PSYC 101 Introduction to Psychology - Study Guide

Chapter 1- History and scope of psychology

1. What does the word "psychology" mean? - The scientific study of human
and animal behavior
2. Explain what behavior means? - Anything you do – eating sleeping,
talking, thinking, or sneezing is called behavior.
3. Why is psychology scientifically called or known as a science? -
because it relies on scientific methods i.e. use of empirical methods,
research controls and manipulate variables, objectivity, allows hypothesis
testing, results can be replicated etc. and because it was one of the last
sciences to be considered in an experimental way,
4. How do psychologists define "behavior" and "mind"?
5. In what disciplines do the roots of modern psychology lie?
6. What are the goals of studying Psychology? Describe, Explain, Predict,
control and Improve and what does it mean?
7. Give and Explain what each one of the five listed goal means.
● description means. Making a detail record of behavior
● Explain - Stating why or the causes of behavior
● prediction - The ability to accurately forecast what is likely to happen
● control – since you know what is likely going to happen then you can
control
● Improve - Altering conditions that influence behavior in predictable
ways
8. Trace the historical development of Psychology mentioning the
different waves: Introspection, Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism; and
Eclectic
9. Define and differentiate the following branches of Psychology:
● Structuralism - This deal with the structure of mental life.
Structuralists analyze experiences into basic elements.
● Functionalism - This comes from an interest in how the mind
functions to adapt us to our environment. Functionalists were strongly
influenced by Darwin.
● Behaviorism - This objected to defining psychology as the study of the
mind.
● Gestalt Psychology - This emphasizes the study of thinking, learning,
and perception in whole units, not by analysis into parts.
● Psychoanalytic Psychology - This says that our behavior is influenced
by vast areas of unconscious thoughts, impulses, and desires, which
cannot be know directly.

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 ● Humanistic Psychology - These psychologists focus on human
experience, problems, potentials, and ideals.
10. What is the difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist? -
The main difference between the two is that a psychiatrist has trained as a
medical doctor and can prescribe medication. A psychologist is not a
medical doctor and can't prescribe medication. Psychologists focus on
providing psychotherapy (talk therapy) to help patients.
11. What are the current psychological perspectives, their focus and how
they explain behavior? –
● Biological (Neuroscience)
● Psychodynamic
● Behavioral
● Humanistic
● Cognitive
● Cross Cultural
● Evolutionary

12. What is the scope of psychology?

13. Explain the uses of psychology.
14. Explain the following terms in research: Research; Hypothesis, variable,
independent variable; Dependent variable; theory and Random
assignment.
15. Describe the different research designs/ methods giving advantages
and disadvantages of using any of them: Naturalistic observation;
Survey; correlational; case study; longitudinal and cross-sectional design
16. Describe research biases and explain how those biases can be
overcome.
17. Compare and contrast case studies, surveys and naturalistic
observations and explain the importance of proper sampling.
18. Distinguish between a control group and an experimental group.
19. What is an extraneous variable?
20. Identify the common ethical guidelines

Chapter 2: Biology and Behavior

21. What is a neuron? Describe the three different types of neurons and
their primary function.
22. Describe the four functional structures of a neuron (dendrite, soma,
axon, and terminal buttons), and describe what they do. What is the
synapse?
23. What is the resting potential, and how does it relate to the presence
of ions inside and outside of the neuron?

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 24. What are neurotransmitters, and what is their function? How do they
interact with a receiving neuron? How are they removed from the
synaptic cleft?
25. Name the parts of neuron - Dendrites, soma, axon, and axon terminals
26. Describe the structure of neuron, and explain how neural impulses
are generated.
27. Explain the function of Synapses and Neurotransmitters - When a
nerve impulse reaches the tips of the axon terminals, it causes
neurotransmitters to be released into the synaptic gap.
28. Describe how nerve cells communicate, and discuss the impact of
neurotransmitters and drugs on human behavior.
29. Identify the major divisions of the nervous system and describe their
functions, noting the three types of neurons that transmit
information through the system.
30. Describe the specialized function of the Cerebral Hemispheres - The
left side of the brain mainly controls the right side of the body. The right
side mainly controls left body areas. Language is a specialty of the left
hemisphere. The right hemisphere is better at perceptual skills.
31. Name the parts of the Subcortex - Brainstem, midbrain, and forebrain
32. Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex, and briefly describe the
function of each
33. What does the Endocrine System produce and how can it affect
behavior? - It produces hormones that affect internal activities and
behavior.
34. Describe and briefly summarize the function of each of these
forebrain structures: the cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus and
limbic system (amygdala and hippocampus).
35. Identify the major divisions of the nervous system and describe their
functions, noting the three types of neurons that transmit
information through the system.

Chapter 3 Nature and Nurture

36. Define the following terms: Nature and Nurture
37. Discuss the danger of blaming nature and nurture for our own
personal failings.
38. Explain why we should be cautious about attributing children’s
success and failures to parental influence.
39. When it comes to human behavior what are the indicators of anti-
social behavior and pro-social behavior?
40. What differences are there between girls and boys behaviour and What
makes boys and girls behave differently?

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41. Explain the role of Heredity - Heredity is the transmission of physical
and psychological characteristics from parents to offspring through genes.
42. Explain the role of Environment - The environment determines many
characteristics about people. For instance, a baby born today could become
almost anything – a programmer, an engineer, a rapper, or a biochemist.
But an Upper Paleolithic baby could not possibly have grown into anything
except a hunter or food gatherer.
43. What are the two factors that determine similarities or differences
among members of the same family? – Reduction division and
Dominance and recessivenes
44. Name and describe some of the elements of Social Development - Self-
Awareness – being able to recognize yourself Social Referencing – being
aware of others
45. Name and describe the stages of Language Development They first
learn one word and use it a while. They then will learn a few more. They
then start to do telegraphic speech, where they only say two words at a
time. Then from here on, the vocabulary leaps exponentially.
46. Explain Cognitive Development using an appropriate example such as
the
47. conservation of matter - If you pour the same amount milk into a wide,
short glass and into a tall, narrow glass, the child will say that the taller
glass has more milk simply because they cannot handle transformations
like this.
48. Explain Erikson’s psycho-social development and the role of
dilemmas
49. Discuss Kohlberg’s theory in Moral Development - Morel thinking is
based on the preconventional level at first. This is followed by the
conventional level where actions are guided by a desire to conform to the
expectations of others. The third, postconventional level, represents
advanced moral development. This has self-accepted guidance.
50. Explain the role of Deprivation and Enrichment - This is the loss or
withholding of normal stimulation, nutrition, comfort, love, and so forth; a
condition of lacking.

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Chapter 4 Human development
51. Describe Piaget’s view of how the mind develops, and discuss his
stage theory of cognitive development, noting current thinking
regarding cognitive stages.
52. Discuss the effect of body contact, familiarity and responsive
parenting on infant social attachment.
53. Describe the benefits of secure attachment and the impact of parental
neglect and separation on childhood development.
54. Discuss possible effects of different parenting styles on children.
55. Describe Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, noting the
relationship between thoughts and actions.
56. Define adolescence and identify the major physical changes that
occur during the period of life.
57. Name the Problems of Childhood - Sleep disturbances, fears, being
overly timid, dissatisfaction, negativism, clinging, and reversals.
58. Name the problems of Adolescence - Early or late maturation can be a
problem. Searching for identity also may be one. Problems with parents is
another one.
59. Name the Challenges of Adulthood - Escaping from dominance, leaving
the family, building a workable life, crisis of questions, crises of urgency,
attaining stability, and mellowing.
60. Describe the problems of Aging Some may include self-acceptance,
relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, a purpose in life,
and personal growth.
61. What is Elizabeth Kubler-Ross’ contribution to life span development
especially on death and dying - That people generally follow the pattern
of denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and then acceptance.
62. Discuss the search for identity.
63. Discuss the major physical changes that occur in middle and older
adulthood.
64. Describe the impact of aging on adult memory and intelligence.
65. Discus the importance of family and work commitment in adult
development.
66. Explain why the path to adult development need to tightly linked to
one’s chronological age.

Chapter 5 Sensation

67. Define sensation and perception, and discriminate between the two.
Sensations can be defined as the passive process of bringing information
from the outside world into the body and to the brain. The process through
which the senses pick up visual, auditory, and other sensory stimuli and

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 transmit them to the brain; sensory information that has registered in the
brain but has not been interpreted. Perception Is the active process of
selecting, organizing and interpreting the information brought to the brain
by the senses, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. The
process by which sensory information is actively organized and interpreted
by the brain
68. Discuss the different processes of sensation.
69. How is visual perception aided by Gestalt principles of organization?
Describe at least four of these principles.
70. What's the difference between monocular and binocular depth cues?
Describe some of the cues that help us perceive depth. Which ones
can be used in pictures? Which one(s) are based on motion?
71. Briefly describe the process of Vision - Having light reflected off of
surfaces and being able to visually interpret the data.
72. Briefly describe the process Hearing - The ears pick up on vibrations.
Different wavelengths and amplitudes produce different sounds.
73. Briefly describe the working of Smell and Taste - The receptors for smell
respond primarily to gaseous molecules carried in the air. There are four
basic taste sensations: sweet, salt, sour, and bitter. We are most sensitive
to bitter and least sensitive to sweet.
74. Explain Adaptation - Adaptation refers to a decrease in sensory response
to a constant or unchanging stimulus.
75. What is meant by Attention - Being able to tune into certain senses that
the body brings in is how attention works.

Chapter 6 Perception

76. What is Perception? Perception Is the active process of selecting,

organizing and interpreting the information brought to the brain by the
senses, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. The
process by which sensory information is actively organized and interpreted
by the brain.
77. What are the factors that influence perception? Biological factors and
Social factors;
78. Distinguish between bottom-up processing and top-down processing,
and give an example of each.
79. Explain Perceptual Constancies - This is being able to take the data in
from the world and tame it into correct and useful information.
80. Explain Perceptual Grouping - Being able to take your visual sensations
and perceive things correctly
81. Explain the types of monocular cues: Interposition; Linear perspective;
Texture; Gradients; Relative Size; Light and Shadow and Motion Parallax
82. Explain how Perceptual Learning works - It is the process of being able
to learn based of what you perceive.

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 83. Distinguish between Motives and Perceptions - Motives can make you
notice different things. Like if you’re driving down the road and are hungry,
you will notice more restaurants and food related things.
84. What is perceptual, size, shape constancy?
85. Explain what are Perceptual Expectancies - Where past experience,
motives, or suggestions may create expectations that make you perceive
things a certain way
86. Explain Gestalt principles of organization.
87. Explain what is meant by (ESP) Extrasensory Perception - This is the
purported ability to perceive events in ways that cannot be explained by
accepted perceptual principles.

Chapter 7 Consciousness
88. List the name and number of the stages of Sleep there are there and
what takes place in each?
● Stage 1 – The beginning stage with REM
● Stage 2 – More sleep activity occurs; sleep spindles
● Stage 3 – Delta brain waves occur
● Stage 4 – Deep sleep is reached
89. Name and describe some Biological Rhythms - Your sleeping and not-
sleeping schedule has a rhythm to it. You get into a groove of where you
are expected to do one or the other at certain times.
90. Describe the following sleep disorders: sleep apnea, narcolepsy, sleep
walking, sleep talking, nightmares and night terrors,
91. Is hypnosis a myth? Briefly describe some of the useful aspects of
this state - No it is not. Some of the useful aspects are:
● Memory – can enhance
● Pain Release – can relieve pain
● Age regression – can regress some people to childhood
● Sensory changes – can make people’s sensory objects respond
differently to certain things.
92. How does one attain a meditative state? - Sit still and quietly focus on
some external object or on a repetitive internal stimulus.
93. Explain what is a Drug-Altered state of consciousness? - This is when
one has altered attention, memory, judgment, time sense, self-control,
mood, or perception.
94. Uppers: Amphetamines, Cocaine, Caffeine – describe uses and
dangers - These all bring you up and make you feel better and more alert.
The dangers are that they can give high blood pressure, hallucination, or
even convulsions.

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 95. Downers: Sedatives, Tranquilizers, and Alcohol – describe uses and
dangers - These give you anxiety reduction and sociability, but can also
cause toxic psychosis and neurologic damage.
96. Marijuana: describe uses and dangers - It’s used for relaxation, but can
also create lung cancer and other health risks.

Chapter 8 Learning
97. Define Learning - Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
that can be attributed to experience.
98. Name the steps of Classical Conditioning - This is doing something over
and over until the subject starts to respond to it.
99. Define each of the components of classical
conditioning: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,
conditioned stimulus, conditioned response.
100. What happens during extinction? How does extinction relate
to spontaneous recovery?
101. Give an example of (a) stimulus generalization and (b) stimulus
discrimination, distinguishing between the two.
102. What is a Skinner Box? - A simple device invented by B. F.
Skinner. It allows careful study of operant conditioning. When a rat presses
the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released.
103. Define generally the concept of reinforcement. What is positive
reinforcement? Give an example.
104. What is negative reinforcement? How is it different than
positive reinforcement? How is it similar?
105. Define shaping. Describe how you might use shaping to get a
dog to roll over. Describe how you might use shaping to get a child to
write letters properly.
106. How does punishment differ from reinforcement?
107. Distinguish between positive punishment and negative
punishment, and give an example of each.
108. What is a token economy? Is it based upon classical or operant
conditioning? Explain.
109. Describe the role of punishment in learning - Punishment lowers
the probability that a response will occur again.
110. Explain what is meant by Cognitive Learning - This refers to
understanding, knowing, anticipating, or otherwise making use of
information-rich higher mental processes.

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Chapter 9 Memory
111. What is memory? Differentiate between encoding, storage, and
retrieval of memories processes.
112. Discuss the three systems of memory.
113. Describe how memory is stored.
114. Describe each of the following types of long-term memory and
give an example of each: (a) episodic memory, (b) semantic memory,
(c) procedural memory.
115. Describe why organization helps to store information in LTM.
What is chunking?
116. Define amnesia, and distinguish between retrograde and
anterograde amnesia. What do amnesiacs remember
117. What are the stages of memory - Encoding, storing, and retrieving
118. Describe how memory can be measured - It can be measured by
recollection.
119. Describe the role of memory formation - Different things are put
into the brain differently. If something is more important and used more
often it will stay in the brain longer.
120. What is forgetting?
121. What are the different types of amnesia?
122. Can memory be improved? - Yes, by recitation, rehearsal,
selection, and some other things.

Chapter 10 Thinking and Language

123. What is thinking? - Thinking is mentally processing information.
124. Provide an example of how can mental imagery be useful? - It
can give a quick idea of what the item looks like – perhaps for solving a
rubrics cube.
125. Describe the role of concept formation? - This is the process of
classifying information into meaningful categories.
126. Describe the structure of language and its components -
Languages have words which are built out of phonemes and morphemes.
They also have grammar which helps form words into sentences.
127. Describe some different types of Problem Solving - Mechanical
solutions - or trial and error. Understanding – finding solutions by using a
higher level of thinking
Heuristics – reducing the number of alternatives and finding an answer
128. Explain Artificial Intelligence - AI refers to computer programs
capable of doing things that require intelligence when done by people.

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 129. Define Human Intelligence and describe some ways to measure
it - This is the intelligence of human beings. The most comment way to
measure it is with tests like the IQ Test.
130. Can Creative Thinking be taught? Can it be measured? -
Creative thinking can be taught. Yes, it can be measured by creativity tests.
131. Explain what is meant by intuitive thought - Intuitive thought is
quick, impulsive thoughts that do not make use of clear reasoning.

Chapter 11 Motivation
132. What is Motivation - the process by which activities are started,
directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants
are met. Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass
of water to reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.
133. What are the components of motivation? There are three major
components to motivation: activation, persistence and intensity.
134. Explain the different types of motivation.
i. Instinct and evolutionary Theory of Motivation
ii. Instinct and evolutionary Theory of Motivation
iii. Intrinsic Motivation
iv. Extrinsic Motivation
135. Discuss different theories of motivation.
a. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept that we have certain
biological drives, such as hunger

b. Optimum Arousal Theory of Motivation - The arousal theory of motivation

suggests that people take certain actions to either decrease or increase levels
of arousal
136. What are Primary Motives? - These are things that are needed
more than anything else.
137. Explain what Learned Motives are - These are motives or goals
that that are related to acquired needs for power, affiliation, approval,
status, and achievement.
138. Provide a distinction between Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Motivation - Intrinsic occurs when there is no obvious external reward or
purpose behind your actions. Extrinsic stems from obvious external
factors, such as pay, grades, etc.
139. Discuss the biological basis and psychological basis of hunger.
140. Where do emotions come from and how do they affect
behavior? - Emotions are a state characterized by physiological arousal,
changes in facial expression, gestures, and subjective feelings. Emotions
move us.

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 141. Name the stages of Sexual Development and describe what takes
place in
142. each stage - Two X chromosomes initiate development of a female;
an X and Y produce a male. A woman always produces an X and a male
has ½ X and ½ Y.
143. Sexual Behavior - This is the inescapable reality that springs from
the basic biology of reproduction.
144. List and explain some Theories of Emotion - The James-Lange
Theory, The Cannon-Bard Theory, and Schachter’s Cognitive Theory of
Emotion

Chapter 12: Stress and Health

145. What is stress? The term used to describe the physical, emotional,
cognitive, and behavioral responses to events that are considered as
threatening or challenging; Stressors, Distress and Eustress
146. What is Health Psychology? - This is the use of psychological
principles to promote health and to prevent illness.
147. What Are the Causes of Stress? Catastrophes, Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD)’ Major Life Events; Hassles etc.
148. List every day sources of stress. Frustration; Aggression;
Displaced aggression; Escape or withdrawal.
149. Discuss types of conflict.
150. Explain stress and social factors.
151. Explain the role of stress. Is it good or bad? - Stress occurs any
time we must adjust or adapt to the environment. A little bit of stress is
good, but too much may be damaging.
152. Define Frustration - Frustration is based on conditions outside of
the individual that impede progress toward a goal.
153. Discuss different ways of dealing with stress.
154. Provide an example of a Psychological Defense mechanism? -
Denial – protecting oneself from an unpleasant reality by refusing to accept
it or believe it.
155. Discuss factors that promote wellness.

Chapter 13 Personality theories

156. What are Personality Traits - These are lasting qualities within a
person.
157. Name some personality types - Athletic, motherly, silent type, and
so forth.
158. Describe Psychoanalytic Theory - The ID – made up of innate
biological instincts

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 ● The Ego – directs energies supplied by the id
● The Superego – judge or censor for the thoughts and actions of
the ego
159. Name and describe some Learning Theories - Social Learning
Theory – the cognitive behaviorism of social learning theory can be
illustrated by three concepts: the psychological situation, expectancy, and
reinforcement value.
160. What is meant by Humanistic Theory? - This is where people view
human nature as inherently good and they seek ways to allow our
potentials to emerge.
161. Explain Carl Rogers’ Self Theory - He said the fully functioning
person is one who has achieved an openness to feelings and experiences
and has learned to trust inner urges and intuitions.
162. Personality Assessment - Personalities are assessed through
interviews, observation, questionnaires, and projective tests.

Chapter 14 Psychological disorders

163. Explain what it means to be normal/abnormal? -
Psychopathology is characterized by subjective discomfort. That is,
unhealthy personality will be marked by unhappiness, anxiety, depression,
or other signs of emotional upset.
164. Where would one find a Classification of Mental Disorders? -
DSM-IV
165. What is a Personality Disorder? - These are deeply ingrained,
unhealthy personality patterns.
166. What is meant by Sexual Deviance - Sexual Deviance implies a
departure from accepted standards of proper behavior.
167. Explain the main features of Anxiety-Based Disorders - In most
anxiety disorders, the person’s distress seems greatly out of proportion to
the situation.
168. Differentiate between Psychosis and Neurosis - A person who is
psychotic undergoes a number of striking changes in thinking, behavior,
and emotion. Neurotic behavior is now classified as anxiety.
169. Provide an example of a Delusional Disorders - Somebody that
believes he is Jesus Christ may try to walk on water or perform miracles.
170. Describe features of Schizophrenia - In schizophrenia there is a
split between thought and emotions, which may become blunted, or very
inappropriate. Some people may be in panic. Some people may be in a
period of being frozen. There is also a type where people are paranoid.
171. What are the Mood Disorders? - Where one is either depressed or
bipolar (goes up and down).

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Chapter 15 Psychotherapy
172. Describe the key features of Psychotherapy - This is any
psychological technique used to facilitate positive changes in a person’s
personality, behavior, or adjustment.
173. Describe the key features of Psychoanalysis - This stresses that
repressed memories, motives, and conflicts cause people to develop rigid
ego-defense mechanisms.

Chapter 16 Social Psychotherapy

174. Group Structure - The network of roles, communication pathways,
and power in a group
175. Social Perception - Impressions formed of people from only the
smallest shreds of evidence.
176. Social Influence - Changes in a person’s behavior induced by the
presence or actions of the others
177. Is insanity a scientific word? If not, what kind of a term is it?
- Yes – Legally, a mental disability shown by an inability to manage one’s
affairs or to be aware of the consequences of one’s actions.

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