and polymers such as adhesives and
plastics.
TEA
Synonym :Camelia thea
Biological source : Tea is obtained from the prepared leaves and leaf buds of Thea sinensis.
Family : Theaceae
Chemical Constituents –
 Contains caffeine, theobromine, theophylline. Color of leaves is due to gallotannic acid.
 Also contain an enzymatic mixture called thease.
Chemical test :
Murexide Test-
Alkali
 Caffeine + HCl + KCl3 → Purple color Colorless

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Uses :
 Stimulant effect on nervous system.

RUTA
Synonym :Rue
Biological source : It is native to Mediterranean region and distributed throughout the world.
Family : Rutaceae
Uses :
 Extracts from rue have been used to treat eyestrain, sore eyes and as insect repellent.
 Rue has been used internally as an antispasmodic, as a treatment for menstrual problem,
as an abortifacient and as a sedative.

CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES
 The aglycan part of cardiac glycoside is a steroidal moiety so also called as steroidal
glycoside.
 Two types---Cardenolides,Bufadienolides.
 Occurance of Cardinolides in nature is high as compared to bufadienolides.

Cardenolide Bufadienolide
• It has C23 steroids having α,β
• It has C24 steroids having
unsaturated five membered
unsaturated six membered
lactone ring attached at 17β
lactone ring at 17β
position.
position.
• Eg-Digitalis,stropanthus
• Eg-Squill.

Figure-5
For maximum cardiac activity-
1. Lactone is attached to→17β position.
2. Sugar part is attached to→3β position.
3. Sugar part helps in absorption and distribution in body.
4. When number of hydroxyl group increased on the molecule the more rapid action in the
body.

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 TRITERPENOIDS
 Triterpenoids have been found in both free states and in combination with sugars forming
glycosides and esters.
 Triterpenoids are composed of 30 carbon atoms, polymerized to form six isoprene units.
 These are grouped into linear, monocyclic, dicyclic etc., up through pentacyclic
compounds.
 These are widely distributed in nature; they may be found in fungi, fern, higher plants,
animals and marine organisms.
 These are compounds with a carbon skeleton based on six isoprene units which are
derived biosynthetically from the acyclic C30 hydrocarbon, squalene. They have relatively
complex cyclic structures, most being either alcohols, aldehydes or carboxylic acids.

LIQUORICE
Synonym : Mulethi
Biological source : Liquorice is obtained from dried peeled or unpeeled root an stolon of
Glycyrrhiza glabra var.typica (Spanish liquorice)
Glycyrrhiza glabra var.glandulifera (Russian liquorice)
Glycyrrhiza glabra var.violacea (Persian liquorice)
Family : Leguminaceae
Macroscopy :The color of unpeeled liquorice is yellowish brown externally and
yellowish internally while the peeled liquorice is pale yellow in color.
Microscopy : Table-2
T.S of Liquorice root T.S of Liquorice stolon
Shows presence of polyhedral tubular Also shows presence of polyhedral tubular
brownish cork cells. brownish cork.
Absence of pith, shows tetrarch xylem. Presence of pith.
Presence of medullary rays Absence of medullary rays
Presence of cortex Presence of cortex

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 Figure-6
 Unpeeled drug shows presence of polyhedral tubular brownish cork cells.
 Thick, lignified fibres in phloem and xylem.
 Calcium oxalate are present in parenchyma.
 In stolons pith is present and it is parenchymatous.
 Root is characterized by presence of tetrarch xylem and absence of pith.
Chemical Constituents :
 Chief constituent is pentacyclic triterpenoid saponin known as glycyrrhizin (glycyrrizic
acid) which is a potassium and calcium salts of glycyrrhizinic acid.
 Presence of flavonoid (liquiritin and isoliquiritin) cause antigastric effect and it is useful
in peptic ulcers.
 Carbenoxolone (used as anti ulcer drug) is an oleandane derivative prepared from
glycorrhiza.
Chemical Test :
Section of drug + 80% H2SO4 → Show Yellow Color
Uses :
1) Used as expectorant, demulcent.
2) It is used in peptic ulcer in the form of deglycyrrhized liquorice (DGL).
3) It is having minerocorticoid activity (due to glycyrrhetinic acid). It is employed in place
of corticoids for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, inflammation and addison’s
disease.
4) Flavouring agent.

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Adulterants and Substitute :
 Manchurian liquorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis)
 Russian liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glandulifera)

DIOSCOREA
Synonym : Yam plant
Biological source : Dioscorea is obtained from dried tubers of plant Dioscorea deltoidae.
Family : Dioscoreaceae
Chemical Constituents :
 Rhizomes contain 75% starch in rhizome.
 Chief active constituents is diosgenin (Sapogenin) and its glycosides smilagenin and
yammogenin.
 Diosgenin is the hydrolytic product of saponin-dioscin.

Figure-7
Uses:
 As a precursor for the synthesis of corticosteroids, sex hormones and oral contraceptives.
 Used in the treatment of rheumatic arthritis.

DIGITALIS
Synonym : Foxglove leaves
Biological source : Digitalis is obtained from dried leaves of plant Digitalis purpurea and
Digitalis lanata.
Family : Scrophulariaceae
Description :
 Contains not less than 0.3% of total cardinolides calculated as digitoxin.
 Dried at temperature below 60ºC, immediately after collecting the leaves.
 In leaves should contain not more than 5% of moisture.
Microscopy :
 Dorsiventral leaf.
 Anomocytic stomata in upper epidermis.
 Numerous covering trichomes and few glandular trichomes present.
 Covering trichomes are uniseriate and multicellulars.
 Glandular trichomes are unicellular stalk and bicellular head.
 Collapsed cell trichomes are important characteristic of digitalis leaf.

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  Free of Calcium Oxalate crystals and sclerenchyma (stone cells.
 Colenchyma at 3 different places: (characteristic of digitalis leaf).
1. Upper epidermis
2. Lower epidermis
3. Ppericyclic part

Figure-8

Chemical Constituents :
 Contains – 0.2 to 0.45% mixture of both primary and secondary glycosides.
 Primary glycoside : Purpurea glycoside A and B.
Contain linear chain of 3 digitoxose sugar terminated by glucose.
 Secondary glycoside (less absorbable) : digitoxin, gitoxin and gitaloxin.
Uses :
 Digitalis increase the force of systolic contraction, cardiac stimulant and cardiotonic.
 Used in congestive heart failure.
 Arterial flutter and arterial fibrillation.

VOLATILE OILS
 Volatile oils are defined as the odorous and volatile constituent of plant and animal
species.
 Volatile oils are also termed as ethereal oil because they evaporate when exposed to air at
an ordinary temperature.
 They are also called as essential oil as they are the essences or active constituent of the
plant.
 They are composed of terpenes,monoterpene,sesqueterpenes,diterpenes,polyterpenes and
their derivatives.

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 MENTHA OIL
Synonym : Peppermint oil
Biological source : Mentha oil is obtained by steam distillation of the fresh flowering tops of
the plant Mentha Piperita officinalis –white mint
Mentha Piperita vulgaris – black mint
Family : Labiatae
Chemical Constituents :
 The main constituent is l – menthol 70%.
 Other constituents are l – limonene, Pinene, camphene.
Uses :
 Carminative, stimulant and flavouring agent.
 Used in the preparation of chewing gums, candies, toothpaste, shaving creams.

CLOVE
Biological source : It is the dried flowers obtained from the plant Eugenea caryophyllus
Family :Myratceae.
Macroscopic character:
Table-3
Color Dark brown

Odour Strongly aromatic

Taste Pungent aromatic

Size 12-17 mm length

Shape Spherical head sub-cylindrical shape tapering at lower end

Figure-9
Chemical Constituents:
 15-20% of volatile oil, proteins, fixed oil, active constituents of volatile oil of tannin,
resin, eugenin.
 The volatile oil, the drug contains eugenol, eugenol acetate, caryophphyllenes and small
quantities of esters, ketones and alcohols.

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Uses:
 Used as antiseptic, stimulant and aromatic.
 Clove is used as a dental analgesic, stimulant, flavouring agent ,an aromatic and
antiseptic.
 It is also used in the preparation of cigarettes.
 The oils are used in the perfumes and also in vanillin.

CINNAMON
Biological source : It consists of dried inner bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum.
Family : Lauraceae
Macroscopic Characters:
 The outer surface is dull yellowish brown while the inner surface is dark yellowish
brown.
 Found in the form of compound quills.
 About 1 m length and 1cm in diameter. The thickness of the bark is approximately 0.5
mm.
 Aromatic and sweet followed by warm sensation.

Figure-10

Chemical Constituents :
 Cinnamon bark contains about 0.5%-1% of volatile oil,0.2% of tannin, phlobatannin,
mucilage, Ca.oxalate, starch & sweet substance known as mannitol.
Chemical Test:
 On addition of a drop of ferric chloride solution to a drop of volatile oil a green color is
produced with ferric chloride.
Uses:
 Bark is used as carminative, stomachic and mild astringent.
 It is also used as flavouring agent, stimulant, aromatic and antiseptic.

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 FENNEL
Biological source : It is the dried fruit obtained from the plant Foeniculum vulgare.
Family : Umbiliferae
Macroscopic character: Table-4
Color Yellowish Green to yellowish brown

Odour Aromatic

Taste Strongly aromatic, sweet

Size 5-4 mm length, 4-10mm in diameter

Shape Oval with bifid stiploid

Figure-11
Chemical Constituents:
 3-7% of volatile oil, proteins, fixed oil, active constituents of volatile oil are fenchone
and autheole, anisic aldehyde, phellandrone and cimonene or some other are present.
Uses:
 It is used as carminative, aromatic, stimulant and also an expectorant.
 Pharmaceutically used as flavouring agent.

CORIANDER
Biological source : It is the dried fruit obtained from the plant Coriandrum sativum
Family : Umbiliferae
Macroscopic character: Table-5
Color Yellowish brown

Odour Aromatic

Taste Spicy

Size 2-4 mm length, 4-30 mm in diameter

Shape Globular and cremocarp

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 Figure-12

Chemical Constituents:
 Coriander yields 0.3% to 1% of volatile oil. D-Linalol and coriandryl acetate and small
quantities of 1-borneol, geraniol and pinene.
Uses:
 The fruit and volatile oil are used as an aromatic,carminative,stimulant and flavouring
agent.
TANNINS

• As the name indicates they posses the property to tan.

• Tannins are secondary metabolite of plant, non-nitrogenous and phenolic in nature and
are present in cell sap and vacuoles.
PROPERTIES
• Tannins are freely soluble in alcohol, water, glycerol and dilute alkaloids.
• They precipitate proteins and alkaloids(astringent action)
• Tannins are precipitated by metallic salts of copper, tin and lead.
• Tannins shows color reactions with iron.

CATECHU
Synonym : Gambir
Biological source : Dried aqueous extract of the leaves of young shoots of Uncaria gambier
Family : Rubiaceae
Description :
 Pale catechu occurs as reddish-brown colored cubodial mass quite friable in nature.
 When broken, it shows cinnamon brown color and porous nature.
 The drug has no odour, but highly astringent taste which first appears bitter and then
sweet.
 When mounted in water, it shows minute acicular crystals.

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Chemical Constituents –
 The drug contains condensed tannins in the form of catechin,catechutannic acid and
catechu red.
 The drug also contains quercetin and gambier fluorrescin.
Uses :
 It is used as astringent in treatment of diarrhea and also as a local astringent in the form
of lozenges.
 Pale catechu is mainly used in dyeing and tanning industries and also for protecting the
fishing nets.

PTEROCARPUS
Synonym : Malbar kino
Biological source : It consists of the dried juice of the plant pterocarpus marsupium.
Family : Leguminaceae
Macroscopy :
Color- ruby-red
Odour- odour less
Taste - astringent
Shape - angular granules
Chemical Constituents –
 It contains kinnotannic acid, kino-red, resin and gallic acid.kinnotannic acid is a
glucosidal tannin, while kinnored is anhydride of kinoin.
 Kinoin is an insolubule phlobaphene and is produced by the action of oxydase enzyme.
 It is darker in color than kinnnotannnic acid.
Identification :
1. When the solution of drug is treated with ferrous sulphate, green color is produced.
2. With alkali like potassium hydroxide violet color is produced.
3. With mineral acid, a precipitate is obtained.
Uses :
 It is used as powerful astringent and also in the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery,
passive haemmorrhage toothache and in diabetes.
 It is used dyeing, tanning and printing.

RESINS

• Resins are mixture of essential oils, oxygenated product of terpenes and carboxylic acid.
• Resin is a solid or highly viscous organic substance of plants or synthetic origin.
• Many plants, particularly woody plants, produce resin in response to injury.

Properties :
 Resins are transparent, amorphous solids, semisolids or liquid substances.
 They are insolubule in water, but solubule in alchohol, ether and chloroform.
 They are electrically non conductive.

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 BENZOIN
Synonym : Sumatra Benzoin, Loban
Biological source : Benzoin is a balsamic resin obtained from Styrax benzoin Dryand or
Styrax paralleloneurus Perkins and other species of Styrax known in the
market as Sumatra Benzoin.
Family : Styraceae
Macroscopy :
Sumatra Benzoin
Color – It is greyish brown or grey.
Odour – Aromatic and characteristic
Taste – Sweetish and slightly acrid
 It occurs in the form of lumps of varying sizes or tears. Tears are externally yellowish,
milky white.
 The surface is uneven. When heated, fumes of benzoic and cinnamic acids are produced.
Chemical Constituents –
 Sumatra benzoin contains contains free balsamic acids (benzoic and cinnamic acids) and
esters derived from them.
Identification :
1. Alcoholic solution of benzoin with water gives milky white solution.
2. Heat small quantity of benzoin in a test tube covering opening of test tube with a glass
plate. Cool the contents of the test tube. Examine the glass plate under microscope. The
crystals of cinnamic acid shall be observed.
3. To 2.5 g benzoin, add 10 ml ether, shake it well and pour 2 to 3 ml of this extract in a
porcelain dish, add 2 to drops sulphuric acid. A deep brown color is produced in case of
Sumatra benzoin and a deep purplish red color isobtained in case of Siam benzoin.
4. Add 4 ml solution of potassium permanganate to 1 g benzoin and warm odour of
benzaldehyde is produced in case of Sumatra benzoin.
Uses :
 It is used in the form of compound tincture of benzoin, and as an inhalation, specifically
in the treatment of upper respiratory tract infection.
 It is also used externally as an antiseptic and a protective.

GUGGUL
Synonym : Commiphora
Biological source : Guggul is the oleo-gum-resin obtained by making deep incisions at the
basal part of stem bark of Commiphora weightii.
Family : Burseraceae
Macroscopy :
Color - Brown to pale yellow or dull green.
Odour-Agreable,aromatic and balsmatic.
Taste-Characterstic bitter.
Solubility-When triturated with water,it forms white emulsion.it is partly solubule
in alcohol.

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Chemical Constituents –
 The gum-resin portion of gugul contains steroids,diterpenoids,carbohydrates and aliphatic
esters.
 They are present in a complex mixture form but the resin does not contain cinnamic acid.
Guggul contain z-guggulosterone, E-guggulosterone and three new sterols guggulosterol I,
II, III.
.Uses :
 It is used as anti-inflammmatory,anti-rheumatic,hypolipedemic and hypo-cholesteremic
drug.

GINGER
Synonym : Zingiber, Sunthi, Zingiberis
Biological source : Ginger consists of whole or cut, dried scrapped or unscrapped rhizomes
of Zingiber offcinale Roscoe.
Family : Zingiberaceae
Macroscopy :
Color – Externally, it is buff color.
Odour - Agreeable, aromatic.
Taste – Agreeable and pungent.
Size – Rhizomes of ginger are about 5 to 15 x 1.5 to 6.5 cm.
Shape – The rhizomes are laterally compressed, bearing short flat, ovate and
oblique branches on the upper side, with bud at the apex.
Microscopy :
 Cork consists of irregularly arranged cells, followed by cortex.
 Cortex is made up of thin walled parenchymatous tissue. Well marked endodermis
distinguishes the stele and the cortex.
 Vascular bundles just inside the endodermis are free of fibres.

Figure - 13

Chemical Constituents –
 Ginger consists of volatile oil (1 – 4%), starch (40 – 60%), fibre (5%), inorganic material
(6%), residual moisture (10%) and acrid resinous matter (5 – 8%).
 Ginger oil is constituted of monoterpene hydrocarbons, sequiterpene hydrocarbons,
oxygenated mono and sesquiterpenes and phenyl propanoids.

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Uses :
 Ginger is used as a stomachic, an aromatic, a carminative, stimulant and flavouring agent.
 Ginger oil is used in mouth washes, ginger beverages and liquors.
 Ginger powder has been reported to be effective in motion sickness.

ASAFOETIDA
Synonym : Gum Asafoetida, Devil’s dung
Biological source : Asafoetida is the oleo-gum resin obtained by incision from the rhizomes
and roots of Ferula foetida Regel, Ferula rubricaulis Regel and other
species of Ferula.
Family : Umbelliferae
Macroscopy :
Color – Yellowish-white changing to reddish brown.
Odour – Intense, persistent, penetrating and alliaceous.
Taste – Bitter, alliaceous and acid.
Size – The tears are 0.5 to 3 cm in diameter.
Shape – It occurs in 2 different forms i.e. tears and masses.
Chemical Constituents –
 Asafoetida contains resin (40 to 65%), gum (20 to 25%) and volatie oil (4 to 20%).
Identification :
1. Fractured surface of the drug, if treated with sulphuric acid forms red or reddish brown
color.
2. When treated with 50% nitric acid, the drug gives green color.
3. When triturated with water, it forms the yellowish-orange color.
Uses :
 It is used as carminative, nervine stimulant or in intestinal flatulence.
 It is also used as flavouring agent for curries, sauces and pickles.
 It is used in veterinary medicine.

MYRRH
Synonym : Gum myrrh
Biological source : Myrrh is an oleo-gum-resin obtained from Commiphora molmol
Family : Burseraceae
Macroscopy : Color-Externally, it is reddish-brown,internally,brown.
Odour and Taste-Aromatic and agreeable.
Shape-It is found in the form of rounded or irregular tear.
Chemical Constituents –
 Myrrh contains about 10% of yellowish thick volatile oil, 60%of gum,25to40% resin and
about 3 to 4% bitter principle.
 Resin contain ether-solubule resin acids, α, β and γ commiphoric acids.
 The volatile oil contains terpenes, cumminic aldehyde, eugenol etc.
Uses :
 It is used as a stimulant and antiseptic .
 It is also protective.
 Myrrh is astringent to the mucous membrane and hence its tincture is used in the mouth
washes and gargles.

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 COLOPHONY
Synonym : Pine-resin
Biological source : Colophony is the residue left after the distillation of the oil of turpentine
from the crude-oleo-resin obtained from the various species of pinus plant.
Family : Pinaceae.
Macroscopy :Color-Pale yellow to yellowish brown to amber color.
Odour-Faint and terebinthinate.
Taste-It occurs in the form of angular,transluscent masses of various size.
Chemical Constituents –
 Colophony contains mainly resin acids which are unsaturated and hence reactive.
 About 90% of this is abetic acid.
 The drug contains esters of oleic acid and resin acids.
 It also contains 0.5% volatile oil, 5-6%resenes.
 Other acid in the colophony are sapinic acid and pimaric acid.
Uses :
 Colophony is a stimulant and diuretic.
 It is ingredient of certain plaster masses and collodions.
 It is also used in the preparations of ointments .Industrially, it is used in the preparations
of varnishes, soaps, printing inks etc.

GLYCOSIDES

• Glycosides are organic compound from plant or animal sources.

• On enzymatic or acid hydrolysis yields one or more sugar moieties known as glycone and
non sugar moiety aglycone.
• Aglycone part-Responsible for chemical and therapeutic property.
• Glycone part—Responsible for facilitates absorption of glycosides and helps in
transportation of aglycone portion at the site of action.
• Chemically they are acetals or sugar ethers, formed by the interaction of hydroxyl group
each of sugar and non sugar moiety with loss of water molecule.
• Sugar is mostly β-D-glucose others are galactose, mannose, rhamnose, digitoxose,
cymarose etc.
• Linkage between aglycone and glycone is called as glycosidic linkage and on the basis of
this linkage α and β stereoisomer is assigned.

Properties

• Most glycosides are Colorless, Crystalline.

• Anthraquinone- Red or Orange in color.
• Flavone glycoside-Yellow in color.
• Glycosides are solubule in water, alcohol but insolubule in chloform and ether.
• The glycosides are extracted by using stas-otto method.

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 SENNA
Synonym : Indian Senna, European Senna
Biological source : Senna is obtained from leaflets and pods of Cassia anguistifolia and
Cassia acutifolia.
Family : Leguminaceae
Macroscopy :
 Isobilateral leaf-typical histological character of senna.
 In Indian variety less hair is present as compared to European senna.
 Active constituents are present in epicarp of leaf and pericarp of pods.
 It is a leguminous plant so add nitrogen soil at regular interval.

Figure -14
Microscopy :
 Epidermis shows presence of unicellular, conical thick –walled trichomes.
 Microscopically two varities of senna are distinguished by Vein-islet number and
stomatal indeces.
 Stomata type - Paracytic.
 Presence of clusture sheath and collenchyma are charecterstic feature of senna leaves.
Chemical Constituents –
1. Anthraquinones glycoside
a. Sennosides A, Sennosides B, Sennosides C, Sennosides D
b. Emodin, Chrysophenol, Aloe emodin, Rhein
2. Two naphthalene glycoside – 6 – hydroxymusizin glycoside (Alexanrian senna);
and tinnevellin glycoside (Tinnevelly senna)
3. It also contains – flavanol, kaempferol
4. Phytosterol and its glycoside – Mucilage, Resin, Calcium oxalate
 Sennoside A and Sennoside B are the active constituents of drug and steroisomer of each
other and are dimeric glycoside.
Sennidin : Only dimer aglycone moiety,sugar is absent.
Sennosides : Are dianthrone derivative of aglycone with glycone part of two identical
compound.

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  In sennoside A it is decoratory and in sennoside B, the aglycone is in meso form.
Adulterants and Substitute :
 Dog senna (cassia obovata) – Leaves are obovate in shape, Consists Pappiloses cells in
lower epidermis.
 Palthe senna (cassia auriculata) – Characterized by absence of anthraquinone glucoside.
 Arabian senna – wild plant of cassia angustifolia.
Uses : Acting as a purgative by increasing peristalsis movement of intestine.
ALOES
Synonym : Ghritkumari
Biological source : Aloe is obtained from the dried juice of leaves of aloe species.
Aloe barbendis (Curaco aloe), Aloe ferox (Cape aloe), Aloe perryi
(Scortine aloe), Aloe vera (Indian aloe).
Family : Liliaceae
Macroscopy :
Table-6
Form Color Fracture
Curacao Opaque masses Yellow brown to chocolate Waxy like
brown
Cape Transparent and Dark brown or greenish brown Smooth and glassy
glassy
Scortine Opaque Reddish-black to brownish black Conchoidal
Zanzibar Opaque Liver brown color Smooth and even
fracture

Figure - 15

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Microscopy :
 T.S of leaf shows outermost cuticle followed by epidermis,palisade cells,mucilaginous
parenchyma.
 Aloe juice present in pericycle fibre.
 Aloe gel present in Mucilaginous cell.
 Calcium oxalate crystals are present in parenchyma.
Chemical Constituents –
 Principle active constiyuents of aloe is aloin and aloin is a mixture of three isomer-
Barbaloin, β-barbaloin, and iso –barbaloin.
 Among all barbaloin is the main constituents.
 Proportion of barbaloin varies in different variety of aloe.
 Aloe barbendis(Curaco aloe)-22% of barbolin present.
 Aloe vera (Indian aloe)-3.5-4% barbolin is present.
 It also contains
Aloesin-Resin present which also gives purgative action.
Aloctine-Increase removal of dead cells from skin.
Adulterants and Substitute :
1. Natalaloes-It resembles to cape aloes in microscopic character therefore it is used
assubstitute.It is a weak purgative.
2. Mocha aloes-It is brittle,black and glassy aloe with strong odour.

BITTER ALMOND
Synonym : Amygdala amara, Badam
Biological source : Bitter almond is obtained from dried ripe seeds of plant Prunus
amygdalus and Prunus communis (sweet almond tree)
Family : Rosaceae
Chemical Constituents – Contains colorless, crystalline glycoside amygdalin (2.5 to 4%)
Uses :
 Sedative and demulcent in skin lotion.
 Flavouring agent.
IRIDOIDS
 Iridoids are a type of monoterpenoids in the general form of cyclopentanopyran, found in
a wide variety of plants and some animals.
 They are biosynthetically derived from 8 – oxogeranial.
 Iridoids are typically found in plants as glycosides, most often bound to glucose.
 The chemical structure is exemplified by iridomyrmecin, a defensive chemical produced
by the genus Iridomyrmex, for which iridoids are named.
 The iridoids produced by plants act primarily as a defense against herbivores or against
infection by microorganisms.

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 NAPHTHOQUINONES
 Naphthoquinone is a class of organic compounds structurally related to naphthalene.
 Two isomers are common for the parent naphthoquinones :
• 1,2 – Naphthoquinone
• 1,4 – Naphthoquinone
 Naphthoquinones usually do not occur as glycosides in higher plants.
 Naphtoquinones represent the group of plant secondary metabolites with cytotoxic
properties based on their ability to generate reactive oxygen species and interfere with the
processes of cell respiration.
 The most important naphthoquinones containing plants belong to the group of
phylogenetically heterogenous plant families.

GENTIAN
Synonym : Gentian root, Gentiana, Radix Gentianae.
Biological source : Gentian is the dried partially fermented rhizome and root of yellow
gentian i.e.Gentiana lutea.
Family : Gentianaceae
Macroscopy :
 The rhizome is yellowish – brown and has transverse annulations and shows conical buds
at the top.
 The root is narrower but continuous with rhizome.
 It is longitudinally wrinkled and has circular scars of rootlets.
 The drug has a peculiar odour.
 The drug first gives a sweet taste, followed by an intensely bitter taste.
Microscopy :
 The transverse section of rhizome shows bark, cambium, wood and pith.
 The root shows these parts but no pith, in place of which a triarch primary xylem is
present.
 The cork cells are thin walled.
 Cortex has parenchyma with oil globules and calcium oxalate.
 Phloem is present in small groups and phloem fibres are absent.
 The xylem contains spiral and annular vessels and also shows presence f interxylary
phloem.
Chemical Constituents –
 The drug contains bitter glycosides mainly gentiopicrin, which is also called
gentiopicroside.
 It is a water soluble, crystalline compound with a bitter value of 12,000. During
fermentation and drying, it breaks down to gentiogenin and glucose.

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 Figure - 16
Chemical Test:
 Under UV radiation gentian extract shows light blue fluorescence.
Uses :
 It is used as a bitter tonic to stimulate the gastric secretion and hence improving the
appetite.
ARTEMISIA
Synonym : Santonica; Worm seeds
Biological source : These are the unexpanded flower – heads of Artemisia cina Berg,
Artemisia brevifolia Wall, Artemisia maritime Linn. and other species of
Artemisia.
Family : Compositae
Macroscopy :
Color – Flowers are yellow in color, while other parts are whitish grey.
Odour – Aromatic and sweet
Taste – Bitter and camphoraceous
 The drug consists of yellowish or brownish flower – heads, which are oval in shape.
 Flowers are fertile with tubular corolla and cylindrical tube and narrow limb.
 Calyx is absent.
Chemical Constituents –
 Santonica contains essential oil and two crystalline substances i.e. santonin and artemisin.
 The volatile oil content varies from 1.0 to 2%, while the percentage of santonin is about
2.0%.
 The volatile oil contains cineole, pinene and resin.
Identification :
 Boil 1g finely powdered drug with 10 ml alcohol and filter.
 To the filtrate, add sodium hydroxide and heat again.
 The liquid develops red color.
Uses :
 Santonica is used as a strong anthelminthic, especially for round worms.
 It has less or no effect on hook worms and tape worms.

TAXUS
Synonym : Yew, Talispatra, Himalayan Yew
Biological source : This consists of dried leaves, bark and roots of various species of Taxus.
The four important species with parts used are as under.

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 1. Taxus baccata (English or European yew) mainly leaves
2. Taxus brevifolia (Pacific yew) mainly stem bark.
3. Taxus Canadensis (Canadian or American yew) leaves and roots.
4. Taxus cuspidate (Japanese yew) leaves.
Family : Taxaceae

Chemical Constituents –
• The main constituent taxol is present in all parts of the plant especially in leaves,roots and
bark of the plant.
• Three most important member of taxol, cephalomannine and 10-deacetyl baccatin.
• A derivative of taxol , called taxotere has been reported to have better bio-availibility and
pharmacological properties and has been claimed as a promising anticancer agent.
Uses :
• Taxol brings out the polymerization to microtubule in absence of MAP and GTP.
• Due to this, microtubule formation is much enhanced which causes effects on dividing
cells which leads to blockade of cell cycle.
• Taxol also inhibits cell migration thus, preventing spread of metastatic cancer cells.
• Taxol has been approved by USFDA for treatmesnt of refractory ovarian cancer.

TETRATERPENOIDS AND CAROTENOIDS

 They are C40 compounds of terpenoid groups and biosynthetically prepared by tail-to-tail
condensation of geranyl geraniol.
 They contain long sequence of conjugated double bonds.
 Carotenoids are a prominent group of natural coloring matters exhibiting purple, red,
yellow or orange colors.
 They are present both in plants and animals.
 In plants, they act as photosynthetic accessory pigments and in animals as a source of
vitamin A and also as antioxidants.

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REFERRENCES :
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2. Krishnakumar, P.R and Suresh Kumar, D., 1995. Conservation of plants from Siddha
system. Industry meet-cum-seminar on Bio-diversity and information on medicine and
Aromatic plants,15-l7, Nov., 1995, New Delhi, India.
3. Warrier, PK, Nambiar, VPK and Rarnankutty, C., 1994. Indian medicinal plants, Vol. 1-
4. Orient Longman, Hyderabad, India.
4. Tyler, V.E., Brady, L.R. and Robbers, I.E., 1981. Pharmacognosy,Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, U.S.A.
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G. Don (Sadabahar) root and its adulterants. International Journal of Crude Drug
Research, 26(1): 33-44.
6. Mallavarapu, G.R., Ramesh, S., Chandrasekaran, R.S., Rao, R.B.R., Kaul, P.N.,and
Bhattacharya, A.K., 1995. Investigation of the essential oil of Cinnamomum leaf grown
at Bangalore and Hyderabad.
7. Jain, S.K, 1996. Medicinal plants. National Book Trust, New Delhi, India.
8. Jain, S.P., 1989. Tribal Remedies from Saranda forest, Biliar, India. International Journal
of Crude Drug Research.
9. Gopalan, C., Ramasastri, S.V. and Balasubramanian, S.C.,1984. Nutritive value of Indian
food. National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, ICMR, New Delhi, India.
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CSIR, New Delhi, India.

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