Grade: 8

Period: Two
Subject: General Science
Topic: Classification Of Living Things
On the Earth today there are many types of living things. In our own country Liberia, there
are hundreds or even thousands of different types of living organisms.
To help us identify the different types of living things we put them into groups. This is
known as classification. Biologists classify living things:
• To create an internationally accepted way of referring to a particular living thing
• To avoid confusion created by different languages
• To help in the study of living things
How are living things classified?
All living things are placed into different groups or classified, depending on how similar
they are to each other. Scientists look at the features of the different living organisms, some
of the features used for classification can be seen easily, and e.g. the number of legs, if the
organism has wings, or leaves what sort of teeth it has or the shape of the roots. Some of the
features cannot be seen so easily. E.g. if an organism has a backbone other features used in
classification are the number of hairs on the leg of an insect, the numbers of petals on the
flower of a plant or the chemistry of the blood. These features are known as the
characteristics of the organism.
In the 21st century scientists also look at the chemicals of life - such as the genetic material
called DNA - of the different organisms. Sometimes scientists’ use these differences decide
which species an organism belongs to instead of physical characteristics
Naming living things
The huge variety of living organisms means there are many different names! People in
different areas of Africa speak many different languages. Many of us speak more than one
language, often including English!
All of the different languages will have different names for the same animal or plant. For
example, the elephant is called Uah in Bassa; Saley in Gbandi; Mbeyeh in Gio; Toud in
Kpelle and Dwa in Kru.
Around the world you also have to add languages such as French, Russian and Chinese into
the mixture. It becomes impossible for one scientist to know what organism another scientist
is talking about! The problem is solved because every organism that is classified is given a
scientific name which is used all over the world.

THE MAIN GROUPS OF LIVING THINGS

What is a kingdom?
A kingdom is the largest group that scientists use to classify living organisms. For several
hundred years scientists put all living organisms into just two kingdoms. These are the
animals and the plants. Now scientists often use three kingdom classifications of animals,
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plants and protists. Viruses are not classified in any of the above kingdoms. They are
grouped separately. This is because viruses do not have all the seven characteristics of life,
although most scientists now classify them as living organisms
Protists
The protists (Protista) are all microscopic, single- celled organisms which have a nucleus in
their cells. They can be quite complex in their shapes. Some protists contain a chloroplast
and can make food by photosynthesis like plants. Some protists have to eat other smaller
organisms. Some protists can move themselves about but others cannot move themselves at
all. Protists make up much of the plankton found in the oceans. This is the basis of the food
supply for all the organisms in the sea. Protists called amoeba live in fresh water.
Some protists cause serious disease in human beings. Examples of harmful protists include
Plasmodium falciparum which causes malaria, Entamoeba histolyca which causes amoebic
dysentery and Trypanosoma, the blood parasite that causes sleeping sickness.
Animals
This kingdom includes all the animals. There are at least two million species of animals
alive today. The main characteristics of animals are:
• They are multicellular - they are made of many cells
• Their cells do not have cell walls
• They feed on other organisms
• They can move their bodies from one place to another
• They have nervous systems so they are sensitive to their surroundings.
Animals which have a bony skeleton inside their body and a backbone made of small bones
are called vertebrates. Vertebrates include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
All of the animals which do not have a bony skeleton or a backbone are called invertebrates.
Insects are the best known invertebrates.
Plants
The plants kingdom includes a great variety of organisms which range from tiny mosses to
giant trees So far botanists (biologists who study plants) have identified around 300,000
living plant species: Over 80% of these are flowering plants
Plants are very important. They photosynthesize and provide food and oxygen for all other
living organisms. Human beings use plants to provide us with food, building materials,
clothing medicines and many other things.
The main characteristics of all plants include:
• They have cells with a nucleus
• They are multicellular organisms
• They contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis
• They mainly grow on the land
The plant kingdom consists of non-flowering plants and flowering plants. The plant
kingdom is split into a number of divisions. The four most important divisions are:
 the mosses and liverworts
 The ferns
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  The conifers
 The true flowering plants
Plant Cells And The Needs Of Plants
Plants need a number of things to live:
Water • Oxygen • Carbon dioxide • Light• Minerals from the soil
What do they need these things for?
 Plants need water to make their own food by photosynthesis. They also need plenty of
water in their tissues for support. If plants do not get enough water, they will wilt and
may die.
 Plants need oxygen for respiration. The oxygen reacts with the glucose made by
photosynthesis. This gives the plant the energy it needs for all the other reactions of
life.
 Plants need carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
 Plants need light to give them the energy for photosynthesis.
 Plants need minerals from the soil to make the sugars from photosynthesis into all the
other chemicals they need to survive, especially proteins.
Plant Cells
Plants are very different from animals - they do not move their whole bodies about and they
make their own food by photosynthesis. Plant cells have the same features as an animal cell -
nucleus, cell membrane and cytoplasm - but they also have different structures which are
needed for their very different way of life. Plant cells have a cell wall made of cellulose. This
strengthens the cell and gives it support. It is found outside the cell membrane. Many (but
not all) plant cells also have other features.
 Chloroplasts are found in all of the green parts of the plant. They contain the green
pigment chlorophyll, which gives the plant its color. As a result of the chlorophyll they
can absorb energy from light to make food by photosynthesis.
 A permanent vacuole is a space in the cytoplasm filled with cell sap, a liquid
containing sugars, mineral ions and other chemicals dissolved in water. The vacuole is
important for keeping the cells rigid to support the plant. The vacuole pushes the
cytoplasm against the cell wall which keeps the whole structure firm. This is very
important because plants don't have a skeleton. A permanent vacuole is often a feature
of mature (adult) plant cells.
Respiration and Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Plant cells make food by photosynthesis. They use water from the soil and carbon dioxide
from the air. They use energy from sunlight to join these molecules together to make a sugar
called glucose and oxygen. Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts. The energy from
the Sun is captured by the green color chlorophyll, which is in the chloroplasts.
Photosynthesis only takes place in plants and green algae.

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Carbon Dioxide +Water Glucose + Oxygen (Energy Taken In)
Water plants get their carbon dioxide and water from the water they live in. Plant cells use
glucose in cell respiration. They break down the glucose using oxygen to produce energy
which can be used in the cells. Carbon dioxide and water are the waste products of
respiration. Respiration takes place in plant and animal cells. It takes pace in the
mitochondria.
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water (Energy Given Out)
Look carefully and you can see that these processes are the opposite of each other.
Photosynthesis only takes place in the cells of a plant in the daytime when the sun is
shining. Plant cells use the carbon dioxide they produce in respiration for photosynthesis to
make more glucose. They need more carbon dioxide than they get from respiration so they
also take carbon dioxide from the air. During the day plants take in carbon dioxide from the
air and release oxygen.
Respiration
Respiration takes place in plant cells all the time, during the day and the night. Plant cells use
the glucose they make in photosynthesis for respiration. This gives them the energy they
need to make other chemicals, such as proteins, so they can grow and reproduce.
Plants also use the oxygen they make during photosynthesis for respiration. They don't use
all of the oxygen, so some of it is released during the day into the air. Other organisms use
this oxygen for respiration. So during the day plants use oxygen from photosynthesis for
respiration but they have to take oxygen from the air at night. Plants do not use all the food
they make for respiration. Some of it is transported all over the plant. Some plants make
much more food than they need. They store some of the food for times when there is less
sunlight or the weather is cold, Sugarcane is a plant which stores food in the stems. Sweet
potatoes store excess food in their roots. When people and animals eat these plants, we make
use of the extra food they have stored for themselves.
Plant Adaptation To Different Environments
Plants can live in many different places. If they live in a very difficult envíronment, they will
have adaptations so they can survive. Here are three examples of groups of plants which
have very special adaptations:
Hydrophytes are water plants. They live wholly or partly under water. Hydrophytes often
have very small roots as they can get water easily. They often have soft flexible stems
because they are supported by the water. Their leaves often contain many air spaces or have
air bladders to help them float on top of the water.
Epiphytes are also known as air plants. They grow attached to other plants. They are often
found on trees in the rain forest.
Epiphytes use their host plant for support. They do not get food from them so they are not
parasites. They make their own food by photosynthesis. They have specially adapted roots
which can take water and nutrients from the air.

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 Rhodophytes are not true plants. They are red algae which form the sea weeds. They are
like plants of the sea. They do not have transport tissue because they get their water and
minerals from the sea. They do not have roots but they may have a holdfast which attaches
them to a rock. They make food by photosynthesis. They do not use flowers to reproduce.
Different Types of Plant Roots
Plant roots have three main functions:
 They anchor the plant in the soil
 They absorb water and minerals from the soil (or the water or the air)
 They sometimes store food reserves
The roots of some plants have adaptations to make them better adapted for a particular
function or environment. Different types of roots all carry out at least some of the normal
functions of a root.
Tap roots are mainly found in dicots. A plant with a tap root has one big main root often
with a number of lateral roots (side roots) coming off it. Big trees often have several large
main roots which are all the same thickness, with lateral roots - but these are still tap root
systems.
Adventitious roots are mainly found in monocots.
They are also sometimes called fibrous roots. These are a mass of roots which are all about
the same size which grow out from the stem. In some plants the fibrous roots all grow out of
the base of the stem in others they grow out all along horizontal stems, e.g. many grasses.
Modified roots. In some plants the roots have been modified (changed) to carry out a
particular job.
Here are some examples of plants with modified roots. Some of them you will know well
some of them may be new to you.
Here Are Some Modified Roots:
 Root tubers: Sweet potato, cassava and cocoyam (taro) have root tubers. These are
roots modified to store starch. This is why they are such useful foods for us
 Aerial roots: These are roots which grow down from epiphytes and take water and
minerals from the air and their surroundings.
 Pneumatophores: These are spongy aerial roots which grow up from underground
roots. They stick out of waterlogged ground and take in air for the rest of the root
system. Mangroves have these modified roots to get air.
 Stilt prop roots or buttress roots: These are adventitious roots which grow down
from the stem of a plant into the ground. They are usually found on big rainforest trees
which have shallow roots or grow in muddy ground. Mangroves have prop roots. They
support the tree and trap silt to anchor it better in the soft ground
Different types of leaves
The leaves of plants have one main function. They carry out photosynthesis and make food
for the whole of the plant. Leaves grow in many different shapes and sizes. Each type of
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plant has typical leaves. There are a number of different types of leaves - the main ones are
simple leaves (each leaf is a single leaf) and compound leaves -each leaf is made up of a
number of different parts (leaflets).
There are two main types of compound leaves: palmate leaves and pinnate leaves.
Palmate leaves have a shape like an open hand, with all the parts coming from one point.
Pinnate leaves look more like a feather, with a number of small leaflets along a central
stems
In pinnate leaves the leaflets can be arranged in different ways opposite each other along the
stem, alternately along the stem or in little groups called whorls
Different Types of Flowers
Plants have different types of flowers. Some of them are big and brightly colored. Some of
them are very small and dull. Some plants have flowers which have a strong scent. Others
have flowers which produce lots of very light pollen. Some flowers are insect pollinated and
some are wind pollinated.
Animals
Classifying Animals
You know that animals are living organisms which move their whole bodies around. They
have nervous systems so they are sensitive to the world around them, and they feed on other
living organisms. Their cells do not have cell walls. You have also learned that scientists
classify the living world (put living things into similar groups) to help them organize and
understand it. Here you are going to learn more about how we classify the animal world.
• There are at least two million species of animals alive today. They are arranged in 33 big
groups called phyla (singular phylum). We are only going to look at the nine biggest phyla
of the animal kingdom and their main characteristics. Eight of these phyla are invertebrates. •
The vertebrates (which include human beings), are all part of one phylum called the
Chordates.
• Eight of the phyla are invertebrates. They don't have a backbone. Only one phylum
contains animals with backbones and that is the chordates. They are also known as the
vertebrates. The vertebrates are divided again into the fish, The Amphibians, The Reptiles,
The Birds and the Mammals.
• An invertebrate group is also divided in this way. This group is the arthropods, one of the
biggest of all the invertebrate phyla.
Arthropods
All of the arthropods have a hard external skeleton (exoskeleton) and jointed limbs. The
hard exoskeleton makes them very tough because it stops them losing water. Arthropods live
in many very harsh environments. However, it means they can never grow as big as the
vertebrates. All arthropods have a body which is divided into segments.

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The arthropods are divided into several classes. This is based on the number of legs, whether
they have antennae and the number of body parts. The best know are the insects. Insects live
almost everywhere on the land. They have bodies which are divided into three parts -the
Head, the Thorax and the Abdomen. Insects have three pairs of jointed legs which are
attached to the thorax. They also have one or two pairs of wings attached to their thorax. On
their heads they have one pair of eyes and a pair of antennae. They also have mouthparts.
The mouths of different types of insects are adapted for the food they eat, which may be
anything from nectar and plants to feces or meat.
There are many types of insects including butterflies, bees, beetles, flies, grasshoppers and
locusts.
Grasshoppers and locusts are common insects. They often live alone. But some types, if they
become overcrowded, form enormous swarms of millions of insects. The mouthparts of
grasshoppers and locusts are adapted to eat plant material very efficiently. The giant swarms
of insects can cause famine as they eat all the food that is needed for people.
Animal’s Cells, Tissues And Organs
Multicellular organisms have specialized cells which carry out particular functions in the
body.
Here are some examples of specialized cells found in the human body
Cells, Tissues And Organs
In multicellular organisms such as people, these specialized cells often group together to
form tissue. Each tissue carries out a special task in the body. Nervous tissue carries
information around the body, muscle tissue contracts to move the body around and
connective tissue holds the body together.
Different tissues work together to form an organ
An organ is a group of tissues which carry out a particular function in your body. For
example your heart is an organ made up of muscle tissue, connective tissue and blood tissue.
The heart pumps blood around your body. Your stomach is an organ made up of muscle;
connective tissue and secretory tissue which helps to digest your food.
Different organs work together, each carrying out their own job, to form an organ system.
Each organ system carries out a major function in your body. For example your
cardiovascular system is made up of the heart, the lungs, the blood and the blood vessels. In
the lungs oxygen move into the blood and carbon dioxide moves, out. The heart pumps the
blood around the body the blood vessels contain the blood, which carries things to and from
the cells of the body. The digestive system is made up of-many organs including the
stomach, the small intestine, the large intestine and the pancreas. Each organ does a different
job but they work together to help to digest and absorb the food you eat.
The Human Skeleton System
The human skeleton is made up of a framework of bones.
It also contains cartilage, ligaments hold the bones together and tendons join the muscles to
the bones.
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Bone is a strong, hard material but it is also a living tissue. If you break a bone it will heal.
All of the bones of the skeleton have specific names.
The Skeleton Has Three Main Functions In The Body:
 The long bones of your body and the vertebrae support the tissues of the body against
gravity. Without the skeleton we would look like large slugs!
 The skeleton protects your delicate body organs. The skull protects the brain, the ribs
protect the heart and lungs, and the pelvis protects some of the digestive organs and
the female reproductive system.
 The skeleton allows movement. Where the bones meet they move against each other at
the joints. In the joints, the ends of the bones are often covered in rubbery cartilage.
This reduces the friction between the bones. There are different types of joints, e.g.
fixed joints in the skull which do not move at all, hinge joints in your elbow and knee-
and-ball and socket joints in the shoulder and the hip, which move a lot. The joints are
held together by ligaments.
Bones cannot move by themselves. They are moved by muscles which contract and pull on
the bones. Each joint has a pair of antagonistic muscles which work against each other. One
pulls the bone in one direction and the other pulls it back.
For example, when your biceps contract they move your lower arm upwards. Muscles can
only pull, not push, so for the arm to straighten out the biceps must relax and the triceps
contracts the movement of the whole body is due to the flexibility of joints and the
antagonistical movement of muscles.

Diagram of the skeleton system

The Human Digestion

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In the same way, our food is not much use to our bodies in the form that we eat it. We need
food to provide our body cells with supply of energy and with materials for growth and
repair. But an apple, a burger or bread cannot travel round your body in the blood and even if
- they could, a single cell couldn't use them! The food we take in contains carbohydrates,
proteins and fats. To be useful in your body, your food has to be broken down into smaller
and smaller pieces. This is called digestion.
It takes place in a long tube with special organs connected to it called your digestive system
or gut. Your gut is a muscular tube around eight to nine meters long. It has different parts
which do different jobs. First the food itself chopped up small - this is what your teeth are
for! This is called mechanical digestion. Food travels along the gut, being broken down at
various points as it passes along the carbohydrates, proteins and fats themselves are broken
down chemically. They are very large molecules which your body splits into much smaller
molecules. These small useful molecules are sent to the cells of the body and any food that is
undigested is passed out of the body through the rectum as feces.

How The Digestive System Works

Your digestive system is a muscular tube. Once the food is swallowed the muscles contract
and relax in waves to move it down your gullet into your stomach. This is called peristalsis
the chewed food is swallowed and goes down into the esophagus (gullet) this muscular tube
can squeeze food down into your stomach in about seven seconds.
Different parts of the gut make different chemicals which help with the breakdown of
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. These chemicals are called enzymes.
An enzyme speeds up a chemical reaction by making it easier for it to happen. Your stomach
is a muscular bag containing acidic juices. It stores food for three to four hours, breaking
down the protein. Then it is squirted on into the small intestine. The liver and the pancreas
make juices. These are added to the food into the small intestine to help break it down
chemically. It takes the food about six hours to travel along the small intestine. The food is
completely broken down as it goes. All the small molecules your body needs are absorbed
into the blood through the wall of the small intestine. The lining of the small intestine has
many tiny folds called villi.

These give a very big surface area across which food can be absorbed into the body.
Not everything you eat is affected by enzymes and broken down. Some things simply cannot
be digested - you don't have the enzymes to do it. All of the undigested food such as fiber
collects in the large intestine. Water is removed back into your body to leave a thick waste
sludge. This is the feces which are passed out of the body through the rectum and anus.
Many other things just don't need any digestion. Minerals and vitamins are not broken down
because they can be taken directly into the blood stream and sent to the cells where they are
needed.
The Human Circulatory System

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The cells of your body need food and oxygen Carbon dioxide and other waste products need
to be removed from your cells and from your body. Parts of your body may need repairing,
diseases need fighting and chemical messages need to be carried. The circulatory system is
the transport system of the body and it carries out all these functions. The circulatory system
has three parts: the blood, the blood vessels and the heart which pumps the blood around the
body.
Humans have a double circulatory system, the heart pumps blood to the lungs to pick up
oxygen and lose carbon dioxide. The oxygen rich blood then returns to the heart and is
pumped around the body.
The Blood
Blood is a tissue made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma. A
single straw colored liquid They all have drop of blood contains millions of tiny blood cells
in important functions in the body.
Functions Of The Blood
Components Of The Blood Function
Red blood cells  Carry oxygen around the body
 Need iron to carry the blood
 Give the blood its red color
White blood cells  Defend the blood against diseases
 Bigger than red blood cells different shapes and
sizes

Platelets Tiny bit of cells needed for the blood to clot when you cut
Plasma Carried dissolved chemicals such as glucose, minerals,
vitamins and hormones around the body

The Blood Vessels

The blood vessels carry blood throughout the body. There are three main types of blood
vessel -artery, vein and capillary.
 Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the body. The blood is usually oxygenated.
They have thick walls. You can feel a pulse in an artery where they stretch as the blood
is forced through them when the heart beats.
 Veins carry blood from the body to the heart. The blood is usually deoxygenated.
Veins have valves to stop the blood flowing the wrong way.
 Capillaries are very tiny blood vessels with very thin walls which pass between the
cells of the body. They transport blood from the arteries to the veins. Substances move
in and out of the blood to the cells from the capillaries.
The Heart

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The heart is the main organ of the circulatory system. It pumps blood around the body
through the blood vessels. The heart is mainly made of muscle. It beats about 70 times a
minute all through your life. The blood flows through the heart as follows:
 Deoxygenated blood comes into the right side of the heart through the big veins
called the vena cava.
 The right atrium pumps it to the right ventricle and the valve closes so the blood
doesn't flow backwards.
 The right ventricle contracts and pumps the deoxygenated blood through the
pulmonary artery to the lungs where it picks up oxygen and gets rid of carbon
dioxide. The valves close to stop the blood flowing back.
 Oxygenated blood flows back to the heart through the pulmonary veins into the left
atrium.
 The left atrium contracts and forces blood into the left ventricle. The valves close to
prevent the blood flowing backwards.
 The left ventricle contracts and pumps the oxygenated blood out of the heart into the
aorta to the body. The valves close to prevent the blood flowing backwards.

MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The human reproductive systems make the sex cells and allow the new baby to grow inside
the body of the mother. The female and the male systems are adapted to do very different
jobs
The Male Reproductive System
Men have testes which make sperm, the male sex cells the testes are held in a bag of skin
called the scrotum outside the body to keep them cool. The sperm travel up the sperm ducts
from the testes and mix with a liquid produced by the glands. The sperm and liquid together
are called semen this travels out of the man's body through a tube in the penis, which also
carries urine away from the body. Once a boy begins to make sperm, it continues for the rest
of his life.
The Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive organs produce the female sex cells that allow fertilization to take
place. The system also provides a home for a growing baby. The ovaries of a newborn baby
girl contain all the eggs she will ever have. After puberty, an egg matures and is released
each month. When she is 45 to 55 years old, she will run out of eggs and can no longer have
babies. When the egg leaves the ovary each month, it travels down the oviduct towards the
uterus where a baby grows and develops during pregnancy. The passage way leading from
the outside of the body to the uterus is called the vagina. Sperm come in through here to find
the egg and a baby has to come out through it too!
Diagram of the male and female reproductive system
Disorders And Diseases Of The Reproductive Systems
There are a number of things that can go wrong with the reproductive system in both men
and women. Many of these are sexually transmitted diseases. Some of them are problems
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which are inherited or which come about as a result of traditional practices such as Female
Genital Mutilation (FGM). Here is a list of some of the more common disorders and diseases
which affect the reproductive system:
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) Sexually transmitted diseases also known as sexually
transmitted infections or STI's - are infectious diseases which are passed from one person to
another through sexual contact. Most of them have some effect on the reproductive organs.
• Gonorrhea: Caused by bacteria, affects the sexual organs in the early stages with only
light symptoms.
• Syphilis: Caused by bacteria, causes sores on the sex organs in the early stages but
can become more serious and cause death
• Cancroid: A bacterial infection more common in men than women causes painful
sores on the penis or vagina and increases the chances of being infected with HIV.
• Herpes: Viral infection which causes warty growths on the penis, vagina and other
parts of the reproductive system. It cannot be cured.
• The virus, HIV, is sexually transmitted but it does not usually affect the reproductive
system. It causes very low immune system and eventually death due to infections.

• Chlamydia: Caused by bacteria, give symptoms like a urinary infection. If it is not

treated it can cause infection in the oviducts and cause infertility.
Disorders of The Reproductive System
In Men:
• If the testes do not make healthy sperm, the man will be infertile and so cannot father
a child
• If the penis will not become erected he is impotent and cannot have sexual intercourse.
In women:
• If the ovaries do not produce eggs or the oviducts are blocked, the woman will be
infertile and cannot become pregnant. If a woman suffers infection or scarring from
FGM it can make her infertile or risk having severe problems when she gives birth.

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