RUNWAY

DESIGN
 Design of Runways
Design of Runways – Determining required number of
runways & its orientation
Number of Runways → Volume of air traffic
Orientation → Direction of wind
Arrangement of Runways & Taxiways should comply
with following conditions
• Avoid delay in landing, taxiing, take off
• Should be shortest taxi distance from terminal area
& ends of runways.
• Should make provisions for adequate taxiways so
that runway gets clear quickly
• Should provide adequate separation in air traffic
pattern.
 Runway Orientation & Design

• “Rectangular area on an aerodrome used for

landing and take off “
• Runway orientation is important in airport
planning
• Current practice is to layout a runway in the
direction of prevailing wind
 IMPORTANCE OF RUNWAY
LAYOUT
• Determination of runway is a critical task
• It is very important for safe take offs and
approaches
• The width and sloping of runway also play
a role in safe approaches . It can be
illustrated by the figure below :
FACTORS AFFECTING RUNWAY
ORIENTATION
• WIND
• AIRSPACE AVAILABILITY
• ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
• OBSTRUCTIONS TO NAVIGATION
• AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL VISIBILITY
• WILD LIFE HAZARDS
• TERRAIN AND SOIL
CONSIDERATION
 Head wind
• It is the direction of wind opposite to the direction of
landing & take-off.
• It provides greater lift on the wings during take-off
operation.
• During landing, head wind provides braking effect &
hence aircraft comes to stop in a smaller length of
runway.
• Landing & take-off operations, if done along the
wind direction, would require longer runway.
 Cross Wind Component
• If the direction of wind is at an angle to the runway
centre line, its normal component is the cross wind
component.
• This may interrupt the safe landing & take-off.
 Cross Wind Component
• By FAA, the runway handling mixed air traffic should
be so planned that for 95 % of time in a year, the
permissible cross wind component does not exceed
25 kmph.
• The percentage of time in a year during which the
cross wind component remains within the limits is wind
coverage.
 Wind Rose
• The wind data, i.e., direction, duration and intensity of
wind are graphically represented by a diagram called
wind rose.
• Helps in obtaining the most suitable direction of
runway.
• Wind Data should usually be collected for a period of
atleast 5 yrs & preferably 10 yrs.
Two types of Wind Rose diagrams
1. Showing direction & duration of wind
2. Showing direction, duration & intensity of wind.
Type I Wind Rose
Type II Wind Rose
 Basic Runway Length
The length of the runway is designed based on following
assumed conditions:

i. Airport altitude is at sea level

ii. Temperature at the airport is standard (15˚C)
iii.Runway is levelled in longitudinal direction
iv.No wind is blowing on runway
v. Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
vi.There is no wind blowing enroute to destination.
vii.Enroute temperature is standard.
 Change in direction of Runway
• Always not possible to orient the runway exactly along
the direction as determined from the windrose.
– Obstructions: for layout of runway, obstruction free
approaches are more essential then permissible wind
component.
– Excessive grading: alternation due to excessive
grading and earth work
– Noise nuisance: if highly developed residential areas
and places of public assembly, etc. fall within the
take-off path
 Basic Runway Length
It is the length of runway under the following
assumed conditions at the airport:
– Altitude is at sea level
– Temperature at the airport is standard
– Runway is level in the longitudinal direction
– No wind is blowing on runway
– Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
– No wind is blowing en route to the destination
– En route temperature is standard
 Basic Runway Length
The performance characteristics considered in
determining the basic runway length are,
• Normal Landing case
• Normal take-off case
• Engine failure case

The case which works out the longest runway length

is finally adopted.
 Normal landing case
• Pilot approaches with proper speed and crosses
the threshold of the runway at a height of 15m
• The aircraft should come to stop within 60 % of
landing distance.
• R/w of full strength pavement is provided for
entire landing distance.

15 m

60% of

runway
 Normal take-off case
• Requires clearway, an area beyond runway & is in alignment with
centre line of runway.
• Width of the clearway should not be less than 150m and it should be
free from obstructions.
 Engine failure case
• This case may require either a clearway, or a stopway,
or both.
• Stopway is an area beyond the runway centrally located
in alignment with the centre line of runway.
• Stopway is used for decelerating the aircraft and
bringing it to a stop during an aborted take-off.
• It is used when engine failed at a speed less than
designated speed.
• The pilot decelerates the aircraft and makes use of the
stopway.
Engine Failure Case

Clearway > ½ this distance

10.5 m

Clearway
 Corrections in Basic Runway Length
• The basic runway length is corrected for the actual
conditions at the airport
• Necessary corrections are applied for changes in
elevation, temperature & gradient from assumed
conditions:

– Correction for Elevation

– Correction for Temperature
– Check for total correction for Elevation & Temperature
– Correction for Gradient
 Correction for Elevation
• High altitudes reflect low air densities, resulting in lower
output of thrust.
• Therefore, higher the altitude the longer the runway required.
• The increase in runway length with altitude is not linear and it
varies with weight and temperature.
• The rate of increase at higher altitudes is higher than at lower
altitudes.
• ICAO, however, recommends that the basic runway length
should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300 m rise in
elevation above mean sea level.
• There is exception for high temperature and high altitude
areas, where the increase could be up to 10%
 Correction for Temperature
• Higher temperatures reflect lower air densities resulting in
lower out put of thrust.
• Therefore, higher the temperature the longer the runway
required.
• The increase in runway length with temperature is not linear.
• The rate of increase at high temperatures is greater than at
lower temperatures.
• ICAO, however, recommends that the basic runway length
after having been corrected for elevation, should be further
increased at the rate of 1% for every 1oC rise of airport
reference temperature above the standard atmospheric
temperature at that elevation.
 Airport Reference Temperature
• If,
• T1 = Mean of the mean daily temperatures for the hottest
month
• T2 = Mean of the maximum daily temperatures for the
hottest month
• Then, airport reference temperature (T) is found out as
T = T1 + (T2 – T1)/3
 Standard Atmospheric
Temperature
• The standard temperature at mean sea level is
15oC.
• The temperature gradient of the standard
temperature from the mean sea level to the
altitude at which the temperature becomes -
15.5oC is 0.0065oC per metre.
• The temperature gradient becomes zero at the
elevation above the altitude at which the
temperature is -15.5oC.
 Check for Correction
• The total correction in basic runway length
for elevation and temperature should not
exceed 35%.
• If this correction exceeds 35% further
checks are needed using model studies.
 Correction for Gradient
• If the runway is on gradient, the aircraft
has to overcome the grade resistance.
• More runway length is required to achieve
the required speed for liftoff.
• Studies indicate that the runway length
varies linearly with the gradient.
• Airport design criteria limits the runway
gradient to a maximum of 1.5%
 Airport Classification
Basic Runway Length
Airport type
Maximum Minimum
A - 2100

B 2099 1500

C 1499 900

D 899 750

E 749 600
 Runway Geometric Design

i. Runway length
ii. Runway width
iii. Width & length of safety area
iv. Transverse gradient
v. Longitudinal & effective gradient
vi. Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
vii. Sight distance
 Runway Length
• Basic runway length as given in previous table.
• Actual length is obtained after applying all corrections
Runway Width
• ICAO recommends pavement width varying from 45 m
to 18 m.
• Width should be such that the outermost machine of
large jet aircraft should not extend off the pavement on
to the shoulders.
• Pavement width of 45 m will provide adequate
protection to engine.
 Width & Length of Safety Area
Safety Area = Paved area (runway) + shoulder on
either side of runway + area that is cleared, graded
& drained.
For non-instrumental runway,
Width of safety area – minimum 150m for A,B,C
types and 78m for D and E types.
For Instrumental Landing System,
Width of safety area should be minimum of 300m.
Length of safety area in longitudinal direction = Length
of runway + 120m.
 Transverse Gradient

• Essential for quick drainage of surface water.

• ICAO recommends that transverse gradient of
runways should not exceed 1.5% for A,B,C and 2%
for D & E type airports.
• Transverse gradient of less than 0.5% should be
avoided.
• For shoulders within 75m from centre line,
transverse gradient should not exceed 2.5% & for
remaining portion, it should not exceed 5%.
 Longitudinal & Effective Gradient

Airport Types Type of Gradient Gradient %

Longitudinal
1.50
A,B,C Gradient
Effective Gradient 1.00
Longitudinal
2.00
D,E Gradient
Effective Gradient 2.00
 Sight Distance

• ICAO recommendation for A,B,C types of

airports:
– Consider any two points 3m above the surface of
runway
– They should be mutually visible from a distance
equal to half the runway length
• For D and E types:
– There should be unobstructed line of sight from
any point 2.1m above runway within a distance
of at least one half the length of runway
 Runway Geometric Design
Airport Basic R/w Max. Max. Max. Rate of Safe Sight
type R/w Pave longit effect trans change ty distance
length ment udinal ive verse of long. area (m)
(Mini) width grade grade grade Grade (m)
(m) (m) (%) (%) (%) (%)
0.1 %
for 30m
½ the r/w
length
A 2100 45 1.5 1 1.5 150 length
of
H&h=3.0m
vertical
curve

B 1500 45 1.5 1 1.5 do 150 do

C 900 30 1.5 1 1.5 0.2 150 do

½ the r/w
D 750 22.5 2.0 2 2.0 0.4 78 length
H&h=2.1m
E 600 18 2.0 2 2.0 0.4 78 do
Airport Capacity &
Configuration
 Airport Capacity
• No. of aircraft movements which an airport can process
within a specified period of time with an average delay to
the departing aircraft within the acceptable time limit
• Two movements of aircraft – landing & take-off
• Practical operating capacity less than the ideal capacity
• Average delay period fixed at 6minutes
 Factors affecting airport
operating capacity
• Runway configuration and the connected
taxiways
• Aircraft characteristics and their arrival to
departure ratio
• Weather conditions
• Terrain and man-made obstructions
• Loading apron space
• Navigational aids
• Aircraft processing technique
• Runway configuration and the connected taxiways:
– Taxiways important to clear the landing aircraft from the
runways as soon as possible
• Aircraft characteristics and their arrival to departure ratio:
– Capacity of airport serving smaller aircrafts is generally
higher
– Airport capacity increases when the large turbo jet aircrafts
are removed
– Landing operation generally given priority over the take-off
operation
• Weather conditions
– Airport capacity during IFR condition is less than during
VFR conditions
– During clear weather conditions (VFR), the aircrafts on
final approach to runway can be spaced closer then during
poor visibility conditions
• Obstructions in Airport Vicinity
– Terrain or man-made obstructions in the vicinity of the airport restrict the
number of inbound and outbound air routes from the airport
• Loading apron space
– If sufficient space is not available for loading, unloading and parking
aircrafts
– Results in delay in the terminal area and even reduction in the number
of aircraft operations
• Navigational aids
– All the runways should be equipped with ILS approach
– Radar and surveillance radar can process the aircrafts more rapidly
• Aircraft processing technique
– Computer facility for the controller for processing the aircrafts rapidly
and thus reducing the delays
 Runway Capacity
• Ability of a runway system to accommodate aircraft
landing and take-offs
• Expressed in operations per unit time, i.e. operations per
hour or operations per year
• Ultimate or saturation capacity of a runway is the
maximum number of aircraft that can be handled during
a given period under conditions of continuous demand
• Factors affecting runway capacity
– Air Traffic Control
– Characteristics of Demand
– Environmental Factors
– Layout and Design of runway system
• Air traffic control
– FAA specifies minimum vertical, horizontal and lateral
separations for aircraft in the interest of air safety
– The minimum allowable horizontal separation is
typically 3.6 to 8 nautical km
– It depends upon the aircraft size, availability of radar
& the sequencing of operations
– The capacity of runway can be increased by inserting
a departure between pairs of arrivals
• Environmental factors
– Visibility, runway surface conditions, winds and noise
abatement requirements
• Layout and design of runway system
– Number, spacing, length and orientation of runways
– Number, locations and design of exit taxiways
– Design of ramp entrances
• Characteristics of Demand
– Separation between small aircraft following a heavy jet to 8
nautical km
– This decreases the capacity of runways
– Touch down speed, braking capability and ground
manoeuvrability affect the runway occupancy time for landing
which determines the time that a departing aircraft can be
released
 Gate Capacity
• Gate – aircraft parking space
• Ability of a specified number of gates to accomodate
aircraft loading and operations under conditions of
continuous demand
• Gate occupancy time depends on the following factors
– The type of aircraft
– Originating, turn around or through flight
– No. of deplaning and enplaning passengers
– Amount of baggage and mail
– Efficiency of apron personnel
– Allocations for exclusive use
 Runway Configurations
• Pattern of runways finally adopted depends upon volume
of air traffic to be handled, direction, duration and
intensity of wind, availability of suitable approaches.
• Basic patterns of runway
– Single runway
– Parallel runway
– Intersecting runway
– Non-intersecting runway
 Single Runway
• Simplest pattern of runway
• Usually adopted when wind blows in one direction for
most of the time in a year & the air traffic requirement
does not exceed the capacity of such pattern
• VFR conditions – 45 to 60 operations
• IFR conditions – 20 to 40 operations
 Parallel Runway
• Capacity depends upon the lateral spacing between the
two runways, weather conditions and navigational aids
available at the airport
• FAA has recommended a minimum spacing of 1500m
for planning purposes
• If terminal area is in between two runways as in the
staggered runways, the taxiway distances are reduced
• It gives unlimited scope for the expansion of the terminal
complex
PARALLEL RUNWAYS
There are 4
types of
parallel
runways
 Intersecting Runways
• Usually adopted when wind in a particular direction does not
provide the required coverage
• Simultaneous landing and take-off operations on both runways
depends upon the cross wind component on each runway
• When wind conditions are favorable for use of both the runways
the capacity depends upon
– Direction of landing and takeoff
– Lateral separation of the glide paths of the aircrafts
– Intersection point of runways
• Capacity will be maximum when the intersection point is near the
runway ends
• Decreases as it approaches towards the centre of the runways
INTERSECTING RUNWAYS
Two or more runways that cross each other are classified as
intersecting runways.
This type of runway is used when there are relatively strong
prevailing winds from more than one direction during the
year.
 OPEN-V RUNWAYS
Runways diverging from different directions but do not
intersect and form an open-V shape are ‘OPEN-V runways’
 Non-intersecting Runways
• Capacity of the system depends upon
– The wind conditions
– Visibility