Chapter 4.

Switch Realization

1. Switch applications
Single-, two-, and four-quadrant switches. Synchronous rectifiers

2. A brief survey of power semiconductor devices

Power diodes, MOSFETs, BJTs, IGBTs, and thyristors

3. Switching loss
Transistor switching with clamped inductive load. Diode
recovered charge. Stray capacitances and inductances, and
ringing. Efficiency vs. switching frequency.

4. Summary of key points

10/16/2023 1
 SPST (single-pole single-throw) switches

Buck converter
SPST switch, with
voltage and current with SPDT switch:
1 L iL(t)
polarities defined
+
1
2
+
i Vg –
C R V
+
v –

– with two SPST switches:

iA A L iL(t)
0
+ vA – +
–
vB B
All power semiconductor Vg +
–
C R V
devices function as SPST +
iB
switches. –
10/16/2023 2
 Realization of SPDT switch using
two SPST switches

● A nontrivial step: two SPST switches are not exactly equivalent to one
SPDT switch
● It is possible for both SPST switches to be simultaneously ON or OFF
● Behavior of converter is then significantly modified
—discontinuous conduction modes (ch. 5)
● Conducting state of SPST switch may depend on applied voltage or
current —for example: diode

10/16/2023 3
 Quadrants of SPST switch operation

1
i on-state A single-quadrant
+ current
switch example:
v ON-state: i > 0

– OFF-state: v > 0

0 switch
off-state voltage

10/16/2023 4
 Some basic switch applications

on-state
Single- current
Current- current

quadrant bidirectional
switch two-quadrant
switch
off-state voltage switch switch
off-
state
voltage

on-state on-state
current current

Four-
bidirectional
two-quadrant switch switch
off- switch off-state
switch state
voltage
voltage

10/16/2023 5
 4.1.1. Single-quadrant switches

1 Active switch: Switch state is controlled exclusively

by a third terminal (control terminal).
i
+ Passive switch: Switch state is controlled by the
v applied current and/or voltage at terminals 1 and 2.

– SCR: A special case — turn-on transition is active,

while turn-off transition is passive.
0
Single-quadrant switch: on-state i(t) and off-state v(t)
are unipolar.

10/16/2023 6
 The diode

• A passive switch

1 i • Single-quadrant switch:
• can conduct positive on-
+ i on
state current

v off v • can block negative off-

state voltage
– • provided that the intended
on-state and off-state
0 operating points lie on the
diode i-v characteristic,
Symbol instantaneous i-v characteristic then switch can be
realized using a diode

10/16/2023 7
 The Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT) and the Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
• An active switch, controlled
i +
i • Single-quadrant switch:
C

on • can conduct positive on-

– state current
0 off v
• can block positive off-state
voltage
IGBT 1
i + • provided that the intended
C on-state and off-state
v operating points lie on the
– instantaneous i-v characteristic transistor i-v characteristic,
then switch can be realized
0
using a BJT or IGBT

10/16/2023 8
 The Metal-Oxide Semiconductor
Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
• An active switch, controlled by
terminal C
i
• Normally operated as single-
1
quadrant switch:
i + on
C • can conduct positive on-state
v off v current (can also conduct
– negative current in some
on circumstances)
0 (reverse conduction)
• can block positive off-state
voltage
• provided that the intended on-
Symbol instantaneous i-v characteristic
state and off-state operating
points lie on the MOSFET i-v
characteristic, then switch can
be realized using a MOSFET
10/16/2023 9
 Realization of switch using
transistors and diodes

Buck converter example

iA A L iL(t)
+ vA – +
–
+ vB B
Vg C R V
–
+
iB Switch A: transistor
–
Switch B: diode
iA iB
switch A
SPST switch on iL switch B
on iL
operating points
switch A switch B
off off
Vg vA –Vg vB

Switch A Switch B
10/16/2023 10
 Realization of buck converter using
single-quadrant switches

iA vA L
+ – iL(t)
+ –
vL(t)
–
Vg + vB
–
+
iB

iA iB

switch A switch B
iL on iL
on

switch A switch B
off off
Vg vA –Vg vB

10/16/2023 11
 4.1.2. Current-bidirectional
two-quadrant witches

• Usually an active switch,

controlled by terminal C
i
1 on
(transistor
• Normally operated as two-
)
i conducts quadrant switch:
+
C off v • can conduct positive or
v negative on-state current
on
(diode conducts)
– • can block positive off-state
0 voltage
• provided that the intended on-
state and off-state operating
points lie on the composite i-v
BJT / anti-parallel instantaneous i-v
characteristic, then switch can
diode realization characteristic
be realized as shown

10/16/2023 12
 Two quadrant switches

i switch
on-state
current
on

i
+
off v
v
switch
– off-state
voltage
0 on
(diode conducts)

10/16/2023 13
 MOSFET body diode

i 1
on
(transistor conducts) i
+
off v C
v

on
–
(diode conducts)

Power MOSFET Power MOSFET, Use of external diodes

characteristics and its integral to prevent conduction
body diode of body diode

10/16/2023 14
 A simple inverter

iA
+

Q1
Vg + D1 vA v0(t) = (2D – 1) Vg
–
– L iL

+ +

Vg + D2 v C R v0
– B
Q2
– –
iB

10/16/2023 15
 Inverter: sinusoidal modulation of D

v0(t) = (2D – 1) Vg
Sinusoidal modulation to
v0
produce ac output:
Vg
D(t) = 0.5 + Dm sin (t)

D The resulting inductor

0
0.5 1 current variation is also
sinusoidal:
–Vg v0(t) V
iL(t) = = (2D – 1) g
R R

Hence, current-bidirectional
two-quadrant switches are
required.
10/16/2023 16
 The dc-3øac voltage source
inverter (VSI)

ia

Vg +
– ib
ic

Switches must block dc input voltage, and conduct ac load current.

10/16/2023 17
 Bidirectional battery charger/
discharger

D1
L

+ +
vbus Q1
D2 vbatt
spacecraft
main power bus Q2
– –

vbus > vbatt

A dc-dc converter with bidirectional power flow.

10/16/2023 18
 4.1.3. Voltage-bidirectional
two-quadrant switches

• Usually an active switch,

controlled by terminal C
1 i • Normally operated as two-
i + on quadrant switch:
• can conduct positive on-state
v v current
C
off off
(diode (transistor • can block positive or negative
blocks voltage) blocks voltage)
– off-state voltage
0
• provided that the intended on-
state and off-state operating
points lie on the composite i-v
BJT / series instantaneous i-v characteristic, then switch can
diode realization characteristic be realized as shown
• The SCR is such a device,
10/16/2023 without controlled turn-off19
 Two-quadrant switches

1
i switch
+ i on-state
current
v
on
–
0 v
s witch
1 off off o
(diode (transistor v ff-state
i + oltage
blocks voltage) blocks voltage)

v
C

–
0

10/16/2023 20
 A dc-3øac buck-boost inverter

iL a
+
vab(t)
–
b
+
Vg vbc(t)
–
c

Requires voltage-bidirectional two-quadrant switches.

Another example: boost-type inverter, or current-source inverter (CSI).

10/16/2023 21
 4.1.4. Four-quadrant switches

on-state
current

• Usually an active switch,

controlled by terminal C
• can conduct positive or
negative on-state current
switch
off-state • can block positive or negative
voltage
off-state voltage

10/16/2023 22
 Three ways to realize a four-
quadrant switch

1 1
1
i i i
1 + + +
i
+
v v v
v
– – – –
0
0 0 0

10/16/2023 23
 A 3øac-3øac matrix converter

3øac input 3øac output

ia

van(t)
vbn(t)
ib
+
–

vcn(t)
ic

• All voltages and currents are ac; hence, four-quadrant switches are required.
• Requires nine four-quadrant switches

10/16/2023 24
 4.1.5. Synchronous rectifiers

Replacement of diode with a backwards-connected MOSFET,

to obtain reduced conduction loss

on
i i i + (reverse conduction)
+ +
C off v
v v v

on
0 0 0

ideal switch conventional MOSFET as instantaneous i-v

diode rectifier synchronous characteristic
rectifier
10/16/2023 25
 Buck converter with synchronous rectifier

• MOSFET Q2 is
vA controlled to turn on
iA L iL(t)
+ – when diode would
Q1 normally conduct
– • Semiconductor
+ C
Vg vB conduction loss can
– C
+ be made arbitrarily
Q2 iB small, by reduction
of MOSFET on-
resistances
• Useful in low-
voltage high-current
applications

10/16/2023 26
 4.2. A brief survey of power
semiconductor devices

● Power diodes
● Power MOSFETs
● Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
● Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
● Thyristors (SCR, GTO, MCT)
● On resistance vs. breakdown voltage vs. switching times
● Minority carrier and majority carrier devices

10/16/2023 27
 4.2.1. Power diodes

A power diode, under reverse-biased conditions:

+
–
low doping concentration

p n- n
+ –
+
–
E
+
– v + –

depletion region, reverse-biased

10/16/2023 28
 Forward-biased power diode

v
i

conductivity modulation

p n- n
+ + –
+
+ –
+ +
–

minority carrier injection

10/16/2023 29
 Typical diode switching waveforms

v(t)

i(t)

tr 0
t
di
dt

area
–Qr
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

10/16/2023 30
 Types of power diodes

Standard recovery
Reverse recovery time not specified, intended for 50/60Hz
Fast recovery and ultra-fast recovery
Reverse recovery time and recovered charge specified
Intended for converter applications
Schottky diode
A majority carrier device
Essentially no recovered charge
Model with equilibrium i-v characteristic, in parallel with
depletion region capacitance
Restricted to low voltage (few devices can block 100V or more)

10/16/2023 31
 Characteristics of several commercial
power rectifier diodes

Part number Rated max voltage Rated avg current V F (typical) tr (max)

Fast recov ery rect i fi ers

1N3913 400V 30A 1.1V 400ns
SD453N25S20PC 2500V 400A 2.2V 2s
Ul t ra-fas t recov ery rect i fi ers
MUR815 150V 8A 0.975V 35ns
MUR1560 600V 15A 1.2V 60ns
RHRU100120 1200V 100A 2.6V 60ns
S chot t ky rect i fi ers

MBR6030L 30V 60A 0.48V

444CNQ045 45V 440A 0.69V
30CPQ150 150V 30A 1.19V

10/16/2023 32
 4.2.2. The Power MOSFET

Source
• Gate lengths
Gate approaching one
micron
• Consists of many
n n n n small enhancement-
p p mode parallel-
connected MOSFET
cells, covering the
n- surface of the silicon
wafer
n • Vertical current flow
• n-channel device is
shown
Drain
10/16/2023 33
 MOSFET: Off state

source –
• p-n- junction is
reverse-biased
• off-state voltage
n n n n appears across n-
p p region

depletion region
n-

drain +

10/16/2023 34
 MOSFET: on state

source • p-n- junction is

slightly reverse-
biased
• positive gate voltage
n n n n induces conducting
p p channel
• drain current flows
channel through n- region
n- and conducting
channel
n • on resistance = total
resistances of n-
region, conducting
drain drain current channel, source and
drain contacts, etc.
10/16/2023 35
 MOSFET body
diode

• p-n- junction forms an effective

source diode, in parallel with the
channel

• negative drain-to- source

n p n n n voltage can forward-bias the
p body diode
Body diode
• diode can conduct the full
n- MOSFET rated current

• diode switching speed not

n
optimized
—body diode is slow, Qr is
drain large

10/16/2023 36
 Typical MOSFET characteristics

• Off state: VGS < Vth

10A • On state: VGS >> Vth
• MOSFET can
ID conduct peak
currents well in
on state
excess of average
5A current rating —
characteristics are
unchanged
off
state • on-resistance has
positive temperature
0A coefficient, hence
0V 5V 10V 15V
easy to parallel
VGS

10/16/2023 37
 A simple MOSFET equivalent circuit

D
• Cgs : large, essentially constant
• Cgd : small, highly nonlinear
Cgd • Cds : intermediate in value, highly
G nonlinear
Cds
• switching times determined by rate
Cgs at which gate driver charges/
discharges Cgs and Cgd

C0 V0 C 0'
Cds(vds) = Cds(vds)  C0 vds = vds
1 + vds
V0

10/16/2023 38
 Characteristics of several commercial power
MOSFETs

Part number R ated max voltage R ated avg current R on Qg (typical)

IRFZ48 60V 50A 0.018 110nC

IRF510 100V 5.6A 0.54 8.3nC

IRF540 100V 28A 0.077 72nC
APT10M25BNR 100V 75A 0.025 171nC
IRF740 400V 10A 0.55 63nC
MTM15N40E 400V 15A 0.3 110nC
APT5025BN 500V 23A 0.25 83nC
APT1001RBNR 1000V 11A 1.0 150nC

10/16/2023 39
 MOSFET: conclusions

● A majority-carrier device: fast switching speed

● Typical switching frequencies: tens and hundreds of kHz
● On-resistance increases rapidly with rated blocking voltage
● Easy to drive
● The device of choice for blocking voltages less than 500V
● 1000V devices are available, but are useful only at low power levels
(100W)
● Part number is selected on the basis of on-resistance rather than
current rating

10/16/2023 40
 4.2.3. Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Base Emitter • Interdigitated base and

emitter contacts
• Vertical current flow

n n n • npn device is shown

p
• minority carrier device
n- • on-state: base-emitter
and collector-base
junctions are both
n forward-biased
• on-state: substantial
minority charge in p and
n- regions, conductivity
Collector modulation
10/16/2023 41
 BJT switching times

vs(t) Vs2

–Vs1

VCC vBE (t)

0.7V

RL
–Vs1
iC(t)
+ iB(t)
iB(t) RB IB1
vCE(t)
+ 0

vBE(t) –
–IB2
vs(t) + –
– vCE(t)

VCC

IConRon

iC(t)
ICon

0
t
10/16/2023 42
 Ideal base current waveform

iB(t) IB1

IBon
0
t

–IB2

10/16/2023 43
 Current crowding due to
excessive IB2

Base Emitter
–IB2

– n – can lead to
p + + – –
p
– –
formation of hot
n- spots and device
failure

Collector

10/16/2023 44
 BJT characteristics

• Off state: IB = 0
IC
• On state: IB > IC /
10A

• Current gain  decreases

rapidly at high current.
Device should not be
slope saturation region
=
operated at instantaneous
5A currents exceeding the rated
value

cutoff

0A
0V 5V 10V 15V
IB

10/16/2023 45
 Breakdown voltages

IC BVCBO: avalanche breakdown

voltage of base-collector
increasing IB
junction, with the emitter
open-circuited
BVCEO: collector-emitter
breakdown voltage with zero
IB = 0 base current
open emitter BVsus: breakdown voltage
observed with positive base
BVsus BVCEO BVCBO VCE current
In most applications, the off-
state transistor voltage must
not exceed BVCEO.

10/16/2023 46
 Darlington-connected BJT

• Increased current gain, for high-voltage

Q1 applications
• In a monolithic Darlington device,
Q2 transistors Q1 and Q2 are integrated on the
same silicon wafer
• Diode D1 speeds up the turn-off process,
D1 by allowing the base driver to actively
remove the stored charge of both Q1 and
Q2 during the turn-off transition

10/16/2023 47
 Conclusions: BJT

● BJT has been replaced by MOSFET in low-voltage (<500V)

applications
● BJT is being replaced by IGBT in applications at voltages above
500V
● A minority-carrier device: compared with MOSFET, the BJT
exhibits slower switching, but lower on-resistance at high
voltages

10/16/2023 48
 4.2.4. The Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

Emitter • A four-layer device

Gate • Similar in construction to

MOSFET, except extra p
region
n n n n • On-state: minority carriers
p p
are injected into n- region,
leading to conductivity
minority
carrier modulation
n-
injection
• compared with MOSFET:
p slower switching times,
lower on-resistance, useful
at higher voltages (up to
Collector 1700V)

10/16/2023 49
 The IGBT

collector
Symbol

gate
Location of equivalent devices

emitter

C
Equivalent n p n n n
p
circuit
i2 i1

n-
G
p
i1 i2

10/16/2023 50
 Current tailing in IGBTs

IGBT
waveforms
Vg
vA(t)
iL
iA(t)
C
0 0
t
iL
diod
e
waveform
s iB(t)
0 0
t
G vB(t)

–Vg
i1 i2

pA(t) Vg iL
= vA iA
E

area Woff

t
t0 t1 t2 t3

10/16/2023 51
 Characteristics of several
commercial devices

Part number R ated m ax voltage R ated avg current V F (typical) tf (typical)

S i ngl e-chi p dev i ces

HGTG32N60E2 600V 32A 2.4V 0.62s

HGTG30N120D2 1200V 30A 3.2A 0.58s
M ul t i pl e-chi p p ow er m o dules 400A 2.7V 0.3s
CM400HA-12E 600V

CM300HA-24E 1200V 300A 2.7V 0.3s

10/16/2023 52
 Conclusions: IGBT

● Becoming the device of choice in 500-1700V applications, at

power levels of 1-1000kW
● Positive temperature coefficient at high current —easy to parallel
and construct modules
● Forward voltage drop: diode in series with on-resistance. 2-4V
typical
● Easy to drive —similar to MOSFET
● Slower than MOSFET, but faster than Darlington, GTO, SCR
● Typical switching frequencies: 3-30kHz
● IGBT technology is rapidly advancing —next generation: 2500V

10/16/2023 53
 4.2.5. Thyristors (SCR, GTO, MCT)

The SCR
construction
symbol equiv circuit
K G K
Anode (A) Anode

n n
p
Q2
Q1
Gate (G)
n- Q2

Q1 Gate p
Cathode (K)

Cathode
A

10/16/2023 54
 The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

• Positive feedback —a latching

device iA
forward
• A minority carrier device conducting

• Double injection leads to very low

on-resistance, hence low forward
iG = 0
voltage drops attainable in very high increasing i G
voltage devices vAK
reverse forward
• Simple construction, with large blocking blocking
feature size
• Cannot be actively turned off reverse
breakdown
• A voltage-bidirectional two-quadrant
switch
• 5000-6000V, 1000-2000A devices

10/16/2023 55
 Why the conventional SCR cannot be turned
off via gate control

K G K
• Large feature size
–iG
• Negative gate current
induces lateral voltage n – n
drop along gate-cathode – +
p –

junction
n-
• Gate-cathode junction
becomes reverse-biased p
only in vicinity of gate
contact
iA

10/16/2023 56
 The Gate Turn-Off
Thyristor (GTO)

• An SCR fabricated using modern techniques —small feature size

• Gate and cathode contacts are highly interdigitated
• Negative gate current is able to completely reverse-bias the gate-
cathode junction

Turn-off transition:
• Turn-off current gain: typically 2-5
• Maximum controllable on-state current: maximum anode current
that can be turned off via gate control. GTO can conduct peak
currents well in excess of average current rating, but cannot switch
off
10/16/2023 57
 The MOS-Controlled
Thyristor (MCT)

Anode
• Still an emerging
device, but some Gate
devices are
commercially available
• p-type device n p n

• A latching SCR, with n

Q3 channel
added built-in
MOSFETs to assist the Q4 channel p-
turn-on and turn-off
n
processes
• Small feature size,
highly interdigitated,
Cathode
modern fabrication

10/16/2023 58
 The MCT: equivalent circuit

Cathode • Negative gate-anode

voltage turns p-channel
MOSFET Q3 on, causing
Q1 Q1 and Q2 to latch ON
• Positive gate-anode
Q4 Q3 voltage turns n-channel
MOSFET Q4 on, reverse-
Q2 biasing the base-emitter
Gate
junction of Q2 and turning
off the device
• Maximum current that can
be interrupted is limited by
Anode the on-resistance of Q4

10/16/2023 59
 Summary: Thyristors

• The thyristor family: double injection yields lowest forward voltage

drop in high voltage devices. More difficult to parallel than
MOSFETs and IGBTs
• The SCR: highest voltage and current ratings, low cost, passive
turn-off transition
• The GTO: intermediate ratings (less than SCR, somewhat more
than IGBT). Slower than IGBT. Slower than MCT. Difficult to drive.
• The MCT: So far, ratings lower than IGBT. Slower than IGBT. Easy
to drive. Second breakdown problems? Still an emerging device.

10/16/2023 60
 4.3. Switching loss

• Energy is lost during the semiconductor switching transitions, via

several mechanisms:
• Transistor switching times
• Diode stored charge
• Energy stored in device capacitances and parasitic inductances
• Semiconductor devices are charge controlled
• Time required to insert or remove the controlling charge determines
switching times

10/16/2023 61
 4.3.1. Transistor switching with clamped
inductive load

transistor
waveforms
iA vA iL(t) L Vg
+ – vA(t)
iL
physical iA(t)
MOSFET –
Vg + vB ideal
– diode 0 0
+
–

gate + t
iL
DTs Ts driver iB
diode
waveforms

iB(t)
Buck converter example 0 0
t
vB(t)
vB(t) = vA(t) – Vg transistor turn-off
i A(t) + i B(t) = iL transition –Vg

pA(t) V g iL
= vA iA
area
Woff
W off = 1
2
V gi L (t 2 – t 0)
t
10/16/2023 62
 Switching loss induced by
transistor turn-off transition

Energy lost during transistor turn-off transition:

W off = 1
2
Vgi L (t 2 – t 0)

Similar result during transistor turn-on transition.

Average power loss:

Psw = 1 pA(t) dt = (W on + W off ) fs

Ts
switching
transitions

10/16/2023 63
 Switching loss due to current-
tailing in IGBT
IGBT
waveforms
iA vA L Vg
+ – iL(t) vA(t)
iL
physical iA(t)
IGBT –
Vg + vB ideal
– diode
+
–

0 0
gate +
driver iB t
DT s Ts iL
diode
waveforms

Example: buck converter with IGBT 0

iB(t)
0
t
vB(t)
transistor turn-off
transition –Vg

pA(t) V g iL
= vA iA
Psw = 1 pA(t) dt = (W on + W off ) fs
Ts
switching
transition area Woff
s
10/16/2023 64 t
 4.3.2. Diode recovered charge

iA vA L iA(t)
+ – iL(t) transistor
waveforms Qr
fast
Vg
transistor –
Vg + vB silicon iL
– diode vA(t)
+
–

+
0 0
iB t

iB(t)
diode
waveforms iL

• Diode recovered stored charge 0

vB(t)
0
Qr flows through transistor t
area
during transistor turn-on –Qr –Vg
transition, inducing switching
loss
tr
• Qr depends on diode on-state
pA(t)
forward current, and on the = vA iA
rate-of-change of diode current area
~QrVg
during diode turn-off transition area
10/16/2023 65
 Switching loss calculation

iA(t)
Energy lost in transistor: transistor
waveforms Qr Soft-recovery
Vg
diode:
vA(t) iL
WD = vA(t) i A(t) dt
0 0
(t2 – t1) >> (t1 – t0)
switching
transition t
Abrupt-recovery
iB(t)
With abrupt-recovery diode: diode
waveforms iL diode:
vB(t)
0 0 (t2 – t1) << (t1 – t0)
WD 
t
Vg (i L – i B(t)) dt area
–Qr –Vg
switching
transitio
n

= Vg i L t r + Vg Q r tr

pA(t)
= vA iA
• Often, this is the largest area
~QrVg
component of switching loss
area
10/16/2023 ~i V t 66
 4.3.3. Device capacitances, and leakage,
package, and stray inductances

• Capacitances that appear effectively in parallel with switch elements

are shorted when the switch turns on. Their stored energy is lost
during the switch turn-on transition.
• Inductances that appear effectively in series with switch elements
are open-circuited when the switch turns off. Their stored energy is
lost during the switch turn-off transition.
Total energy stored in linear capacitive and inductive elements:

WC =  1 2
iV i
WL =  1 L jI 2j
capacitive
elements C elements
2 inductive 2

10/16/2023 67
 Example: semiconductor output
capacitances

Buck converter example

Cds

Vg + Cj
– +
–

Energy lost during MOSFET turn-on transition

(assuming linear capacitances):
W C = 12 (Cds + C j) V g2

10/16/2023 68
 MOSFET nonlinear Cds

Approximate dependence of incremental Cds on vds :

V0 C 0'
Cds(vds)  C0 vds = vds

Energy stored in Cds at vds = VDS :

V DS
W Cds = vds i C dt = vds C ds(vds) dvds
0
V DS ' 2
W Cds = 2
C 0(vds) vds dvds = C ds(VDS) V DS
3
0

— same energy loss as linear capacitor having value 4

3 Cds(VDS)

10/16/2023 69
 Some other sources of this type of
switching loss

Schottky diode
• Essentially no stored charge
• Significant reverse-biased junction capacitance
Transformer leakage inductance

• Effective inductances in series with windings

• A significant loss when windings are not tightly coupled
Interconnection and package inductances

• Diodes
• Transistors
• A significant loss in high current applications

10/16/2023 70
 Ringing induced by diode
stored charge
iL(t) L vi(t) V1
+ – iB(t) t
vL(t) 0
+
silicon –V2
vi(t) + vB(t) C
– diode
–
iL(t)

• Diode is forward-biased while iL(t) > 0

0
• Negative inductor current removes diode area t
– Qr
stored charge Qr
vB(t)
• When diode becomes reverse-biased, t
0
negative inductor current flows through
capacitor C.
–V2
• Ringing of L-C network is damped by
t1 t2 t3
parasitic losses. Ringing energy is lost.
10/16/2023 71
 Energy associated with ringing

t3
vi(t)
Recovered charge is Qr = – iL(t) dt V1
t2
t
0

Energy stored in inductor during interval –V2

t2  t  t3 : t3
WL = vL(t) i L(t) dt iL(t)
t2

Applied inductor voltage during interval

t2  t  t3 : 0
di (t)
vL(t) = L L = – V2 area
– Qr
t
dt
Hence,
t3 t3 vB(t)
di L(t) t
WL = L i (t) dt = ( – V2) i L(t) dt 0
t2 dt L t2

–V2
W L = 12 L i 2L(t 3) = V 2 Q r
t1 t2 t3
10/16/2023 72
 4.3.4. Efficiency vs. switching frequency

Add up all of the energies lost during the switching transitions of one
switching period:
W tot = W on + W off + W D + W C + W L + ...

Average switching power loss is

Psw = W tot fsw

Total converter loss can be expressed as

Ploss = Pcond + Pfixed + W tot fsw

where Pfixed = fixed losses (independent of load and fsw)

Pcond = conduction losses

10/16/2023 73
 Efficiency vs. switching frequency

Ploss = Pcond + Pfixed + W tot fsw

Switching losses are equal to
100%
the other converter losses at the
dc asymptote critical frequency
fcrit
90%
Pcond + Pfixed
fcrit =
W tot
80%

This can be taken as a rough



70% upper limit on the switching

frequency of a practical
converter. For fsw > fcrit, the
60%
efficiency decreases rapidly
with frequency.
50%
10kHz 100kHz 1MHz

10/16/2023 74
 Summary of chapter 4

1. How an SPST ideal switch can be realized using semiconductor devices

depends on the polarity of the voltage which the devices must block in the
off-state, and on the polarity of the current which the devices must conduct
in the on-state.
2. Single-quadrant SPST switches can be realized using a single transistor
or a single diode, depending on the relative polarities of the off-state
voltage and on-state current.
3. Two-quadrant SPST switches can be realized using a transistor and
diode, connected in series (bidirectional-voltage) or in anti-parallel
(bidirectional- current). Several four-quadrant schemes are also listed
here.
4. A “synchronous rectifier” is a MOSFET connected to conduct reverse
current, with gate drive control as necessary. This device can be used
where a diode would otherwise be required. If a MOSFET with sufficiently
low Ron is used, reduced conduction loss is obtained.

10/16/2023 75
 Summary of chapter 4

5. Majority carrier devices, including the MOSFET and Schottky diode,

exhibit very fast switching times, controlled essentially by the charging of
the device capacitances. However, the forward voltage drops of these
devices increases quickly with increasing breakdown voltage.
6. Minority carrier devices, including the BJT, IGBT, and thyristor family, can
exhibit high breakdown voltages with relatively low forward voltage drop.
However, the switching times of these devices are longer, and are
controlled by the times needed to insert or remove stored minority charge.
7. Energy is lost during switching transitions, due to a variety of mechanisms.
The resulting average power loss, or switching loss, is equal to this energy
loss multiplied by the switching frequency. Switching loss imposes an
upper limit on the switching frequencies of practical converters.

10/16/2023 76
 Summary of chapter 4

8. The diode and inductor present a “clamped inductive load” to the transistor.
When a transistor drives such a load, it experiences high instantaneous
power loss during the switching transitions. An example where this leads to
significant switching loss is the IGBT and the “current tail” observed during
its turn-off transition.
9. Other significant sources of switching loss include diode stored charge
and energy stored in certain parasitic capacitances and inductances.
Parasitic ringing also indicates the presence of switching loss.

10/16/2023 77
 END

10/16/2023 78