Airport Geometric Standard

Topics to be covered
 Runway length
 Runway width
 Sight distance
 Grades and change of grades
 Taxiways
 Aprons
 Orientation of runway
 Wind Rose diagram.
 Aircraft characteristics
1. Type of propulsion: the size of aircraft, its
circling radius, speed, weight carrying
capacity, noise and heat nuisance etc.
depends on type of propulsion.
 Piston engine.
 Jet engine.
2. Size of aircraft :

 Wing span

 Fuselage length

 Height (empennage height)

 Distance between main gear

 Wheel base and

 Tail width.
3. Minimum turning radius : is very essential in order
to decide the radius of taxiway, position of
aircrafts in landing aprons and hangers and to
establish the path of the movement of the aircraft.
4. Circling radius : depends on type of aircraft, air
traffic volume and weather condition.
 Micro-lites aircraft – 1.6km
 Jet engine – 80km
5. Speed of aircraft :
 Cruising speed/ground speed – aircraft
speed w.r.t ground when aircraft is flying
in air @ maximum speed.
 Air speed – speed of aircraft relative to
wind.
6. Aircraft capacity : capacity of runway
system and passenger terminal.
7. Weight of aircraft and wheel configuration
: structural design of runway, taxiway,
apron and hangers.
8. Jet blast : causes inconvenience to the
passenger travelling in aircraft. Bituminous
flexible pavements are affected by the jet blast,
CC pavements @ touch down portion. For
location, position and size of gates.
9. Fuel spillage : bituminous flexible pavements
are seriously effected by the fuel spillage.
10. Noise.
 Runway orientation
• Runway is always oriented in the
direction of prevailing winds.
• The direction of wind opp. to the
direction of landing and take-off (head
wind) provide greater lift on the wings
of aircraft when it is taking-off and
during landing head wind provides a
breaking effect and the aircraft comes
to stop in a shorter length of a runway.
• Landing and taking-off along wind
direction require longer runway.
Cross wind :
 If a wind blow making certain angle with a center
line of runway then it has two components, one
along the direction of runway center line VcosƟ
and normal to the direction of runway center line
VsinƟ. Where V is the velocity of wind.
 The normal component of the wind is called the
cross wind component and may interrupt the
safe landing and take-off of the aircraft.
 Depends on size & wing configuration. Small
aircraft <15kmph & mixed traffic
<25kmph(FAA), big aircrafts <35kmph(ICAO)
Wind coverage :
 The percentage of time in a year during which
the cross wind component remains within the
limits (as per FAA & ICAO specification) is called
wind coverage.
 A/C to FAA, the runway handling mixed traffic
should be so planned that 95% of time in a year,
the permissible cross wind component does not
exceed 25kmph.
 For busy airport, the wind coverage may be
increased to as much as 98% to 100%.
Wind Rose
• The graphical representation of direction, duration
and intensity of wind obtained from wind data is
called wind rose.
• Wind data – at least 5yrs, preferably 10yrs.
• Wind rose diagram helps in analyzing the wind
data and obtaining the most suitable direction of
the runway.
• The percentage of time during which the intensity
of wind is < 6.4(6)kmph is called calm period.
• Wind rose diagram is plotted in two types
• Type I: showing direction and duration of wind
• Type II: showing direction, duration and intensity
of wind
Wind rose diagram - Type I
• The radial line indicate the wind direction and
each circle represents the duration of wind.
• The values of percentage of time in a year
during which wind blows from different
direction are plotted along the corresponding
directions. All plotted points are then joined
by straight line.
• The best direction of runway is usually along
the direction of longest line on wind rose
diagram.
• Does not account the effect of cross wind
component.
Wind rose diagram – Type II
• Circle represents the wind intensity to some scale. The values in each segments
represents the percentage of time in a year during the wind blows with particular
intensity form the respective direction.
• The procedure for determining the orientation of runway is as follows:
• Step1 : draw three equally spaced parallel lines on a transparent paper strip in such a
way that the distance between the two near by parallel lines is equal to the
permissible cross wind component. This distance is measured with same scale with
which wind rose diagram is drawn.
• Step2 : place the transparent paper strip over the wind rose diagram in such a way
that the central line passes through the centre of the diagram.
• Step3 : with the centre of the wind rose, rotate the tracing paper and place it in such
a position that the sum of all values indicating the duration of wind, with in two outer
parallel lines, is the maximum. The runway should thus oriented along the direction
indicated by central line. The wind coverage can be calculated by summing up all the
percentages shown in segment. The percentage value is assumed to be equally
distributed over the entire area of the segment.
Change in direction of
runway
• Obstructions

• Excessive grading

• Noise nuisance
Length of runway
• Selecting the length of a runway is per
haps the important decision which
must be made in the planning of
landing area.

• Length of runway depends on

1.The type of aircraft

2.Its payload
Basic runway length
 It is the length of runway under the following
assumed condition at the airport:
1.Airport altitude at sea level
2.Temperature at airport is standard (150 c)
3.Runway is leveled in the longitudinal direction
4.No wind is blowing on runway
5.Aircraft is loaded at its full loading capacity
6.There is no wind blowing en route to the
destination
7.En route temperature is standard
• The following case are considered for
determining the basic runway length

1.Normal landing case

2.Normal take-off case Jet engine

3.Engine failure case Piston

The cases which works engine
out the longest
runway length is finally adopted
1. Normal landing case
• The normal landing case requires
that an air craft should come to a
stop within 60% of the landing
distance. The runway of full strength
pavement is provided for the entire
landing distance. stop
15 m

Runway

60% of landing distance

landing distance
2. Normal take-off case
• The normal take-off case requires a clearway
which is an area beyond the runway and is in
alignment with the centre line of runway. The
width of clearway is not <150m and is kept free
from obstruction. The clearway ground area or
any object on it should not protrude a plane
inclined upward at a slope of 1.25% from the
runway.
 Clearway ≤ ½ of this distance
10.5m height

Lift-off distance
115% of Lift-off distance

Distance to 10.5m height

115% of distance to 10.5m height ( take-off distance)
Longitudinal section

Min 150m
Runway Clearway

Plan
Normal Take-off Case
3.Engine Failure Case
• The engine failure case may require either a clearway,
or a stop way, or both.
• Stop way is an area beyond the runway and centrally
located in alignment with the centre line of runway.
• Stop way is used for decelerating the aircraft and
bringing it to stop during aborted take-off.
• If the engine has failed at a speed, less than the
designated engine failure speed, the pilot decelerate
the aircraft and make use of stop way.
• If however, the engine fails at a speed higher than the
designated speed, there is no other option to the pilot
except to continue take-off. The pilot may later take a
turn in the turning zone and land again for a normal
take-off.
 Clearway ≤ ½ of this distance
Engine
Decelerated – stop distance 10.5m
Failure
height

Stop way
Lift-off distance Clear way
Accelerated stop distance
Distance to 10.5m height ( take-of distance )

Longitudinal section

Clearway

Min 150m
Runway Stop
way

Plan
Engine Failure Case
 Correction for Elevation,
Temperature and Gradient
• The basic runway length is for mean sea
level elevation having standard
atmospheric conditions.

• For any change in elevation, temperature

and gradient for actual site of construction,
necessary corrections are to be applied to
obtain the length of runway.
Correction for Elevation
• The air density reduces as the elevation
increases, this in turn reduces the lift on the
wings of the aircraft and the aircraft requires
greater ground speed before aircraft becomes
airborne. To achieve greater speed, longer length
of runway is required.

• ICAO recommends that basic runway length

should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300m
rise in elevation above MSL.
Correction for Temperature
• The rise in airport reference temperature has the
same effect as that of the increase in elevation.
• Airport reference temperature

 Ta = monthly mean= ofTaavg.

+ (T m –temp.
daily Ta )/3
for the hottest
month of the year.
 Tm = monthly mean of the maximum daily temp.
 ICAO – 1% for every 10c rise in airport reference temp.
 Further the temp. gradient of the standard
atmosphere from the mean sea level to the altitude at
which the temp becomes 15.60 c is 0.00650 c per
meter.
Check for total correction
for elevation plus
temperature
• ICAO further recommends if the total
correction for elevation plus temp.
exceeds 35% of the basic length,
these correction should be further
checked up by conducting specific
studies at the site by model test.
Correction for gradient
• Steeper gradient results in greater
consumption of energy.
• ICAO does not recommends any specific
correction for the gradient.
• FAA – Runway length after being
corrected for elevation and temp. should
be further increased at the rate of 20%
for every 1% of specific gradient.
• Specific gradient – is the max. difference
in elevation between the highest and
lowest point of runway divided by the
total length of runway.
Runway width
• ICAO recommends the pavement width varying
from 18m to 45m for different types of aircraft.
• The width of runway pavement depends upon the transverse
distribution of traffic at a distance from the center line of
runway pavement. It is found that the aircraft traffic is more
concentrated in the central 24m width of the runway
pavements.
• Another consideration in determining the runway width is that
the outer most machine of larger jet aircraft using the airport
should not extend off the pavement on to the shoulders. This is
because the shoulder is usually of loose soil or established soil
etc. which is likely to get into the engine and damage it.
 Width and length of safety
• area
Safety area consists of the runway plus the
shoulder on either side of runway plus the
area that is cleared, graded and drained.
• The shoulder are usually unpaved as they
are used during emergency. The shoulders
on the either side of runway impart a sense
of openness to the pilot and improve his
psychology during landing and take off.
• The length of the safety area is equal to the
length of runway plus 120m.
 Type Width of safety area (As per ICAO
standards)
A,B and C D and E

Non-Instrumental 150m 78m

runway

Instrumental runway 300m (min)

 Transverse gradient
• Transverse gradient is essential for
quick drainage of surface water.
Description Gradient (As per ICAO
standards)
Type
A,B and C D and E

Runway 1.50% (max) 2.0% (max)

Shoulders Within a distance of 75m from the

center line of runway transverse
gradient should not exceed 2.5%
and for remaining portion of
shoulder, the transverse gradient
should not exceed 5%
 Longitudinal and Effective
Gradient
Description Type
A,B and C D and E

Longitudinal Gradient 1.5% 2%

Effective Gradient 1% 2%
 Rate of change of
longitudinal gradient
Description Type
A and B C D and E

Rate of change of 0.1% (max) per 0.2% (max) per 0.4% (max) per
longitudinal 30m length of 30m length of 30m length of
gradient (As per vertical curve vertical curve vertical curve
ICAS Standards)
Distance >300(a+b)…..m >150(a+b)…..m >49.5(a+b)…..m
between two
successive points
of grade
intersections (D)
FAA recommendations for longitudinal grade
changes in runway

Description Type
Small airport Large airport

Max. grade change 2% 1.5%

such as ‘a’ or ‘b’
should not exceed
Length of vertical 90m 300m
curve (L1 or L2) for
each one percent
grade change

Distance between 75(a+b)…..m 300(a+b)…..m

two successive
Taxiway
• Taxiway provides access to the
aircrafts from the runways to the
loading apron or service hanger and
back.
Taxiway

Taxiway
Runway

Runway and Taxiway

Factors to be considered for layout of taxiway
 Taxiway should be so arranged that the
aircrafts which have just landed and taxiing
towards the apron, do not interfere with the
aircrafts taxiing for take-off.
 At the busy airport, taxiway should be located
at various points along the runway so that the
landing aircraft leaves the runway as early as
possible and keeps it clear for use by other
aircrafts. Such taxiway are called exit taxiway.
 The route for taxiway should be so
selected that it provides the shortest
practicable distance from the apron.
 As for as possible, the intersection of
taxiway and runway should be
avoided.
 Exit taxiway should be designed for
high turn off speeds. This will reduce
the runway occupancy time of aircraft
and thus increase the airport
capacity.
 Geometric Design
Standards For Taxiway
• Length – should be as short as practicable.
• Width – lower than the runway width. This is
because the aircraft run on the taxiway are not air
borne and the speed of the aircraft on taxiway is
lower. Hence pilot can easily manoeuvre the
aircraft over a smaller width of taxiway.
• Width of safety area – it includes width of taxiway
pavement plus shoulder on either side. The width of
the shoulder is 7.5m on each side and are paved
with light strength material.
 Taxiway Geometrics (ICAO)
Type Taxiway width Max. Min. Max. rate of
(m) longitudinal transverse change of
gradient % Gradient % longitudinal
gradient per
30m, %
A 22.5 1.5 1.5 1
B 22.5 1.5 1.5 1
C 15 3 1.5 1
D 9.9 3 2 1.2
E 7.5 3 2 1.2

FAA recommends the transverse gradient of shoulder should be 5% for first 3m

and 2% for thereafter
Turning radius
• Whenever there is change in direction of a
taxiway, a horizontal curve is provided.
The curve is so designed that the aircraft
can negotiate it without significantly
reducing the speed. Circular curve with
larger radius is suitable for this purpose.
• The radius is given by R = V2/127f.
where; R is radius in m, V is speed in
kmph and f is 0.13.
• Subsonic jet transport – min. 120m.
• Supersonic jet transport – min. 180m.
• According to Horonjeff the radius of the
taxiway should be so provided that the
distance of the oleo strut of the nearby
main gear is not less than 6m from the
pavement edge.
• Horonjeff formula:
R = (0.388W2) / (T/2 – S)
Where;
→ R is the radius of the taxiway in meter
→ W is the wheel base of aircraft in meter
→ T is the Width of taxiway pavement in meter
→ S is the distance between midway point of the main
gears and the edge of the taxiway pavement in
meter.
• If the existing airport has to be upgraded to
accommodate supersonic transport, it may be
feasible to widen the pavement rather than
increasing the radius.
• Widening is done by providing a compound
curve of radii R1 and R2. the values of R1 and R2
is obtained using;
R2 = R – ((0.388W2 / R) + S)
→ If exp. ((0.388W2 / R) + S) < T/2, no widening is
needed. If it is > T/2, the radius R1 is
R1 =(Dr2+(T/2)+0.3R- R2 2-RT/2(R- R2)
where Dr = 3W-0.4R
if Dr<W then use W instead of Dr.
Widening at curves
Apron
• It is a paved area for parking of aircrafts, loading
and unloading of passenger and cargo. It is usually
located close to the terminal building or hangars.
• The size of the apron depends upon:
→Size of loading area required called as gate position
,for each type of aircraft.
→Number of gates
→Aircraft parking system:-Nose-in, Angle Nose-in,
Nose-out, Angle Nose-out, Parallel parking. (Refer
text book for explanation)
Hangar
• Hangar provides enclosure for servicing,
overhauling and doing repairs of the
aircrafts.
• Hangars are constricted of steel frame
and covered with GI sheets. They are
provided with machine shops and stores
for spare parts.
• The size of the hangar depends upon the
size of aircraft and its turning radius.
• Hangars are provided with adequate
light systems.
Hangar site location
 The site should such that there is a convenient
road access to it from the site to the aprons and
terminal buildings.
 Near to loading apron.
 The site should not be along the direction of
frequent storms as this is likely to damage the
hangar doors etc.
 Sufficient area to provide car parking facilities for
working personnel and other facilities such as
electricity, telephone, water supply and sewers
etc.
 Favorable topography providing good natural
drainage and adequate site area for future
expansion.