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 Design of runway
◼ Basic runway length
◼ It is the length of runway under the following assumed condition
at the airport:
1. Airport elevation is at sea level,
2. Temperature at airport is standard (150C),
3. Runway is levelled in the longitudinal direction,
4. No wind is blowing on runway,
5. Aircraft is loaded at its full loading capacity,
6. There is no wind blowing on the way to the destination,
7. En-route temperature is standard.
 Design of runway
◼ The following case are considered for determining the basic runway
length
1. Normal landing case
2. Normal take-off case
3. Engine failure case
◼ Note for Jet Engine all three cases are considered while for Piston
Engine only 1st and 3rd cases are considered.
◼ The cases which works out the longest runway length is finally
adopted
Design of runway

1. Normal landing case

◼ The normal landing case requires that
an aircraft should come to a stop
within 60% of the landing distance.
The runway of full-strength pavement
is provided for the entire landing
distance.
Design of runway
2. Normal take-off case
◼ The normal take-off case requires a
clearway which is an area beyond the
runway and is in alignment with the
centre line of runway. The width of
clearway is not less than 150m and is
kept free from obstruction. The
clearway ground area or any object on it
should not project a plane inclined
upward at a slope of 1.25 percent from
runway end
Design of runway
3. Engine Failure Case
◼ The engine failure case may require either a clearway, or a stop way, or both.
◼ Stop way is an area beyond the runway and centrally located in alignment with the
centre line of runway.
◼ Stop way is used for decelerating the aircraft and bringing it to stop during aborted
take-off.
◼ If the engine has failed at a speed, less than the designated engine failure speed, the
pilot decelerate the aircraft and make use of stop way.
◼ If however, the engine fails at a speed higher than the designated speed, there is no
other option to the pilot except to continue take-off. The pilot may later take a turn in
the turning zone and land again for a normal take-off.
 Design of runway

◼ Correction for Elevation, Temperature and Gradient

◼ The basic runway length is for mean sea level elevation
having standard atmospheric conditions.
◼ For any change in elevation, temperature and gradient for
actual site of construction, necessary corrections are to be
applied to obtain the length of runway.
 Design of runway

◼ Correction for Elevation

◼ The air density reduces as the elevation increases, this in turn
reduces the lift on the wings of the aircraft and the aircraft
requires greater ground speed before aircraft becomes
airborne. To achieve greater speed, longer length of runway is
required.
◼ ICAO recommends that basic runway length should be increased
at the rate of 7% per 300m rise in elevation above MSL.
Design of runway

◼ Correction for Temperature

◼ The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as

that of the increase in elevation.
◼ Airport reference temperature = Ta + (Tm – Ta )/3
◼ Ta = monthly mean of avg. daily temp. for the hottest month of the year.
◼ Tm = monthly mean of the maximum daily temp for the same month
◼ ICAO – 1% for every 1ºc rise in airport reference temp.
◼ The standard temperature at the airport site can be determined by reducing
the standard mean sea level temperature of 150C at the rate of 6.50C per
thousand metre rise in elevation.
 Design of runway

Runway ◼ Runway Length and

Aircraft Basic Runway pavement Max. Longt. Width
type length width grade
◼ The basic length of
Max. (m) Min. (m)
runway
A 2100 45 1.5 % recommended by
ICAO for different
B 2099 1500 45 1.5 %
types of airport
C 1490 900 30 1.5 % are given in table:
D 899 750 22.5 2.0 %

E 749 600 18 2.0 %

Design of runway

Width and length of safety area

◼ Safety area consists of the runway plus the shoulder on either

side of runway plus the area that is cleared, graded and drained.
◼ The shoulder are usually unpaved as they are used during
emergency. The shoulders on the either side of runway impart a
sense of openness to the pilot and improve his psychology during
landing and take off.
◼ The width of the safety area is equal to the width of runway plus
120m.
Design of runway

Width of safety area (As

per ICAO standards)
Type
A,B and C D and E

Non- Instrumental
150 m 78 m
runway

Instrumental runway 300 m (min)

 Taxiway

◼ It is a path for an
aircraft at airport
connecting runways with
aprons, hangars etc.
Layout of taxiway

1. Arrangement : Aircraft which has just landed does not interfere

with the aircraft taxiing to take off

2. Busy airports : Taxiways should be located at various points along

the runway , it will be then be possible for the landing aircraft to
leave the runway as early as possible for making it clear for use by
other aircraft. Such taxiway is known as exit taxiway.

3. Crossing : Crossing or intersection of taxiway and active runway

should be avoided.
Layout of taxiway

4. Route: the route of taxiway should be made in such a way that it results in
the shortest practicable distance from the terminal area to the end of
the runway used for the take off

5. High turn off speed : if exit taxiways are designed for high turn off
speeds, the runway occupancy of the landing aircraft is reduced and it will
thus increase the airport capacity
taxiway

Geometric Design Standards

◼ Length of taxiway
◼ Width of taxiway
◼ Width of safety area
◼ Longitudinal gradient
◼ Transverse gradient
◼ Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
◼ Sight distance
◼ Turning radius
taxiway

Length of Taxiway
◼ It should be as short as practicable.
◼ No specifications are recommended by any organization.

Width of taxiway
◼ Width of taxiway is lower than the runway width (because when
aircrafts run on taxiway they are not airborne)
◼ The speed of an aircraft on a taxiway is also less than the
runway (the advantage of this is that pilot can manoeuvre the
aircraft over a smaller width of taxiway)
 taxiway
◼ Longitudinal Gradient ICAO recommends that the longitudinal gradient should not
exceed 1.5% for A and B types and 3% for C,D and E types

Taxiway Max. rate of

Max. Long. Max.
Classification width change of long. Safety area
Gradient Transverse
by ICAO Gradient /100 ft width
m Ft % Gradient %
%
A 22.5 75 1.5 1.5 1.0 Paved shoulders
B 22.5 75 1.5 1.5 1.0 are not
mandatory but
C 15.0 50 3.0 1.5 1.0 are suggested
D 9.9 33 3.0 2.0 1.2 if need exists
E 7.5 25 3.0 2.0 1.2
taxiway

◼ Rate of change of longitudinal gradient

◼ ICAO recommends that the rate of change of slope in longitudinal
direction should not exceed 1% per 30 m length of vertical curve for A,B
and C types and 1.2% for D and E types of airports.

◼ Sight Distance
◼ ICAO has recommended that the surface of taxiway must be visible from
3m height for a distance of 300m for A,B and C types and distance of 250
m be visible for 2.1m height for D and E types of airports.
taxiway
◼ Turning radius
◼ Whenever there is a change in the direction of taxiway a horizontal curve
is provided.
◼ It is necessary to design the curve in such a way that aircraft can
negotiate it without reducing the speed’
◼ Circular curve is most suitable for such cases and the radius of horizontal
curve is obtained by :
R= V2/125f
V = speed in kmph, coefficient of friction f = 0.13
taxiway

◼ According to Horonjeff’s equation, the radius of curve is given by,

𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟖 𝑾𝟐
𝑹=
𝟎. 𝟓 𝑻 − 𝑺
Where,
R = radius of centre line of taxiway in ‘m’
W = Wheel base of aircraft in ‘m’
T = width of taxiway pavement in ‘m’ (assume 22.5m)
S = distance between point of midway of main gears and the edge of taxiway
pavement.
taxiway
◼ Exit Taxiway
Function is to minimize the runway occupancy by the landing
aircraft . Its location depends upon the following factors:

◼ Air traffic control : rapidity and manner in which air

traffic control can process arrivals.
◼ Exit speed : the maximum speed with which the aircraft
can turn and enter the exit way is governed by the type of
aircraft . The value of exit speed will decide the location
of exit taxiway.
taxiway
◼ Angle of turn of 30° to 45° can be negotiated in a satisfactory manner. The
smaller angle are preferable because length of the curved path is reduced.
◼ For smooth and comfortable turn, the turning radius should be obtained from
following equation:
R= V2 /125f
◼ It is necessary to provide a compound curve for high turn of speeds of 65 to
95 kmph. It minimizes the tire wear on the nose gear and it is relatively easy to
establish it in the fields. Hence R2 > R1
◼ Aircraft approximates spiral but still compound curve is provided as it is
relatively easier to establish in field and its shape is similar to spiral
 taxiway
◼ The following radius is found to be
Speed experimentally suitable:
Radius (m)
(Kmph)
◼ The length of larger radius curve can be roughly
obtained from following relation:
65 517
L1 = (0.28 𝑉)3 / CR2 (take C = 0.39)
80 731 ◼ Sufficient sight distance must be provided
which can be obtained from following relation :
95 941 S.D. = (0.28 𝑉)2 / 2d
( d = deacceleration in m/𝑠𝑒𝑐2 )
 Airport Drainage

◼ An efficient drainage system is essential for the safe operation of the

aircraft, as also for the durability of the runway pavement. Thus, it is an
important aspect of airport pavement.
◼ Grading of an airport site is facilitate quick drainage of rain water, since
the site may be undulating.
◼ Airport grading is a bigger job than highway grading, as the runway width is
relatively large. This warrants drainage in both the longitudinal and
transverse directions.
◼ Airports are characterized by large areas of relatively flat gradient.
◼ they need an integrated drainage system.
◼ Removal of water should be done from runways, taxiways, aprons, parking
lots etc.
 Airport Drainage
◼ Aims of Airport Drainage:
◼ If the sub-surface drainage system is improper, it may moisten
and weaken the subgrade and thereby reducing load bearing
capacity.
◼ If surface drainage system is improper, it may results in ponding
on pavements which causes nuisance for landing and take-off
operations.
◼ It grants durability to pavements.
◼ It increases efficiency of the airport.
◼ It reduces the maintenance cost of airport.
 Airport Drainage

• Special characteristics of airport drainage.

• Extensive area to be drained
• Heavy wheel loads of aircraft
• Wide runways, taxiways and aprons to be kept dry
• Flat longitudinal and transverse gradients
• Absence of surface drains at the sides
• Rapid drainage requirement for safe operation of aircraft
• Combined drain pipes for surface water and subsurface water
• Concentration of the outfall flow
 Airport Drainage

• Basic requirements of airport drainage system:

• The capacity of the drainpipe should be sufficient enough to carry surface water as well as
ground water
• The system should be designed in such a way that future extensions of runway, taxiway can
be easily accommodated.
• The system should grant speedy collection and removal of drained water.
• The drainpipe material should be sufficient enough to withstand heavy concentrated loads of
the aircraft.