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3
 UNIT II
SEMICONDUCTING MATERIAL

SEM/ DEPARTMENT: I/ECE BRANCH

Batch/Year: 2024-2025

Created by: PHYSICS DIISION

Date:15-09-2024

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topics
S.No.
1 Course Objectives
2 Syllabus

3 Course outcomes

4 CO-PO mapping

5 Lecture Plan

6 Activity Based Learning

7 SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Classification of solids (Conductors,

Semiconductor and Insulator)

2.2.1. Based on Electrical Conductivity or

Resistivity
2.2.2. Based on Energy Band

2.3 Types of semiconductor

2.3.1 Based on material

2.3.1.1 Elemental Semiconductor

3.3.1.2 Compound Semiconductor

2.3.2 Based on Band Gap

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
S,No TOPICS

2.3.2.1 Indirect Band gap Semiconductor

2.3.2.2 Direct Band gap Semiconductor

2.3.3 Based on Presense of Impurity

2.4 Intrinsic Semiconductor

2.4.1 Atomic Structure of Silicon and Germanium

2.4.2 Covalent Bonding in Silicon and Germanium

2.4.3 Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor

2.4.4 Electron and hole current

2.5 Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

2.5.1 Expression for density of electron in

conduction band
2.5.2 Expression for density of holes in valence
band
2.5.3 Intrinsic Carrier concentration

2.5.4 Law of mass action

2.5.5 Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor

2.5.6 Expression for the electrical conductivity of

an intrinsic semiconductor and its variation with
temperature
2.5.7 Band gap determination

2.5.7.1 Experimental determination of Band

gap
2.6 Extrinsic Semiconductor

2.6.1 Classification of Extrinsic Semiconductors

based on the types of impurities added

6
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Topics
S.No.
2.6.1.1 N-type Semiconductor

2.7 Carrier Concentration in N-type

2.7.1 Expression for the density of electrons in

conduction band interm sof ND
2.7.2 P-Type Semiconductor

2.8 Carrier Concentration in P-Type Semiconductors

2.8.1 Expression for the density of holes in

valence band in terms of NA
2.8.2 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature
and Impurities (N-type semiconductor)
2.8.3 Variation of Fermi Level with Temperature
and Impurities (P-type Semiconductor)
2.9 Hall effect

2.9.1 Hall coefficient for n-type semiconductor

2.9.2 Hall coefficient for p-type semiconductor

2.9.3 Determination of Hall coefficient

2.9.4 Experimental Determination of Hall

Coefficient
2.9.5 Application of Hall effect

8 Solved Problems

9 Practice Quiz

10 Assignment-1

11 Assignment-2

7
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.No TOPICS

12 Part A Questions and Answers

13 Part B Questions

14 Supportive Online Certification Courses

15 Video Lecture Links

16 Real Time Applications in day to day life and to

Industry
17 Content Beyond the Syllabus

18 Mini Project

19 Simple Project

20 Prescribed Text books and Reference books

8
 COURSE OBJECTIVES

OBJECTIVES:

* To educate the fundamental important concepts in physics

and to apply the knowledge in solving scientific and

engineering problems.

* To impart the basic concepts of conducting materials,

semiconducting materials, opto and nanoelectronic devices,

light propagation in waveguides and electro-magnetostatics

and electrodynamics.

9
 PHYSICS FOR ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING

LTPC3023

UNIT II SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS (Theory-9)

Intrinsic semiconductors – Energy band diagram – Direct and indirect band gap

semiconductors – Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors – determination of

band gap - Extrinsic semiconductors - Carrier concentration in n-type and p-type

semiconductors – Variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity concentration

– Hall effect and its applications.

(Laboratory -6)

1. Band gap determination of intrinsic semiconductor

2. Determination of Hall-coefficient of semiconductor

10
 COURSE OUTCOMES

COs On completion of this course, the students will

be able to

Derive electrical and thermal conductivities using classical

CO 1 free electron theory

Use Fermi Dirac distribution function to determine the density

CO 2 of energy states

Distinguish between the types of semiconductors using the

CO 3 hall effect experiment devices

Associate the basic principles of working of laser and their

CO 4 applications in opto-electronic

Calculate the energy eigen value and eigen function for a

CO 5 particle in a one- dimensional and three dimensional box using
Schrodinger wave equations

CO 6 Relate the quantum properties of nanoscale materials with

their applications

11
 Course Outcome mapping with POs / PSOs

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO
COs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

CO1 3 2 1 1 - - - - - - - -

CO2 3 3 1 1 - - - - - - - -

CO3 3 2 2 2 - - - - - - - -

CO4 3 2 2 2 - - - - - - - -

CO5 3 1 1 1 - - - - - - - -

CO6 3 2 2 2 - - - - - - - -

12
 LECTURE PLAN
S.No. Topics to be No. of CO Taxonomy Mode of
covered period level delivery
s

1 Introduction
PPT, Chalk
1 CO2 K1
& Talk

2 Classification of
solids (metals,
conductors and PPT, Chalk
CO2 K1
semiconductors) 1 & Talk
Energy band
diagram
3 Types of
semiconductor,
PPT, Chalk
Direct and indirect 1 CO2 K1,K2
band gap & Talk
semiconductors

4 Intrinsic
PPT, Chalk
semiconductor 1 CO2 K2
& Talk

5 Carrier
concentration in CO2 PPT, Chalk
K2
intrinsic 1 & Talk
semiconductor
6 Band gap
PPT, Chalk
determination 1 CO2 K2
& Talk

7 Extrinsic
semiconductor
Variation of fermi 1
PPT, Chalk
level with CO2 K2
temperature and & Talk
impurity
concentration
8 Hall effect and its
PPT, Chalk
applications 1 CO2 K3
& Talk

9 Problems 1
PPT, Chalk
CO2 K3
& Talk

13
 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING

NAME OF
LEARNING
S. No. THE ACTIVITY
OUTCOME
ACTIVITY
HANDS ON EXPERIENCE

On completing
this activity,
students will be
able to
Determination
1 understand the
of bandgap
determination of
band gap of given
semiconducting
material.

14
2. Examine the interrelated nature of culture and materials engineering.
Explaining and Predicting the Properties of Materials Using Quantum
Theory

3. How does Silicon a natural semiconductor turn out to be a

superconductor? Discuss in your group and validate.
Inorganic materials for transient electronics in biomedical applications -
John Rogers

4. Give a two page write up on the various biomedical applications

where different forms of Silicon are used after listening to the above
video lecture. Also predict about the scope of Silicon in the near future.

15
 UNIT II

SEMICONDUCTING MATERIAL

16
2.1 INTRODUCTION
We are living in the information age. Large amounts of information are transferred
over long distances through internet. The base for these technology revolution is the
invention of transistor and integrated circuit (IC) Fig 2.1.

Fig 2.1 Integrated circuit

IC products includes wireless communication systems (Fig. 2.2a), including printers,

faxes, laptop computers, iPods (Fig. 2.2b), and of course the cell phones.

Integrated circuit are made of semiconducting materials. Moreover semiconductor

devices in which a controlled flow of electrons can be obtained are the basic building
blocks of all the electronic circuits. Intense research on silicon processing and
increased automation in design and manufacturing have led to lower costs, higher
fabrication yields, and greater reliability of integrated circuits. In the following
sections, we will introduce the basic concepts of semiconductor materials.

Fig 2.2 IC products a) wireless communications b) IPods

17
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID (CONDUCTOR,
SEMICONDUCTOR AND INSULATOR)

2.2.1. BASED ON ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OR RESISTIVITY

Table 2.1 Classification of solids on the basis of conductivity and resistivity

PROPERTY METALS SEMICONDUCTOR INSULATOR

Resistivity (ρ) 10–2 – 10–8 Ω m 10–5 – 106 Ω m 1011 – 1019 Ω m

Conductivity 102 – 108 Ω–1m–1 105 – 10–6 Ω–1m–1 10–11 – 10–19 Ω–1m–1
(σ)

Table 2.1 explains the classification of solids on the basis of conductivity and
resistivity. Relative values of the resistivity are not the only criteria for distinguishing
metals, insulators and semiconductors from each other.

2.2.2. BASED ON ENERGY BAND

Inside the crystal, no two electrons see exactly the same pattern of surrounding
charges. Hence each electron will have a different energy level. These different
energy levels with continuous energy variation form what are called energy bands.
The energy levels of the valence electrons combine together to form the valence
band. The energy band above the valence band is called the conduction band. The
gap between the valence band and conduction band is said to be energy gap. With
no external energy, all the valence electrons will reside in the valence band.
Normally the conduction band is empty and valence band is filled. When the valence
band overlaps with conduction band, electrons can move freely into it and is
responsible for current conduction. This is the case with metallic conductors (shown
in Fig 2.3).

18
 Fig 2.3 Position of conduction band and valence band in a conductor

If there is some gap between the conduction band and the valence band, electrons
in the valence band all remain bound and no free electrons are available in the
conduction band. This makes the material an insulator (Eg>3 eV) (shown in Fig 2.4).

But some of the electrons from the valence band may gain external energy to cross
the gap between the conduction band and the valence band. Then these electrons
will move into the conduction band. At the same time they will create vacant energy
levels in the valence band where other valence electrons can move. Such materials
with less energy gap are called semiconductors (E g < 3 eV) (shown in Fig 2.5).

Fig 2.4 Position of conduction band and valence band in an insulator

19
 Fig 2.5 Position of conduction band and valence band in a semiconductor

Table 2.2 given below explains the difference between conductor, semiconductor
and insulator based on its properties

Table 2.2 Difference between conductor, semiconductor and insulator

based on their properties

Characteristics Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

A conductor is a A semiconductor is a
An insulator is a
material that allows material whose
material that does
Definition the flow of charge conductivity lies
not allow the flow
when applied with a between conductor
of current.
voltage. and insulator

The resistance of a
semiconductor
The resistance of a Insulator has very
decrease with
Temperature conductor increases high resistance but
increases in
Dependence with an increase in it still decreases
temperature. Thus it
temperature. with temperature.
acts as an insulator at
absolute zero.

20
Characteristics Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

They have
The conductors have They have very low
intermediate
very high conductivity conductivity
conductivity (105 to
(102 to 108 Ω-1 m-1), (10-11 to
Conductivity 10-6 Ω-1 m-1), thus they
thus they can conduct 10-19 Ω-1m-1), thus
can acts as insulator
electrical current they do not allow
and conductor at
easily. current flow.
different conditions.

The conduction in The conduction in There are no free

conductors is due to semiconductor is due electrons or holes
Conduction
the free electrons in to the movement of thus, there is no
metal bonding. electron and holes. conduction.

The band gap of The band gap in

There is no or low semiconductor is insulator is huge
energy gap between greater than the (>5 eV), which
the conduction & conductor but smaller need an enormous
Band gap valance band of a than an insulator amount of energy
conductor. It does not i.e. 1-3 eV. Their like lightning to
need extra energy for electrons need a little push electrons into
the conduction state. energy for conduction the conduction
state. band.

Low (10-2 to 10-8

Normal (10–5 – 106 Very high (1011 –
Resistivity Ω m)
Ω m) 1019 Ωm)

The coefficient of
It has positive
resistivity of an
coefficient of resistivity It has negative
Coefficient of insulator is
i.e. its resistance coefficient of
Resistivity also negative but it
increase with resistivity.
has very huge
temperature
resistance.

21
Characteristics Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

Some special
conductors turn into The insulator’s
superconductors The semiconductors resistance
At Absolute Zero when cooled down turn into insulator at increase when
to absolute zero absolute zero. cooled down to
while others have absolute zero.
finite resistance.

Valence Electron 1 Valence electron in 4 Valence electron in 8 Valence electron

in Outer Shell outer shell. outer shell. in outer shell.

Silicon, Germanium,
Selenium, Antimony, Rubber, Glass,
Gold, Copper, Silver,
Examples Gallium Arsenide Wood, Air, Mica,
Aluminum etc
(known as semi Plastic, Paper etc.
insulator), Boron etc.

Semiconductors are The insulators are

The metals like iron
used every day used for
& copper etc. that
electronic devices such protection against
can conduct
as cellphone, computer, high voltages &
Application electricity are made
solar panel etc as prevention of
into wires and cable
switches, energy electrical short
for carrying electric
converter, amplifiers, between cables in
current.
etc. circuits.

2.3 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTOR

2.3.1 BASED ON MATERIAL

2.3.1.1 ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS

The elemental semiconductor is made of single element from the fourth column of
the periodic table. They are also called as indirect band gap semiconductors.
Ex: Silicon and Germanium

22
2.3.1.2 COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS

Semiconductors formed by combinations of equal atomic fractions of fifth and third

column or sixth and second column elements are called compound semiconductors.
They are also called as direct band gap semiconductors.

Ex: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO etc.

2.3.2 BASED ON BAND GAP

Consider a single electron is traveling through a perfectly periodic lattice. The wave
function of the electron is assumed to be in the form of a plane wave moving, for
example, in the x- direction with propagation constant k, also called a wave
vector.The space-dependent wave function for the electron

𝛹𝑘 𝑥 = 𝑈 𝑘𝑋 , 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥𝑥 .𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥𝑥 where the function 𝑈 𝑘𝑋 , 𝑥 modulates the wave function

according to the periodicity of the lattice. In such a calculation, allowed values of
energy can be plotted vs. the propagation constant k. Since the periodicity of most
lattices is different in various directions, the (E, k) diagram must be plotted for the
various crystal directions, and the full relationship between E and k is a complex
surface which should be visualized in three dimensions.

2.3.2.1 INDIRECT BAND GAP SEMICONDUCTOR

An electron in the conduction band minimum of an indirect semiconductor such as Si

cannot fall directly to the valence band maximum but must undergo a momentum
changeas well as changing itsenergy.In an indirect transition which involves a
change in k (Fig 2.6), part of the energy is generally given up as heat to the lattice
rather than as an emitted photon

Fig 2.6 Indirect band gap

23
2.3.2.2 DIRECT BAND GAP SEMICONDUCTOR
In a direct semiconductor such as GaAs, an electron in the conduction band can fall
to an empty state in the valence band, giving off the energy difference 𝐸𝑔as a
photon of light. example, it may go through some defect state (𝐸𝑙 ) within the band
gap. band structure of GaAs has a minimum in the conduction band and a maximum
in the valence band for the same k value (k= 0) (Fig 2.7).

Fig 2.7 Direct band gap

2.3.3 BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF IMPURITY

Semiconductors are classified as,

(i) Intrinsic semiconductor

(ii) Extrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor and Extrinsic semiconductor are explained in detail in the

following sections.

24
2.4 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. Silicon and germanium are
the most common examples of intrinsic semiconductors. Both these semiconductors
are most frequently used in the manufacturing of transistors, diodes and other
electronic components.

Intrinsic semiconductor is also called as undoped semiconductor or I-type

semiconductor. In intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons in the conduction
band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band. Therefore the overall
electric charge of an atom is neutral.

2.4.1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF SILICON AND GERMANIUM

The atomic number of silicon is 14. Silicon atom has 14 electrons (two electrons in
first orbit, eight electrons in second orbit and 4 electrons in the outermost orbit).

The atomic number of germanium is 32. Germanium has 32 electrons (2 electrons in

first orbit, 8 electrons in second orbit, 18 electrons in third orbit and 4 electrons in
the outermost orbit). Fig. 3.8 shows atomic structure of silicon and germanium.

2.4.2 COVALENT BONDING IN SILICON AND GERMANIUM

The outermost shell of atom is capable to hold up to eight electrons. The atom
which has eight electrons in the outermost orbit is said to be completely filled and
most stable. But the outermost orbit of silicon and germanium has only four
electrons. Both categories of atom needs four more electrons to become most
stable. Silicon atom forms four covalent bonds with the four neighboring atoms.

Fig. 2.8 Atomic structure of silicon and germanium

25
 Fig. 2.9 Covalent Bonding of silicon and germanium

Here this conditioned is achieved by sharing of electrons as shown in Fig. 2.9. In

intrinsic semiconductors free electrons are not present at absolute zero temperature.
Therefore intrinsic semiconductor behaves as perfect insulator, and it could be
identified from the band diagram shown in Fig 2.10.

Fig. 2.10 Energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor

2.4.3 FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

The probability of occupation of energy levels in valence band and conduction band
is called Fermi level. At absolute zero temperature intrinsic semiconductor acts as
perfect insulator. However as the temperature increases free electrons and holes get
generated.

26
 Fig.2.11 Energy band diagram showing Fermi level of intrinsic semiconductor

In intrinsic or pure semiconductor, the number of holes in valence band is equal to

the number of electrons in the conduction band. Hence, the probability of
occupation of energy levels in conduction band and valence band are equal.
Therefore, the Fermi level for the intrinsic semiconductor lies in the middle of
forbidden band. Fermi level in the middle of forbidden band shown in Fig 3.11
indicates equal concentration of free electrons and holes.

2.4.4 ELECTRON AND HOLE CURRENT

In conductors current is caused by only motion of electrons but in semiconductors

current is caused by both electrons in conduction band and holes in valence
band. Current that is caused by electron motion is called electron current and
current that is caused by hole motion is called hole current. Electron is a negative
charge carrier whereas hole is a positive charge carrier. At absolute zero
temperature intrinsic semiconductor behaves as insulator. However, at room
temperature the electrons present in the outermost orbit absorb thermal energy.
When the outermost orbit electrons get enough energy then they will break bonding
with the nucleus of atom and jumps in to conduction band. The electrons present in
conduction band are not attached to the nucleus of an atom so they are free to
move. When the valence electron moves from valence band to the conduction band
a vacancy is created in the valence band where electron left. Such vacancy is called
hole. Electron flow and hole flow is clearly shown on Fig 2.12.

27
 Fig.2.12 Electron flow and hole flow

2.5 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN INTRINSIC

SEMICONDUCTOR

2.5.1 EXPRESSION FOR DENSITY OF ELECTRON IN

CONDUCTION BAND

The number of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band is given by
∞

𝑛𝑒 = න 𝑍 𝐸 𝐹 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 …(2.1)
𝐸𝐶

Fig.2.13 Energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor at 0 K and at a finite

temperature T

28
 3/2
𝜋 8𝑚
𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸1/2 𝑑𝐸 …(2.2)
2 ℎ2

where, 𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 is the density of electron states

𝐹 𝐸 is the Fermi function.

But, as you can see in Fig. 2.13, the conduction band energies varies from 𝐸𝐶 to ∞.
The electron’s mass ‘m’ is replaced by its effective mass 𝑚𝑒∗ and 𝐸 is replaced by
(𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 ).
3/2
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗
𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = (𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 )1/2 𝑑𝐸 …(2.3)
2 ℎ2

We know that the Fermi function

1
𝐹 𝐸 = …(2.4)
𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
1 + exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝐹 is the energy of the Fermi level which is exactly at the centre of the forbidden
energy gap in the case of the intrinsic semiconductor and 𝑘𝐵 is the Boltzmann
constant.

But,
𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 ≫ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
≫1
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Therefore,
𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
1 + exp = exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

On substituting the above equation in (2.4) we get

1
𝐹 𝐸 =
𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
It could be further rewritten as

𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸
𝐹 𝐸 = exp …(2.5)
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

29
On substituting eqn. (2.3) and (2.5) in eqn. (2.1) we get
∞ 3/2
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸
𝑛𝑒 = න (𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 )1/2 𝑑𝐸 exp …(2.6)
2 ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝐶

To solve this integral, we assume that

𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 = 𝑥𝑘𝐵 𝑇

If 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐶 , then 𝑥 = 0 and if 𝐸 = ∞, then 𝑥 = ∞.

We also know that, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐶 + 𝑥𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑑𝑥

Substitute all the above values in eqn. (3.6), we get,

∞ 3/2
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐸𝐹 − (𝐸𝐶 + 𝑥𝑘𝐵 𝑇) …(2.7)
𝑛𝑒 = න (𝑥𝑘𝐵 𝑇)1/2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑑𝑥 exp
2 ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
0

On simplification we get

3/2 ∞
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 …(2.8)
𝑛𝑒 = exp න 𝑥1/2 exp −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
0

The integral in the above eqn. (2.8) will have the result as
∞
𝜋
න 𝑥1/2 exp −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2
0

Then, the eqn. (2.8) becomes

3/2
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 𝜋
𝑛𝑒 = exp
2 ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2

3/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑛𝑒 = 2 exp …(2.9)
ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

The above eqn. (2.9) gives the number of electrons in the conduction band per unit
volume of a given intrinsic semiconductor.

30
2.5.2 EXPRESSION FOR DENSITY OF HOLES IN VALENCE BAND

The number of holes in the valence band can be calculated similar to that for
electrons in the conduction band.

The number of holes in the valence band between the energy interval 𝐸 and 𝐸 + 𝑑𝐸.
𝐸𝑉

𝑛ℎ = න 𝑍 𝐸 1−𝐹 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 …(2.10)
−∞

where 1 − 𝐹 𝐸 is the probability of finding a hole in the energy state 𝐸.

1
1−𝐹 𝐸 = 1−
𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
1 + exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
1 + exp −1
𝑘𝐵 𝑇
= …(2.11)
𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
1 + exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

Since at ordinary temperatures, for a semiconductor we have

𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 ≪ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
≪1
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
1 + exp ≈1
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

Then eqn. (2.11) becomes

𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 …(2.12)
1 − 𝐹 𝐸 = exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇

We know that the density of holes in the valance band is

3/2
𝜋 8𝑚 …(2.13)
𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸1/2 𝑑𝐸
2 ℎ2

Hole mass 𝑚is replaced by its effective mass 𝑚ℎ∗ ; 𝐸 is replaced by 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸 .

31
 3/2
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗
𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸 1/2
𝑑𝐸 …(2.14)
2 ℎ2

On substituting eqn. (2.12) and (2.14) in eqn. (2.10) we get

𝐸𝑉 3/2
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛ℎ = න (𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸)1/2 𝑑𝐸 exp …(2.15)
2 ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
−∞

To solve this integral, we assume that

𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸 = 𝑥𝑘𝐵 𝑇

If 𝐸 = −∞, 𝐸𝑉 − (−∞) = 𝑥𝑘𝐵 𝑇, then 𝑥 = ∞ and if 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑉 , then 𝑥 = 0.

We also know that, 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑉 − 𝑥𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝑑𝐸 = −𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑑𝑥

Substitute the above values in eqn. (2.15), we get,

𝐸𝑉 3/2
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐸𝑉 − 𝑥𝑘𝐵 𝑇 − 𝐸𝐹 …(2.16)
𝑛ℎ = න (𝑥𝑘𝐵 𝑇)1/2 −𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑑𝑥 exp
2 ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
−∞

On simplification,
3/2 ∞
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛ℎ = exp න 𝑥1/2 exp −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 …(2.17)
2 ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
0

But,
∞
𝜋
න 𝑥1/2 exp −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2
0

Then, eqn. (2.17) becomes

3/2
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹 𝜋
𝑛ℎ = exp
2 ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2

3/2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛ℎ = 2 exp …(2.18)
ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

The above eqn. (2.18) gives the number of holes in the valance band per unit
volume of a given intrinsic semiconductor.

32
2.5.3 INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION (𝒏𝒊)

In intrinsic semiconductors, 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ
where 𝑛𝑖 is called intrinsic carrier concentration.

Therefore,
𝑛𝑖2 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑛ℎ …(2.19)

On substituting eqn. (3.9) and (3.18) in eqn. (3.19), we get

3/2 3/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑛𝑖2 = 2 exp 2 exp
ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
3
2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑛𝑖2 =4 𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ 3/2
exp
ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

On taking square root on both sides in the above equation, we get

3/2
2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐶
𝑛𝑖 = 2 𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ 3/4
exp …(2.20)
ℎ2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

But, 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝑔 , which is the forbidden energy gap. On replacing 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐶 with 𝐸𝑔

in eqn. (2.20) we get
3/2
2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇 −𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = 2 𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ 3/4
exp …(2.21)
ℎ2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

2.5.4 LAW OF MASS ACTION

The law of mass action states that the product of number of electrons in the
conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band is constant at a fixed
temperature and is independent of amount of donor and acceptor impurity added.
Mathematically it is represented as
𝑛𝑒 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖2 =constant
where 𝑛𝑖 is the intrinsic carrier concentration
𝑛𝑒 is number of electrons in conduction band
𝑛ℎ is number of holes in valence band.

33
2.5.5 FERMI LEVEL IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUTOR

Since, 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ in intrinsic semiconductors, eqn. (2.9) = eqn. (218)

3/2 3/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
2 exp =2 exp
ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 𝐸𝑉 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑚𝑒∗ 3/2
exp = 𝑚ℎ∗ 3/2
exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

3/2
𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝐹 𝑚ℎ∗
exp =
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑚𝑒∗

3/2
2𝐸𝐹 𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝐶
exp = exp
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

On taking logarithm on both sides of the above equation, we get

2𝐸𝐹 3 𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝐶
= log +
𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2 𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇

3𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝐶
𝐸𝐹 = log ∗ + …(2.22)
4 𝑚𝑒 2

If we assume that 𝑚𝑒∗ = 𝑚ℎ∗ , then

𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝐶
𝐸𝐹 = …(2.23)
2

Fig 2.14 Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor

34
Thus Fermi level is located half way between the valence and conduction bands and
its position is independent of temperature. Since 𝑚𝑒∗ is slightly less than 𝑚ℎ∗ , 𝐸𝐹 is
just above the middle and rises slightly with increase in temperature as shown in the
Fig. 2.14.

2.5.6 EXPRESSIONS FOR THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF

AN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR AND ITS VARIATION WITH
TEMPERATURE

On the basis of free electron theory, the conductivity of metals is given by

𝜎=𝑛𝑒𝜇 …(2.24)

But in the case of semiconductors, as there are two different types of charge
carriers, the expression for conductivity is written as
𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑒 𝜇ℎ

𝜎 = 𝑒 (𝑛𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝜇ℎ ) …(2.25)

where 𝑛𝑒 is the number of electrons in unit volume in the conduction band,

𝑛ℎ is the number of holes per unit volume in the valence band
𝜇𝑒 is the mobility of electrons in the conduction band
𝜇ℎ is the mobility of holes in the valance band and
𝑒 is the charge of an electron or hole (1.6 x 10-19 C)

We know that in the case of intrinsic semiconductors, 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖 . So, eqn. (2.25)

for the case of intrinsic semiconductor becomes
𝜎𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒 (𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ) …(2.26)

Substituting the expression for 𝑛𝑖 from eqn. (2.21) in the above eqn. (2.26), we get
the expression for the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor as
3/2
2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇 −𝐸𝑔
𝜎𝑖 = 2𝑒 𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ 3/4
exp (𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ) …(2.27)
ℎ2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

−𝐸𝑔
𝜎𝑖 = 𝐶 exp …(2.28)
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇 3/2
where 𝐶 = 2𝑒 𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ 3/4
(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ) is a constant.
ℎ2

35
 Fig 2.15 Log i verses 1/T

Taking logarithm on both sides of eqn. (2.28), we get

𝐸𝑔
log(𝜎𝑖 ) = log 𝐶 − …(2.29)
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

A typical graph drawn between 1/T and log  is shown in Fig. 3.15. From the graph,
we understand that conductivity increases with increase in temperature.

2.5.7 BAND GAP DETERMINATION

We know that eqn. (2.28) is an expression for the conductivity of an intrinsic

semiconductor. On inverting the eqn. (3.28), we get an expression for the resistivity
of a semiconductor as
1 𝐸𝑔
𝜌𝑖 = exp
𝐶 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝑅𝑖 𝐴 1 𝐸𝑔
= exp
𝐿 𝐶 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝐿 𝐸𝑔
𝑅𝑖 = exp
𝐴𝐶 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝑔
𝑅𝑖 = 𝐶1 exp …(2.30)
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇
where 𝐶1 = 𝐿/𝐴𝐶.

On taking logarithm on both sides we get

𝐸𝑔
log(𝑅𝑖 ) = log 𝐶1 + …(2.31)
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

36
 Fig 2.16 Log Ri verses 1/T

Fig. 2.16 shows the plot of a curve between 1/𝑇 and log(𝑅𝑖 ). The slope of the curve
gives the value of 𝐸𝑔 /2𝑘𝐵 .

From the graph,

𝑑𝑦 𝐸𝑔
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑘𝐵
Therefore,
𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝑔 = 2𝑘𝐵 𝐸𝑔 = 2𝑘𝐵 × Slope …(2.32)
𝑑𝑥

where 𝑘𝐵 is the Boltzmann constant.

2.5.7.1 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF BANDGAP

A semiconductor specimen is immersed in an oil bath. The two ends of specimen are
connected in series with a battery, rheostat and an ammeter as shown in
Fig 2.17. A voltmeter is connected in parallel. Now, the initial temperature is noted
by using thermometer.

Fig 2.17 Experimental setup for determination of bandgap

37
A known voltage V is applied across the specimen and current is noted. The voltage
is kept constant. The experiment is repeated at different temperatures by heating
the oil and corresponding currents are measured.

The resistance of the semiconductor is calculated at different temperature by using

Ohm’s law. A graph is drawn between log Ri and 1/T. A straight line is obtained as
shown in Fig. 3.16. The energy gap is determined using the relation in equation
(2.32).

2.6 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

The semiconductor in which impurities are added is called extrinsic
semiconductor. The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor is called
doping. Doping increases the electrical conductivity of semiconductor. Therefore,
Extrinsic semiconductor has high electrical conductivity than intrinsic semiconductor.
Hence the extrinsic semiconductors are used for the manufacturing of electronic
devices such as diodes, transistors etc. The number of free electrons and holes in
extrinsic semiconductor are not equal.

2.6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

BASED ON THE TYPES OF IMPURITIES ADDED

Two types of impurities are added to the semiconductor. They are pentavalent and
trivalent impurities. Pentavalent impurity atoms have 5 valence electrons. When the
pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic or pure semiconductor (silicon or
germanium), then it is said to be a n-type semiconductor The various examples of
pentavalent impurity atoms include Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb),
etc.

2.6.1.1 N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

The atomic structure of pentavalent atom (phosphorus) is shown in below Fig. 3.18.

38
 Fig 2.18 Atomic structure of pentavalent atom (phosphorus)

Phosphorus atom has 15 electrons (2 electrons in first orbit, 8 electrons in second

orbit and 5 electrons in the outermost orbit). An n-type semiconductor is created
when pure semiconductors, like Si and Ge, are doped with pentavalent elements.

As can be seen in the Fig. 2.19, when a pentavalent atom takes the place of a Si
atom, four of its electrons bond with four neighboring Si atoms. However, the fifth
electron remains loosely bound to the parent atom. Hence, the ionization energy
required to set this electron free is very small. Thereby, this electron can move in
the lattice even at room temperature.

To give you a better perspective, the ionization energy required for silicon at room
temperature is around 1.1 eV. On the other hand, by adding a pentavalent impurity,
this energy drops to around 0.05 eV.

Fig 2.19 Bonding in n-type semiconductor

39
2.7 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN N-TYPE
SEMICONDUCTORS
If pentavalent (Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony) impurities are doped with pure
semiconducting material the free electrons are produced, this is called N-type
semiconductor.

We know that,

Density of electrons in conduction band in an intrinsic semiconductor is

2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3/2
𝑁𝑒 = 2
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶
𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝐾 …(2.33)
ℎ2 𝐵𝑇
∞

3/2
Put 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑁𝑐 = 2
ℎ2
Density of electrons
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶
𝑁𝑒 = 𝑁𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝 …(2.34)
𝐸𝐵 𝑇

Density of ionized donor atoms is

𝑁𝐷 1 − 𝐹 𝐸𝐷 = 𝑁𝐷 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐸𝐷 −𝐸𝐹 …(2.35)
𝐸𝐵 𝑇

At equilibrium condition,

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑞𝑛 (2) 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑛 (3)

𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝐷 −𝐸𝐹
𝑁𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝑁𝐷 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐸𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸 −𝐸
exp 𝐹 𝑐 𝑁𝐷
𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝐷 −𝐸𝐹 =
exp 𝑁𝑐
𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝐷 + 𝐸𝐹 𝑁𝐷
𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
𝐸𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑐

Taking log on both sides, we get,

𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝐷 −𝐸𝐹 𝑁𝐷

log 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑐

40
 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝐷 −𝐸𝐹 𝑁𝐷
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑐

𝑁𝐷
2𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝐷 + 𝐸𝐵 𝑇 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁𝑐

𝐸𝑐 +𝐸𝐷 𝐸𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝐷
𝐸𝐹 = + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 …(2.36)
2 2 𝑁𝑐

At T = 0 K. 𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝐷
𝐸𝐹 = …(2.37)
2

At T = 0 K. Thus, the Fermi level in N-type semiconductor lies exactly in middle of

the conduction level (EC) and donor level (ED).

This equation shows that the electron concentration in the conduction band is
proportional to the square root of the donor concentration.

2.7.1 Expression for the density of electrons in conduction band

in terms of ND
As the temperature is increased more and more the donor atoms are ionized and the
fermi level drops. For a particular temperature all donor atoms are ionized, further
increase in temperature results in generation of electron hole pairs due to breaking
of covalent bonds and materials tends to behave in a intrinsic manner.

We know density of electrons in conduction band

3/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐
𝑁𝑒 = 2
ℎ2
𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 …(2.38)

Substituting the equation (2.36) in (2.38) we get

𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐 𝐾 𝑇 𝑁𝐷
+ 𝐵2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 − 𝐸𝑐
2 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
3/2
3/2 2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2
𝑁𝑒 = 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐 1 𝑁𝐷 𝐸
+ − 𝐾 𝑐𝑇
2 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
3/2
𝐵
3/2 2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2
=2 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

41
 3/2 1/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝐷 − 𝐸𝑐 𝑁𝐷
=2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔
ℎ2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
3/2
2
ℎ2

3/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝐷 − 𝐸𝑐 𝑁𝐷 1/2
=2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔
ℎ2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
3/4
21/2
ℎ2

3/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝐷 − 𝐸𝑐 𝑁𝐷 1/2
=2 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
3/4
21/2
ℎ2

3/2 −3/4
1/2
𝐸𝐷 − 𝐸𝑐 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= 2𝑁𝐷 𝑒𝑥𝑝
2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2 ℎ2

3/4
1/2
𝐸𝐷 − 𝐸𝑐 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= 2𝑁𝐷 𝑒𝑥𝑝
2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2

Here EC – ED = E is known as ionisation energy of donars i.e.  represents the

amount of energy required to transfer on an electron to from donor energy level
(ED) to conduction band (EC)

3/4
1/2
−∆𝐸 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑁𝑒 = 2𝑁𝐷 𝑒𝑥𝑝
2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2

2.7.2 P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Trivalent impurity atoms have 3 valence electrons. When the trivalent impurity is
added to an intrinsic or pure semiconductor (silicon or germanium), then it is said to
be a p-type semiconductor. The various examples of trivalent impurities include
Boron (B), Gallium (G), Indium(In), Aluminium(Al).

Boron atom has 5 electrons (2 electrons in first orbit and 3 electrons in the
outermost orbit). The atomic structure of trivalent atom (boron) is shown in below
Fig. 2.20.

42
 Fig 2.20 Atomic structure of trivalent atom (boron)

As can be seen in the Fig.3.21, when a trivalent atom takes the place of a Si atom,
three of its electrons bond with four neighboring Si atoms.

Fig 2.21 Trivalent atom boron is added as impurity in silicon

In the fourth covalent bond, only silicon atom contributes one valence electron,
while the boron atom has no valence electron to contribute. Thus, the fourth
covalent bond is incomplete with shortage of one electron. This missing electron is
called hole. This shows each boron atom accept one electron to fill the hole.
Therefore, all the trivalent impurities are called acceptors. A small addition of
impurity (boron) provides millions of holes.

In a nutshell, when a semiconductor is doped with a trivalent atom, holes are the
majority charge carriers. On the other hand, the free electrons are the minority
charge carriers. Therefore, such extrinsic semiconductors are called p-type
semiconductors.

43
In a p-type semiconductor,

Density of holes (nh) >> Density of free electrons (ne)

2.8 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN P-TYPE

SEMICONDUCTORS
P-Type Semiconductor : If trivalent (Aluminum, Gallium, Indium) impurities are
doped with pure semiconducting material the holes are produced, this is called P -
type semiconductor.

We know that,

Density of holes in the valence band in an intrinsic semiconductors is

3/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑁ℎ = 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 …(2..39)
ℎ2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

Put
3/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑁𝑣 = 2
ℎ2

Density of holes
𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
𝑁ℎ = 𝑁𝑣 𝑒𝑥𝑝 …(2.40)
𝐸𝐵 𝑇

Density of ionized acceptor atoms is

𝐸𝐹𝐷 −𝐴
𝑁𝐴 𝐹 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑁𝐴 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝐸𝐵 𝑇
…(2.41)
At equilibrium condition,

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛

𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑞𝑛 (3) 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑛 (4)

𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐴
𝑁𝑣 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝑁𝐴 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐸𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

44
 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 −[𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐴 ] 𝑁𝐴
𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
𝐸𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑣

𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐹 + 𝐸𝐴 𝑁𝐴
𝑒𝑥𝑝 =
𝐸𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑣

Taking log on both sides, we get,

𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐴 𝑁𝐴

log 𝑒𝑥𝑝 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑣

𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹 −𝐹−𝐸𝐴 𝑁𝐴
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑣

𝑁𝐴
𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝐹 + 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐵 𝑇 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁𝑣

𝑁𝐴
−2𝐸𝐹 = − 𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑁𝑉

𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝐴
𝐸𝐹 = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔
2 2 𝑁𝑉

Substituting the value Nv

𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝐴 𝐸𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝐴
𝐸𝐹 = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2𝜋𝑚∗ℎ 𝐾𝐵𝑇
2 2
2
ℎ2
…(2.42)

At T = 0 K 𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝐴
𝐸𝐹 = …(2.43)
2

At 0 K fermi level in p type semiconductor lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor
level and the top of the valance band.

2.8.1 Expression for the density of holes in valence band in

terms of NA

As the temperature is increased more and more the acceptor atoms are ionized.
Further increase in temperature results in generation of electron hole pairs due to
breaking of covalent bonds and materials tends to behave in a intrinsic manner. The
fermi level gradully moves towards the intrinsic fermi level.

45
 We know density of holes in valence band
3/2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐹
𝑁ℎ = 2
ℎ2
𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 …(2.44)

Substituting the equation (2.43) in (2.44) we get

(𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐴 ) 𝐾 𝑇 𝑁𝐴
𝐸𝑣 − − 𝐵2 𝑙𝑜𝑔
2 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
3/2
3/2 2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2
𝑁ℎ = 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑙
ℎ2 2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐴 1 𝑁𝐴
+ 2 𝑙𝑜𝑔
2 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
3/2
3/2 2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2
=2 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 ℎ2
1/2
𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐴 𝑁𝐴
2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
3/2
3/2 2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2
=2 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 ℎ2

𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐴 𝑁𝐴1/2
2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
3/4

3/2 21/2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2
=2 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 ℎ2
3/2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐴 𝑁𝐴1/2
=2 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
3/2
21/2
ℎ2

3/2 −3/4
𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐴 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= 2𝑁𝐴 𝑒𝑥𝑝
2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2 ℎ2

3/2
1/2
𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝐴 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= 2𝑁𝐴 𝑒𝑥𝑝
2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2

Here EA – EV = E is known as ionisation energy of acceptors i.e. E represents

the energy required for an electron to move from valance band (EV) to acceptor
energy level (EA)
3/4
1/2
−∆𝐸 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑁ℎ = 2𝑁𝐴 𝑒𝑥𝑝
2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2

46
2.8.2 VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE AND
IMPURITIES (N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR)

Fig 2.22 Variation of Fermi level with respect to temperature in n-type

semiconductor

In case of intrinsic, Fermi level is located half way between the valence and
conduction bands and its position is independent of temperature. In case of N-type
semiconductor, initially with increase in temperature, EF increases slightly. As
temperature increases, more number of donors are ionized. Further increase in
temperature results in generation of electron- hole pairs due to breaking of covalent
bonds and the Fermi level moves gradually towards the intrinsic Fermi level EFi.

Comparing the behavior of a N-type semiconductor of higher donor concentration

with a lower one, we find that lowering of Fermi level from EF to Fermi level EFi with
rise of temperature is slow in the case of higher donor concentration material than
the lower one as shown in Fig. 3.22. Naturally higher doped semiconductor will
behave in intrinsic manner only after all the donor atoms are ionized.

2.8.3 VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE AND

IMPURITIES (P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR)

In case of P-type semiconductor, initially with increase in temperature, EF decreases

slightly. As temperature increases, more number of acceptor levels is filled. Further

47
 Fig 2.23 Variation of Fermi level with respect to temperature and impurity in p-
type semiconductor

increase in temperature results in generation of electron- hole pairs due to breaking

of covalent bonds and the Fermi level moves gradually towards the intrinsic Fermi
level EFi as shown in Fig 2.23.

Comparing the behavior of a p-type semiconductor of higher acceptor concentration

with a lower one, we find that rising of Fermi level from EF to intrinsic Fermi level EFi
with rise of temperature is slow in the case of higher acceptor concentration material
than the lower one. Naturally higher doped semiconductor will behave in intrinsic
manner only after all the donor atoms are ionized.

Need for semiconductors

Semiconductors are used because the conductivity of semiconductors can be
controlled easily. Whereas it is not easy to change the conductivity of the
conductor and insulators. The conductivity of semiconductor material is modified
by doping.
By doping phosphorus in silicon semiconductor it becomes n-type semiconductor
and by doping boron in silicon semiconductor it becomes p-type semiconductors.
By doping, we can increase the conductivity of semiconductor material.

48
 Advantages of semiconductors

Here are some advantages of semiconductors which makes semiconductor

useful in our everyday life. :

1. Semiconductors have no requirement of filament heating so

semiconductors device such as transistor takes place in almost all vacuum
tube applications. Because of the filament vacuum tube requires heat for
operation.

2. Semiconductor devices are solid-state devices. So they are shockproof.

3. Semiconductor devices are so small in size which makes it easily portable.

4. It has Less cost than a vacuum tube.

5. Semiconductor devices require less input power for operation.

6. During the operation period, it does not make any noise. So we can see
semiconductor devices are noise-free devices.

7. Semiconductor materials have a longer lifespan. They have an almost

unlimited life.

2.9 HALL EFFECT

When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying conductor or
semiconductor, a voltage is developed across the specimen in a direction
perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field directions. This
phenomenon is called as Hall Effect. The voltage developed across the ends is called
as Hall Voltage.

49
 Fig 2.24 Hall effect

2.9.1 HALL CO-EFFICIENT FOR N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Consider an n-type semiconducting material in the form of a rectangular slab.

Current flow is on +x direction from left to right; magnetic field is on the z direction
from front to rear: Hall voltage - y direction from top to bottom.

Under equilibrium condition, the force on the electrons due to magnetic field is
balanced by the electric field due to the Hall voltage, i.e.,

Force due to Hall electric field = Force due to magnetic field

−𝑒𝐸𝐻 = −𝑒𝑣𝐵
𝐸𝐻 = 𝑣𝐵 …(2.45)

In a uniform sample, the electric current density (𝐽) is related to the velocity as
𝐽 = −𝑛𝑒𝑣
where 𝑛 is the concentration of electrons.
𝐽
𝑣=− …(2.46)
𝑛𝑒
Substitute eqn. (2.45) in (2.46)
𝐽𝐵
𝐸𝐻 = −
𝑛𝑒
This can be written as
𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵𝐽𝑅𝐻 …(2.47)

where 𝑅𝐻 = −1/𝑛𝑒 is called the Hall coefficient.

The negative sign indicates that the developed field is in the negative y direction.

50
2.9.2 HALL CO-EFFICIENT FOR P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Under equilibrium condition, the force on the holes due to magnetic field is
balanced by the electric field due to the Hall voltage, i.e.,

Force due to Hall electric field = Force due to magnetic field

𝑒𝐸𝐻 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵
𝐸𝐻 = 𝑣𝐵 …(2.48)

In a uniform sample, the electric current density (𝐽) is related to the velocity as
𝐽 = 𝑝𝑒𝑣
where 𝑝 is the concentration of holes.
𝐽
𝑣= …(2.49)
𝑝𝑒
Substitute eqn. (2.49) in (2.48)
𝐽𝐵
𝐸𝐻 =
𝑝𝑒
This can be written as
𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵𝐽𝑅𝐻 …(2.50)

where 𝑅𝐻 = 1/𝑝𝑒 is called the Hall coefficient.

2.9.3 DETERMINATION OF HALL COEFFICIENT

The Hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is defined as the
Hall coefficient.
The Hall coefficient is determined by measuring the Hall voltage that generates the
Hall field. Let ‘𝑡’ be the thickness of the sample and 𝑉𝐻 be the Hall voltage, then
𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝑡 …(2.51)
where 𝐸𝐻 is the Hall field.

We already have derived the expression for 𝐸𝐻 in eqn. (2.47) and (2.50). Using eqn.
(2.47) or (2.50) in eqn. (3.52) we get
𝑉𝐻 = 𝐵𝐽𝑅𝐻 𝑡 …(2.52)

For a current flowing through a area of cross section 𝐴 (= 𝑏 𝑡), the current density, 𝐽
can be written as
𝐼 𝐼
𝐽= =
𝐴 𝑏𝑡

51
where 𝑏 is the breadth and 𝑡 is the thickness.

On substituting the expression for current density 𝐽 in eqn. (2.52) we get

𝐵𝐼𝑅𝐻 𝑡
𝑉𝐻 =
𝑏𝑡
𝑉𝐻 𝑏
𝑅𝐻 = …(2.53)
𝐵𝐼

2.9.4 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF HALL COEFFICIENT

The experimental set up for the measurement of Hall voltage is shown in the Fig.
2.26. ‘𝑡’ is the thickness and ‘𝑏’ is the breadth of the sample. A suitable current 𝐼 is
allowed to pass through this sample along the X axis by connecting it to a battery.

The sample is placed between the pole pieces of an electromagnet such that the
applied magnetic field coincides with the z-axis.

Hall voltage (𝑉𝐻 ) developed in the sample is measured by fixing two probes at the
centres of the bottom and top faces of the sample.

By measuring Hall voltage, Hall coefficient is calculated from the formula

𝑉𝐻 𝑏
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐵𝐼

Fig 2.25 Hall effect experimental set-up

52
2.9.5 APPLICATIONS OF HALL EFFECT

1. Determination of semiconductor type

For an n-type semiconductor, Hall coefficient is negative and for p-type
semiconductors, it is positive. Thus, the sign of the Hall coefficient is used to
determine whether a given semiconductor is n-type or p-type.

2. Calculation of carrier concentration

By knowing Hall coefficient RH, the carrier concentration can be determined from
1
𝑛=
𝑒𝑅𝐻
3. Determination of mobility
The mobility of charge carriers can be obtained if conductivity is known.
𝜇 = 𝜎𝑅𝐻
By measuring the conductivity and Hall coefficient, the mobility can be found out.

4. Magnetic field meter

Hall voltage VH for a given current is proportional to B. Hence measurement of VH
measures the magnetic field B.

5. Hall effect multiplier

This instrument gives an output proportional to the product of two signals. Thus
if current 𝐼 is made proportional to one input and if 𝐵 is made proportional to the
other input, then the Hall voltage 𝑉𝐻 is proportional to the product of the two
inputs.

53
 SOLVED PROBLEMS

1. Calculate the intrinsic concentration of charge carriers at 300 K given

that 𝒎∗𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝒎𝟎 , 𝒎∗𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝒎𝟎 and the value of band gap 0.67 eV.

Solution:

Given:

𝑚𝑒∗ = 0.12 m0 = 0.12  9.1  10-31 = 1.092  10-31kg

𝑚ℎ∗ = 0.28 m0 = 0.28  9.1  10-31 = 2.548  10-31kg

Intrinsic carrier concentration is given by

3/2
2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇 −𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = 2 𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ 3/4
exp
ℎ2 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇

3/2 3/2
2𝜋𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300
2 = 2
ℎ2 6.626 × 10−34 2
= 2 5.925 × 1046 3/2
= 2 × 1.442 × 1070

= 2.884 × 1070

𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ 3/4

= 1.09210−31 2.54810−31 3/4

3/4
= 2.78210−62
= 6.81310−47

−𝐸𝑔 0.67 × 1.6 × 10−19

exp = exp −
2𝑘𝐵 𝑇 2 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300
= exp −12.947
= 2.284 × 10−6

𝑛𝑖 = 2.884 × 1070 × 6.81310−47 × 2.284 × 10−6

= 2.341 × 1018 m−3

54
2. The intrinsic carrier density is 1.5  1016 m-3. If the mobility of electron
and hole are 0.13 and 0.05 m2 V-1s-1, calculate the conductivity.
Solution
Given: ni= 1.5  1016 m-3
µe = 0.13 m2 V-1 s-1
µh = 0.05 m2 V-1 s-1
Conductivity  = nie (µe + µh)
= 1.5  1016 1.6  10-19 (0.13 + 0.05)
Conductivity  = 4.32  10-4-1 m-1

3. The intrinsic carrier density at room temperature in Ge is 2.37  1019 m-3

if the electron and hole mobilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m2 V-1 s-1,
respectively, calculate the resistivity.

Solution:
Given
ni= 2.37  1019 m3
µe = 0.38 m2 V-1 s-1
µh = 0.18 m2 V-1 s-1
Conductivity  = nie (µe + µh)
= 2.37  1019 1.6  10-19 (0.38 + 0.18)
= 2.1235 -1 m-1
Resistivity  =1/𝜎
= 1/2.1235
Resistivity  = 0.4709  m

4. The Hall coefficient of certain silicon specimen was found to be -7.35 

10-5 m3 C-1 from 100 to 400 K. Determine the nature of the semiconductor.
If the conductivity was found to be 200 -1 m1. Calculate the density and
mobility of the charge carrier.

Solution
Given: Conductivity  = 200 -1 m-1
Hall co-efficient RH = -7.35  10-5 m3 C-1

55
a) Density of electrons
−1
𝑛=
𝑅𝐻 𝑒
−1
=
−7.35 × 10−5 × 1.609 × 10−19

= 8.455 × 1022 m−3

b) Mobility
𝜎
𝜇=
𝑛𝑒
200
=
8.455 × 1022 × 1.609 × 10−19

= 0.0147 m2 V −1 s−1

Density of electrons (n) = 8.053  1022 m-3

Mobility (µ) = 0.0147 m2 V-1 s-1

5. For an intrinsic semiconductor with a band gap of 0.7 eV. Determine the
position of EF at T = 300 K if 𝒎∗𝒉 = 6𝒎∗𝒆.

Solution
Bandgap Eg = 0.7 eV
Temperature, T = 300 K
Fermi energy for an intrinsic semiconductor
3𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐸𝑔
𝐸𝐹 = log +
4 𝑚𝑒∗ 2

3 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300 6𝑚𝑒∗ 0.7

= × log +
4 × 1.6 × 1019 𝑚𝑒∗ 2

= 0.0194 × log 6 + 0.35

= 0.3847 eV

Fermi energy level EF = 0.3847 eV

56
6. A semiconducting crystal with 12 mm long, 5 mm wide and 1 mm thick
has a magnetic density of 0.5 Wb m-2 applied from front to back
perpendicular to largest faces. When a current of 20 mA flows length wise
through the specimen, the voltage measured across its width is found to
be 37 µV. What is the Hall coefficient of this semiconductor?

Solution

Given
Hall voltage, VH = 37 µV = 37  10-6 V
Breath of the sample, t = 1 mm = 1  10-3 m
Current, IH = 20 mA = 20  10-3 A

Magnetic flux density, B = 0.5 Wb m-2

Hall coefficient RH of the semiconductor can be determined as follows,
𝑉𝐻 𝑡
𝑅𝐻 =
𝐼𝐻 𝐵
37 × 10−6 × 1 × 10−3
=
20 × 10−3 × 0.5
= 3.7 × 10−6 C−1 m3

7. Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge rod 1 mm long, 1 mm wide and 1

mm thick at 300 K, the intrinsic carrier density 2.5  1019 m-3 is at 300 K
and the mobility of electron and hole are 0.39 and 0.19 m2 V-1 s-1.

Solution

Given:
Length of Ge rod l = 1 mm = 1  10-3 m
Breadth b = 1 mm = 1  10-3 m
Thickness t = 1 mm = 1  10-3 m
Intrinsic carrier concentration ni = 2.5  1019 m-3
Mobility of electron µe = 0.39 m2 V-1 s-1
Mobility of hole µh = 0.19 m2 V-1 s-1

57
a) Conductivity
 = nie(µe + µh)
= 2.5  1019  1.6  10-19 (0.39 + 0.19)
 = 2.32 -1 m-1
b) Resistance
𝑙
𝑅=
𝜎𝐴
1 × 10−3
=
2.32 × (1 × 10−3 × 1 × 10−3 )

= 431

8. Hall coefficient of a specimen of doped silicon found to be 3.66  10-4 m3

C-1. The resistivity of the specimen is 8.93  10-3  m. Find the mobility
and density of the charge carriers.
Solution
Hall coefficient, RH = 3.66  10-4 m3 c-1
Resistivity ,  = 8.93  10-3  m

Since the Hall coefficient, RH is positive, the doped silicon must be a p-type
semiconductor.

Now the density of holes in the material can be calculated as follows

1
𝑝=
𝑅𝐻 𝑒
1
=
3.66 × 10−4 × 1.6 × 10−19

= 1.708 × 1022 m−3

Having found the density of holes in the material, the hole mobility can be calculated
as follows
1
𝜇ℎ =
𝜌𝑛𝑒
1
=
8.93 × 10−3 × 1.7076 × 1022 × 1.6 × 10−19

= 0.041 m2 V −1 s −1

58
9. The intrinsic carrier density of a semiconductor is 2.1  1019 m-3. The
electron and hole mobilities are 0.4 and 0.2 m2 V-1 s-1 respectively.
Calculate the conductivity.

Solution
Given data
Intrinsic carrier concentration, ni = 2.1  1019 m-3
Mobility of electron µe = 0.4 m2 V-1 s-1
Mobility of hole µh = 0.2 m2 V-1 s-1
Conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be determined as follows
 = ni e (µe + µh)
= 2.1  1019  1.6  10-19  (0.4 + 0.2)
= 2.016 -1 m-1

10. The electron mobility and hole mobility is Si are 0.135 m2 V-1 s-1 and
0.04 m2 V-1 s-1 respectively at room temperature. If the carrier
concentration is 1.5  1016 m-3. Calculated the resistivity of Si at room
temperature.

Solution
Given data
Carrier concentration, ni = 1.5  1016 m-3
Mobility of electron µe = 0.135 m2 V-1 s-1
Mobility of hole µh = 0.048 m2 V-1 s-1
Electrical conductivity can be calculated as follows
 = ni e (µe + µh)
= 1.5  1016  1.6  10-19  (0.135 + 0.048)
= 0.4392  10-3 -1 m-1

Electrical resistivity,  is just the inverse of the electrical conductivity and can be
calculated as follows
 = 1/
= 1/ 0.4392  10-3
= 2.2768  m

59
 PRACTCE QUIZ

After completing the course, students are instructed to take the following quiz to
quantify their understanding of the concepts on the conducting materials.

1. https://forms.gle/Y1qwnXtLNtNTCEbD6

2. https://forms.gle/jvftuDcCA5FT8PLi6

RESULTS
Repeat your learning, if your score is less than 60%.
Congratulations, if your score is above 90%.

60
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEMS

Q.No.
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS Marks

IA Find the resistance of an intrinsic germanium rod 1 cm

long, 1 mm wide and 1 mm thick at 300 K. the intrinsic
carrier density is 2.5 × 1019 m–3 at 300 K and the 5
mobility of electron and hole are 0.39 and 0.19 m2 V–1
s–1.
IB Calculate the position of Fermi level EF and the
conductivity at 300 K for germanium crystal containing
5 × 1022 arsenic atoms / m3. Also calculate the 5
conductivity if the mobility of the electron is 0.39 m2 V–
1 S–1 .
II A In a Hall experiment a current of 25 A is passed
through a long foil of silver which is 0.1 mm thick and
3 cm wide. If the magnetic field of flux density 0.14
Wb/m2 is applied perpendicular to the foil, calculate 5
the Hall voltage development and estimate the mobility
of electrons in silver. Given that the Hall coefficient is
(–8.4 × 10–11)m3 / coulomb.
II B For silicon semiconductor with band gap 1.12 eV,
determine the position of the Fermi level at 300 K, if 5
me*=0.12m0 and mh*=0.28m0
III A The energy gap of Si is 1.1 eV. Its electron and hole
mobilities at room temperature are 0.48 and 0.013 5
m2V-1s-1. Evaluate its conductivity.

61
Q.No.
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS Marks

III B The Hall coefficient of a certain Si specimen was

found to be -7.35 x 10-5 m3/C from 100 to 400K.
Determine the nature of the semiconductor. If the 5
conductivity was found to be 200 Ω-1m-1, calculate the
density and mobility of the charge carriers.
IV A The density of silver is 10.5 x 103 kg/m3. The atomic
weight of silver is 107.9. Assuming that each silver
atom provides one conduction electron, calculate the
5
density of electrons. The conductivity of silver at 20
°C is 6.8 x 107 Ω-1m-1. Calculate the carrier
concentration and mobility of electrons in silver.
IV B The electron and hole mobilities are 0.135 m2/Vs and
0.048 m2/Vs respectively at room temperature. If the
5
carrier concentration is 1.5 x 1016m-3, calculate the
resistivity of Si at room temperature.
VA The intrinsic carrier density is 1.5 x 1016/m3. If the
electron and hole mobilities are 0.13m2/Vs and 5
0.05m2/Vs, calculate the conductivity.
VB The electron and hole mobilities are 0.135 m2/Vs and
0.048 m2/Vs respectively at room temperature. If the
carrier concentration is 1.5 x 1016m-3, calculate the 5
resistivity of Si at room temperature.

62
 PART A – QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

1. State the properties of a semiconductor. (CO2,K1)

i. The resistivity lies between10−4 𝑡𝑜 0.5ohm-metre.

ii. At 0K, they behave as insulators.
iii. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases both due to the temperature
and impurities.
iv. They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
v. In semiconductors both the electron and holes are charge carriers and will take
part in conduction

2. Mention any four advantages of semiconducting materials. (CO2,K1)

i. It can behave as insulators at and as conductors at high temperatures.

ii. It possess some properties of both conductors and insulators
iii. On doping we can produce both n and p type semiconductors with charge
carriers of electrons and holes respectively.
iv. It possess many applications in electronic field such as manufacturing of
diodes, transistors, LED’s ICs etc.,

3. Classify the semiconductors based on doping? Give examples

(CO2, K2)
1.Semiconductor in a pure form is called intrinsic semiconductor.
Examples: Si, Ge,
2. Semiconductor which is doped with impurity is called extrinsic semiconductor.
Examples: Si and Ge doped with Al, In, P, As etc.

63
4. Compare compound semiconductors with elemental semiconductors
(CO2, K4)
Semiconductors formed by combinations of equal atomic fractions of fifth and third
column or sixth and second column elements are called compound semiconductors.
They are also called as direct band gap semiconductors.
Ex: GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO etc.
Semiconductors are made from single element. These are made from IV group (or)
VI group elements
These are called as indirect band gap semiconductor
Ex:Ge,Si
5. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor (CO2, K4)
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
Semiconductor which is doped with
Semiconductor in a pure form is
impurity is called extrinsic
called intrinsic semiconductor.
semiconductor.
Here the charge carriers are
Here the charge carriers are
produced due to impurities and
produced only due to thermal
may also be produced due to
agitation.
thermal agitation.
They have low electrical They have high electrical
conductivity. conductivity.
At 0K, the fermi level lies closes to
At 0K, the fermi level exactly lies conduction band in ‘n’ type
between conduction band and semiconductor and lies near
valence band. valence band in ‘p’ type
semiconductor.
E.g : Si and Ge doped with Al, In,
E.g : Si, Ge etc.,
P, As etc.

6. Explain the term doping. (CO2, K2)

The process of adding suitable impurities to a pure semiconductor is called doping.

The maximum extent up to which impurity can be added is called doping level.
Semiconductor added with pentavalent impurity is called n-type semiconductor.
Semiconductor added with trivalent impurity is called p-type semiconductor.

64
7. state the law of mass action (CO2,K2)

For any given semiconductor, the product of electron(ne) and hole

concentration(nh)remains constant, at a given temperature and is equal to the
square of the intrinsic carrier concentration
ne * nh= ni2

8. What is acceptor and donor energy level in semiconductor? (CO2, K1)

A trivalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor accepts one

electron which produces an energy level called acceptor energy level.

A pentavalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor donates one

electron which produces an energy level called donor energy level.

9. Identify the change in Fermi level of a p-type semiconductor with

respect to impurity concentration. (CO2, K3)

The impurity concentration or concentration of acceptor atoms increases, extrinsic

behaviour increases. If the impurity concentration is decreased it tends to intrinsic
nature.

10. Analyse why Silicon is widely used to manufacture the elemental

device compared with Germanium. (CO2, K4)

Silicon is widely used in semiconductors because it remains a semiconductor at

higher temperatures than germanium. Silicon is the second most abundant element
(after oxygen) in the crust.

11. With increase of temperature the conductivity of semiconductor

increases while that of metals decreases. Give reasons. (CO2, K4)

With increase of temperature more and more charge carriers are created and hence
the conductivity of semiconductors increases. In the case of metals with increase of
temperature the concentration of charge carriers remain the same. But due to
increase of thermal energy, the electrons make frequent collisions with lattice ions
and hence the resistivity increases and conductivity decreases.

65
12. What do you understand by the term electron-hole pair?
(CO2, K2)
When the temperature of the semiconductor is increased from 0K , the
thermal energy supplied, if one of the electron moves from valence band to
conduction band, it creates one hole in the valence band. This electron in the
conduction band and the hole created in the valence band is called electron-
hole pair.

13. What is meant by energy band gap? (CO2, K1)

Energy band gap is the region of energies which are not occupied by the
electrons and is equal to the energy difference between minimum energy of
conduction band and the maximum energy of the valence band.

14. Define Hall effect and Hall voltage. (CO2, K1)

When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current is
placed in a transverse magnetic field, an electric field is produced inside the
conductor in a direction normal to both the current and the magnetic field.
This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect and the generated voltage is
known as Hall voltage.

15. Applying Hall effect identify few of its Hall devices? (CO2, K3)
They are
i. Gauss Meter
ii. Electronic Multiplier
iii. Electronic Wattmeter

16. Identify the uses of Hall Effect (CO2, K3)

Hall Effect is used,
i. to determine the type of semiconductor. That is the material is whether p-type
or n-type.
ii. to find the carrier concentration.
iii. to determine the sign of the current carrying charges.
iv. to design magnetic flux meters and multipliers on the basis of Hall voltage.
v. to find the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.

66
17. Classify the elemental and compound semiconductors (CO2, K2)
Elemental semiconductors
These are made from single element. (mixed) element.
These are made from IV group and VI group elements
These are called as indirect band gap semiconductor
(electron-hole recombination takes place through traps)
Heat is produced in the recombination
Lifetime of charge carriers is more due to indirect recombination
Current amplification is more
These are used for making diodes, transistor, etc.
Example : Ge, Si

Compound semiconductors
These are made from compound
These are made from III and V [or] II and VI elements.
These are called as direct band gap semiconductor (electron-hole recombination
takes place directly)
Photons are emitted during recombination
Lifetime of charge carriers is less due to direct recombination.
Current amplification is less.
These are used for making LED, laser diodes, etc.
Example : GaAs, GaP, CdS, MgO

67
 PART B – QUESTIONS
1. Obtain an expression for density of electrons in the conduction band and holes in
the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor. (CO2, K3)
2. How does intrinsic carrier concentration vary with temperature for an intrinsic
semiconductor? (CO2, K3)

3. Derive an expression for carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor in

detail. (CO2, K3)

4. Obtain an expression for density of electrons in the conduction band and holes in
the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor. (CO2, K3)

5. Show that for a p-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient RH is given by 1/pe.
How do you determine the mobility of charge carriers for an n-type semiconductor
using Hall Effect? Explain the application of Hall effect. (CO2,K3)

6. Estimate the bandgap of an intrinsic semiconductor by deriving its conductivity

value (CO2, K5)

7. Derive the expression for the Fermi level of intrinsic semiconductor. Explain with
a neat sketch, the variation of Fermi level with temperature.
(CO2, K3)

8. What are semiconductors? What are its types? Explain it with suitable necessary
diagrams. Compare the variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity
concentration in N-type and P- type semiconductors (CO2,K1)

68
 SUPPORTING ONLINE CERTIFICATE COURSES

NPTEL COURSES

1. https://youtu.be/2zWjG6ZrU0M (Extrinsic semiconductor)

2. https://youtu.be/BQijtvYxgIM (Carrier concentration and Fermi
level)
3. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/115/102/115102025/
(Fundamentals of semiconductor)

COURSERA COURSE

1. https://www.coursera.org/learn/semiconductor-physics

69
 VIDEO LINKS

YOUTUBE LINK

1. https://youtu.be/lYjc5pUpAoA (Density of electron-Intrinsic)

2. https://youtu.be/tv758RV7EQ8 (Density of holes - Intrinsic)
3. https://youtu.be/sGwYLF4LL9c (Density of charge carriers-
Intrinsic)
4. https://youtu.be/ZDa1pVPIpfo (Hall effect)

70
 REAL TIME APPLICATION
-SEMICONDUCTORS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Without transistors and integrated circuits made of semiconductors, much of

modern life would be very different. No hand-held electronic games would
entertain children for hours. No bar-code readers would speed checkout lines and
compile inventories at the same time. And no computers would handle tasks at
work and home, nor would microprocessors control the operations of cars, planes,
and space vehicles.

For example, temperature sensors in air conditioners are made with

semiconductors

Personal computer has a semiconductor to prevent overheating and vibration.

71
 So many digital consumer products in daily life use semiconductors to keep them
functioning better longer including smartphones, digital cameras, televisions,
washing machines and dryers, ovens and refrigerators, and even LEDs

Furthermore, efficient logistics systems including the transportation of humans and

the shipping of consumer goods and perishables rely on semiconductors to help
save energy and promote the preservation of our global environment. The number
of car-mounted semiconductor devices is rising. This relates especially to Advanced
Driver Assistance Systems where the need is growing for semiconductors

Create Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS)

Semiconductors are going to enhance our driving experience. A significant aspect of

this will be noticed in car-mounted semiconductors. There already exists several
types of car-mounted semiconductors.In the future, more semiconductors will be
used for ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistance Systems). The overall driving
experience will go notches higher with ADAS applications like Lane Departure
Warning (LDW), Forward Collision Warning (FCW) , Automative Emergency Braking
(AEB) and more.

In virtually every way, semiconductors help us to live our comfortable lives that are
based on dependable technology.

72
 Many devices used in healthcare depend on semiconductor manufacturing
technology. These include sensors and motion micro-electromechanical systems
(MEMS); communication integrated circuits (ICs); microcontrollers; discrete
devices; memory power management devices; and analog, digital, and mixed-
signal ICs. These devices are driving a host of applications in fields such as clinical
diagnostics and therapy, medical imaging, and portable and home healthcare.
Semiconductor-enabled equipment such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
machines, pacemakers, blood pressure monitors, chemistry/blood gas analyzers,
and bedside and wireless patient monitors are changing lives today. Highly
specialized equipment is also becoming available, such as an implanted adaptive
cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) device used to help improve the heart’s
rhythm.

The technologies of the future includes artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and
5G and 6G wireless networks. Semiconductor innovation is the engine that drives all
these promising technologies

73
 CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

Carrier transport in Semiconductor: random motion, drift, mobility and diffusion

CARRIER TRANSPORT IN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Let us consider an n-type semiconductor as shown in figure below. When voltage is

applied to n-type semiconductor, free electrons move towards the positive terminal
of the applied voltage. Similarly, holes move towards the negative terminal of the
applied voltage.

In an n-type semiconductor, the population of free electrons is more whereas the

population of holes is less. Hence in an n-type semiconductor, free electrons are
called the majority carriers and holes are called the minority carriers. Therefore, in
an n-type semiconductor, conduction is mainly because of the motion of free
electrons.

CARRIER TRANSPORT P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Let us consider a p-type semiconductor as shown the figure on the next page. When
voltage is applied to a p-type semiconductor, the holes in valence band move
towards the negative terminal of the applied voltage. Similarly, the free electrons
move towards the positive terminal of the applied voltage.

74
In a p-type semiconductor, the population of holes in the valence band is more,
whereas the population of free electrons in the conduction band is less. So, the
current conduction is mainly because of the holes in the valence band. Free
electrons in the conduction band constitute a little current. Hence in a p-type
semiconductor, holes are called the majority carriers and free electrons are called
the minority carriers.

DRIFT CURRENT

The flow of charge carriers, which is due to the applied voltage or electric field, is
called drift current. In a semiconductor, there are two types of charge carriers, they
are electrons and holes. When the voltage is applied to a semiconductor, the free
electrons move towards the positive terminal of a battery and holes move towards
the negative terminal of a battery.

Electrons are the negatively charged particles and holes are the positively charged
particles. As we know, that like charges repels each other and unlike charges
attracts each other. Hence, the electrons (negatively charged particle) are attracted
towards the positive terminal of a battery and holes (positively charged particle) are
attracted towards the negative terminal.

In a semiconductor, the electrons always try to move in a straight line towards the
positive terminal of the battery. But, due to continuous collision with the atoms they
change the direction of flow. Each time the electron strikes an atom it bounces back
in a random direction. The applied voltage does not stop the collision and random
motion of electrons, but it causes the electrons to drift towards the positive terminal.

75
The average velocity that an electron or hole achieved due to the applied voltage or
electric field is called drift velocity.

The total drift current density is J = e (nµn + pµp) E

where, µn = mobility of electrons
µp = mobility of holes
E = applied electric field
e = charge of an electron = 1.602 × 10-19 coulomb (C).
n = density of electrons
p = density of holes

76
Mini PROJECTS

I Geiger Muller Detector

II Humidity Sensor

III Radiation detector

IV Street light circuit

V Anti-Sleep Alarm

Allocation Marks for Mini project

Students can do the mini project activity corresponding to each category

and record the video of this activity done at home and you can submit in
GCR with explanation. OR Any other related mini project in this related
topic ALLOCATION OF MARKS

SCOPE AND RELEVANCE : 10

INNOVATION, PRESENTATION, CREATIVITY : 10

INTERPRETATION : 5

RESULT : 5

TOTAL MARKS : 30

Last date of submission – 20/03/2024

77
 PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCE BOOKS

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. M.N. Avadhanulu and P.G. Kshirsagar, “A textbook of Engineering Physics”, S.

Chand and Company, New Delhi, 2014.

2. R.K. Gaur and S.L. Gupta, “Engineering Physics”, DhanpatRai Publications (P)
Ltd., Eighth Edition, New Delhi, 2001.
3. https://pnpntransistor.com/applications-of-semiconductor-in-daily-life

4. https://www.pegglass.com/semiconductors

5. https://blog.lamresearch.com/semiconductors-in-healthcare

78
 Thank you

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79