Module 2

Math 21: Mathematics in the Modern World

Mathematical Language and Symbols
Prepared by
Nick W. Sibaen

Mathematics-Physics-Statistics Department
College of Arts and Sciences
Benguet State University

Instructions

 This module presents topics on:

 Mathematics as a form of language
 Sets
 Relations and Functions
 Elementary Logic

 This module includes six exercises. The schedule of submission for these exercises is
reflected by the following table.

Exercise Date of Submission

Exercises 2.1
September 10, 2021
Exercise 2.2
Exercise 2.4.1
Exercise 2.4.2 September 24, 2021
Exercise 2.4.3
Exercise 2.5 October 1, 2021

 Submission of answers will be primarily online. A link for a google form will be posted
later. This is where you will indicate/provide your answers. This also means that
questions from this google form will be very similar or will be exactly the same as the
questions included in the exercises. While waiting for this link to be posted, students are
encouraged to prepare the answers and ready for encoding.

 Google Meets will be scheduled to support this module. The google meets will primarily
discuss parts of the module that the students find difficult or confusing. These meets will
allow students to ask their questions in preparation to answering the exercises. The
schedule of the meets will be posted in our Facebook Messenger Group Chat.

Contact Information of the Subject Teacher

E-mail: n.sibaen@bsu.edu.ph Facebook: Nick Wais Sibaen Mobile: 0910 296 8446 (SMART)
 Imagine the following scenario.

You traveled through deep space to visit a planet called Sipnarys where everyone is a
genius Mathematician, the Sypnayans. You entered a coffee shop and you noticed two
Sypnayans talking. Here is a part of their conversation:

Sypnayan 1: Hagoudu estei freiou deimu

Sypnayan 2: Eyiedu estoureich salou
Sypnayan 1: Hyetie meich karhou shou leiou

Obviously, you did not understand anything from that conversation. But is it because
they were talking complex things? No. It’s because you simply did not understand their
language. Perhaps they were just laughing at you!

This situation has a very strong analogy in Mathematics. People frequently have trouble
understanding mathematical ideas; not necessarily because the ideas are difficult, but because
they are being presented in a foreign language‒the language of Mathematics.

Like any language, Mathematics has its own symbols, syntax and rules to understand
the expressed ideas and to communicate these ideas to others. These rules, symbols and
syntax are the focus of this chapter. The basic concepts of Mathematics such as sets, relations,
function and the foundation of propositional logic are introduced.
 Lesson 2.1
MATHEMATICS AS A FORM OF LANGUAGE
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to be able to
1. Compare Mathematics to other Language;
2. Discuss the characteristic of mathematics as a form of language;
3. Apply some conventions of mathematics;
4. Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.

Mathematics vs the Language of Ordinary Speech (English Language)

To understand better how Mathematics is just a form of language, let us compare it to a

language that we are all familiar of‒ the English language. Remember that the main function of
a language is to make communication of ideas between individuals possible. When we learned
the English language, we started with the most basic structure such as the letters of the
alphabet and its corresponding sound. We then combine them to form words which is later on
assigned to different objects, concrete or abstract. Phrases, sentences, and paragraphs are
then built to convey more complex ideas. The language has become well developed over time
that we have created a system of exploring its dimensions for a more efficient communication.
We can now differentiate the different parts of speech (noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective,
etc.) and their functions. Also, structural rules such as grammar and syntax are now
standardized.

From this perspective, Mathematics does not entirely separate itself. It is also a
language that originated from simple and basic mathematical elements such as numbers and
operations. More complex ideas called “expressions” are then generated by combining these
elements. The combination of such elements is rule-bound, ensuring that the resulting
expression is meaningful and abides to the universality of Mathematics. Here is a more detailed
comparison of Mathematics and the English Language.

The English Language Mathematics

 Uses words  Uses numbers, operations, sets, matrices, etc. in
symbol
 Classifies which are nouns, verbs,  Do not exactly use the words "noun", "verb", or
pronouns, adjectives, etc. "pronoun" but we can picture likeness such as
 Nouns (Names, Places, Events)  Nouns (fixed things like numbers)
 Verbs (action words like listen)  Verbs (actions such as addition, subtraction, etc.)
 Pronouns (he, she, it)  Pronouns (could be variables such as x and y)
 Adjectives (intelligent, hot)  Adjective (of being prime, even, etc.)
 A group of words conveying a  A group of expressions conveying a complete
complete thought is an English thought is a Mathematical Sentence. Equations
Sentence. are classic examples.
 A group of English sentences  A group of equations is called a system of
comprises a paragraph. equations.

Characteristics of Mathematics as a Form of Language

While we have seen the similarities of Mathematics to the English language,

there are areas in which it demarcates itself from the English language.
 Precise. Mathematics is precise by making very fine distinctions among mathematical
objects. Unlike definitions of words in the English language where a word may assume different
meanings depending on the context in which it is used, the definitions of mathematical objects
are unambiguous. Let us take the word, “set”, as an example. In the English dictionary, there
are about 430 meanings of the word set but in Mathematics, the idea of set is fixed regardless
of the context of its use.

Concise. Mathematics is concise because it makes use of symbols to convey ideas,

and that what could be said in thousands of words may be conveyed with few symbols.

Powerful. Mathematics is powerful because it expresses ideas in ways that allow the
solution of even a complex problem doable.

The Grammar of Mathematics

It is the structural rules governing the use of symbols representing mathematical objects
like expressions, variables and mathematical statements, numbers, operations, sets, relations
and functions.

Operations

Unary Operations are used on single mathematical objects. Taking the additive
inverse of a number and squaring it are examples of a unary operation.

Binary Operations are used between two objects. The four fundamental
operations of mathematics are binary operations.

Variables

A variable can be thought of as a mathematical “John Doe” because it can be used as a

placeholder or a symbol of something that has one or more values.

Conventionally, we use letters as variables.

Example 2.1.1

What number, when doubled and added to 1, is greater than 10?

Answer: Mathematically, 2x+1>10. The variable x is chosen arbitrarily. One may use
another variable.

Expressions

Expressions are mathematical ideas formed by combining numbers and variables using
the different operations of mathematics. Expressions are in their simpler forms if they involve
fewer symbols and operations.

Mathematical Statements

A mathematical statement is the analogue for an English sentence. It should state a

complete thought.
Writing Mathematical Statements Using Variables

Since Mathematics is concise, mathematical sentences are often expressed not with
words but using symbols.

Practice Exercise 1

Symbolize the following statements.

1. The square of a number is always nonnegative.
A. x2  1 B. x2  0 C. 1  x2 D. x2 0
2. The sum of two numbers is greater than their product.
A. ab  a  b B. a  b  ab C. ab  a  b D. a b ba
3. The quotient of two numbers less 3 is equal to 6.
a 1
A.  3  6 B. a    3  6 C. a  b  6 D. ab 3 6
b b
4. A number subtracted from its cube is 9.
A. y  x3  9 B. x3  y  9 C. y  y3  9 D. y 3 y 9
5. Maria is 4 times younger than his brother (x). Which gives the age of Maria (y)?
A. y  x B. y  4 x C. y 
4
D. y
x
x 4
6. A number y is four less than the product of two consecutive numbers.
A. y  4  x  x  1 B. y  x  x  1  4 C. y  x  x  2   4 D. y 4 x x 1

Types of Mathematical Statements

Universal Statements are those that hold true for all elements of a set. In other words,
these statements attribute a property to all elements in a particular universe of discourse. They
explicitly or implicitly use universal quantifiers such as "all", "every" and "each."

Example 3.1.2

The following are examples of universal statements.

1 1
1. For all x  8 ,  .
x 3
2. The square of a real number is nonnegative.
This statement is also equivalent to the following.
a. The square of each real number is nonnegative.
b. The square of every real number is nonnegative.
c. The squares of all real numbers are nonnegative.

Existential Statements attribute a property to at least one object or entity, but not all, in
a particular universe of discourse.

Example 3.1.3

The following are examples of existential statements.

 1. There exists a real number x such that 2 x  5  10 .
2. There exist a prime number that is even.

Conditional Statements says that if one thing is true then some other things are also
true. It is a statement that may be written in the form “If P then Q ,” where P and Q are
simple propositions. Also, P is called the hypothesis and Q is called the conclusion.

Example 3.1.4

The following are examples of conditional statements.

1. A polygon is a pentagon, if it has five sides.
2. If a rectangle is a square, then the adjacent sides are congruent.

Universal Conditional Statements are statements that are both universal and
conditional.

Example 3.1.5

The following are examples of universal conditional statements.

1. All real numbers are rational if they can be expressed as a ratio of two
integers, where the denominator is not zero.
2. For all numbers, if they are divisible by 6, then they are also divisible by 2 and
3.
 Exercise 2.1
Mathematics as a Form of Language

Name:___________________________ Score:_______
Course and Year:__________________ Date:_______

A. Identify whether the following statements are true or false.

Answer
1. Mathematics is a form of language.
2. 3x2  4 x  1 is a mathematical sentence.
3. 1
 x 2  2 is a mathematical sentence.
x
4. Variables are used to fancy mathematical ideas.
5. Variables are used when the value of something is unknown.

B. Translate the following Mathematically.

Answer
1. A number less its cube is zero.
2. The square of the sum of two numbers is 3 less than
their product.
3. The difference of the squares of two is greater than the
square of their difference.
4. The square root of the sum of three numbers is 4 more
than their product.
5. The cube root of the cube root of the square of a
number is 1.

C. Identify the type of the following statements.

Answer
1. There exists a number that is both even and prime.
2. For all positive numbers, if it is less than one, then its
cube is also less than 1.
3. The square of a positive number is always positive.
4. For every real number, there is a corresponding
multiplicative inverse.
5. There exists a whole numbers less than every natural
number.
 Lesson 2.2
SETS
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to
1. Define sets and related terms;
2. Enumerate different types of sets;
3. Perform operations on sets;
4. Represent sets in different ways;
5. Solve problems involving sets.

OK class, it is assumed that you

have a good background on sets
from high school math ...give me
an example of a set.

C FAUCET, ma’am.

Oh well, let us review key

concepts then.

IMAGE CREDIT: https://blog.waldorfmoraine.org/2015/05/waldorf-education-featured-on-the-simpsons-season-finale/

Sets and related concepts together with their respective symbols, binary operations and
representations present a sound foundation to understand more advanced concepts in math.
This is the reason why many higher mathematics courses start with sets introduction. Similarly,
set is being introduced in the secondary education to prepare students for college mathematics.

Sets and Related Terms

We begin by reviewing terms and concepts regarding sets.

A set is a well-defined collection of objects such as set of letters, set of numbers, set of
books, set of students, set of stars, sala set, etc.

An element, denoted by (Greek letter Epsilon), is any object that belongs to, or a
member of a set.

A set is written using the following conventions:

a) Use capital English letters to denote sets;

b) Enclose elements using curly braces; and
c) Use commas to separate elements.

Example 2.2.1
 The set of letters may be denoted by L *a, b, c, , x, y, z+. The choice of “L” to represent
the set is to remind readers that the elements are “letters” of the English alphabet. The ellipsis
indicates that there are letters in between those listed.

Example 2.2.2

The set of natural numbers may be represented as N * , , , +. The ellipsis after the
number 3 means that the list of numbers after 3 goes on indefinitely. Here are other examples of
sets of numbers.

ℝ
Set of Real numbers

ℚ ℚ′
Set of Rational Numbers Set of Irrational Numbers
𝜋, 𝑒, 2, …

ℤ 𝔽
Set of Integers Set of Fractions
*… − 3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … + *… 1 2 , 2 3 … +

ℕ− 𝕎
Set of Negative Integers Set of Whole numbers
*… − 3, −2, −1+ *0,1,2,3, … +

*0+ ℕ
Set of Natural numbers
*1,2,3, … +
Example 2.2.3

The set of students may be written as

P * hristian, Justin, Mark, Angela, Michelle, ea+. The set has only six elements.

Example 2.2.4

Consider the following expressions.

Mark P a N *a, b+ L N

Note that we negate symbols with a slash to mean “not”. In example 2.2.4, a is not an
element of set N and {a, b} is not an element of set L.

Methods of Naming Sets

There are two common methods of naming sets. Each method has its own advantage.
Here are the two method.
 Roster method is done by listing all the elements, as in example 2.2.3. This method is
also called tabular method.

Example 2.2.5

M *Monday, Tuesday, ednesday, Thursday, Friday, aturday, unday+.

G {Atok, akun, okod, uguias, Itogon, Kabayan, Kapangan, Kibungan,

La Trinidad, Mankayan, ablan, Tuba, Tublay}.

P { }

Rule method is done by describing what the set is about. It uses a variable to represent
the elements of the set accompanied by a descriptive phrase. The following examples illustrate
how sets M, G, and P in example 2.2.5 may be represented using the rule method:

Example 2.2.6

M *x |x is a day in the week+ which is read as “M is the set of x such that x is a day in a
week.

G *y | y is a municipality of enguet+ is read as “G is the set of y such that y is a

municipality of enguet”.

P {x| x ,x } is read as “P is the set x such that x satisfies the equation

x and x is greater than ”.

In ordinary language, sets M, G, and P are simply the “set of all days in a week”, the “set
of all municipalities of enguet”, and the set of all positive real numbers that satisfy the equation
x ”, respectively.

Each method has its own advantage. The roster method has the advantage of identifying
the individual element of the set which is an information not provided in rule method. Roster
method is used when the identity of the individual element is important to consider. Roster
method may be used to answer the question “who can be qualified to receive social
amelioration fund from the government? who are the residents of enguet? etc.”. However, if
the purpose is simply to know what the set is about and there is no need to identify the
individual element, then rule method is more efficient to use because the identity of the set,
regardless of its size, can be known with just a phrase

Cardinality of a Set

The cardinality of set A is the number of elements in set A. In symbol, the cardinality of
set A is written as n(A).

Example 2.2.7

The cardinality of a null set is 0. So if set B is a null set, then n(B) = 0.

The cardinality of a unit set is 1. So if Set C is a unit set, then n(C) = 1.

 The cardinality of set M in example 2.2.5 is 7. In symbol, n(M) .

The cardinality of set N in example 2.2.2 is unknown because its last element cannot be
identified. In symbol, n(N) = .

The Universal Set and Subsets

The universal set, denoted by U, is the set that contains all the elements under
consideration. It is dependent on the limit put for its coverage. That is, the set of residents of La
Trinidad is the universal set if it is the limit of discourse. The set of faculty members of Benguet
State University, the set of flowers along the Balili river, the set of gasoline stations in La
Trinidad, etc. are examples of a universal set provided all discussions revolve only on the
elements of such sets.

Set A is a subset of set B, denoted by A , if all elements of A are also elements of B.

et A is a “proper” subset of set , denoted by A , if all elements of set A are also in set B
but some elements of set B are not in set A. For instance, the set of all freshman students of
Benguet State University is a subset of the set of all students in that University.

Types of Sets

Finite vs. Infinite Set. A finite set is a set with elements that are countable one by one.
Its cardinality can be assigned a certain number. Sets M, G, and P in example 2.2.6 are finite
sets. An infinite set on the other hand is a set that is not finite. In other words, it is a set with
elements that are not countable one by one. Set N in example 2.2.2 is an infinite set.

Equal vs. Equivalent Sets. Set A is equal to B, denoted by A=B, if they have exactly the
same elements. For example, the sets A={a, e, i, o, u} and B={i, o, a, u, e} are equal because
both of these sets contain all the vowels of the English alphabet. Set A is equivalent to set B,
denoted by A ~ , if they have the same cardinality. This means that sets with the same number
of elements, regardless of the nature of the elements are equivalent. Sets A={a, e, i, o, u} and
C={1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is a pair of equivalent sets because the cardinality of both of them is 5.

Unit Set vs. Null Set. A unit set is a set that contains only one element. The set of
capitals of a province is an example of a unit set since each province has only one capital. The
set of all positive integers less than 100 that satisfy the equation x - is another
example of a unit set because there is only one positive integer that makes the equation true.
An empty set, or a null set is a set that contains no elements. The Greek letter phi, , is used to
symbolize the null set. An empty curly brace * + may also be used to denote an empty set.

Practice Exercise 2

1. Consider the following sets:

U={a, b, c, d, 1, 2, 3, 4}
A={a, b, c, d} B={1, 2, 3, 4} C={ }
D={a, b, 1, 2} E={ } F={d, e, 5, 6}
G={d, c, b, a} H={x| x<5, x ℕ} I={x| x<5, x }
a. Identify all the subsets of the universal set.
b. Identify all equal sets.
 c. Identify all the equivalent sets Cardo, can you
that are not equal. give us an example
d. Identify all the unit sets. of a null set?
e. Identify all the null sets.

2. Which of the following is true?

Explain your answer.
a. All equal sets are also equivalent
b. All equivalent sets are also Brilliant Cardo!!! Class, the thoughts in
equal. Cardo’s mind is an example of a null set.
IMAGE CREDIT:
Operations on Sets http://www.dvdbeaver.com/film2/DVDReviews49/simspons_20th_blu-ray.htm

1. Set A union set B, denoted by A , is the set of all elements that belong to set A, or
set B, or to both set A and set B.

2. Set A intersection Set B, denoted by A , is the set of all elements that belong to
both set A and set B.

Example 2.2.9

Consider the following sets.

*a, e, i, o, u+ *a, b, c, d, e+ *x x is a consonant+

Thus,

*a, e, i, o, u, a, b, c, d, e, a, e+ = *a, e, i, o, u, b, c, d,+. Since a set should

contain distinct elements, repeated elements are written once. Thus, set should contain
only eight distinct elements instead of twelve.

*a, b, c, , x, y, z+. If U is the universal set that contains all letters of the
English alphabet, then = U.

*a, e+. In layman’s terms, the intersection of two sets is the set that contains
the common elements of the given two sets.

. Sets W and Y have no common elements. They are called disjoint sets.

Note how the words “or” and “and” are used in conjunction with “union” and “intersection,
respectively.

3. Set difference. The difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A − , is the set of all
elements that are in set A, but not in set B.

4. Complement of a set. The complement of set A, denoted by A (or A-prime), is the set
of all elements of the universal set that are not in set A.

Example 2.2.10

Consider the following sets.

 *a, e, I, o, u+ *a, b, c, d, e+
*x x is a consonant+
*x x is a letter of the English alphabet+

Then,

− *i, o, u+
− *b, c, d+
− *f, g, h, , x, y, z+
*b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z+

Venn Diagrams

We may represent sets, their properties and operations by using enclosed geometric
figures such as circles, triangles, rectangles, squares, etc. These representations are called
Venn diagrams. Normally, we use a rectangle to represent the universal set while ovals for
subsets.

Example 2.2.11

Given the following sets,

L * , , , , + M * , , , , + N * , , , , , , , , , +, then:

L M * , , , , , , , + L M * , +
N
L M
6 10 2 1
4 3
8 5
7

M * , , , , + M−L * , , +
N N
L M L M
6 10 2 1 2 1
6 10
4 3 4 3
9 8 5 9 8 5
7 7

Application of Sets
 Sets and other related concepts can be used to solve real life problems such as the
following:

Example 2.2.12

Ma’am inom and Ma’am August are very generous teachers. On a Friday ma’am
inom and ma’am August, decided to treat their math students to a serving of French fries
each with the following choices of dips: catsup, mayonnaise, and mustard. Among their 42
students, 26 wanted mustard as a dip, 19 wanted mayonnaise, 17 wanted catsup, 11 wanted
mustard and mayonnaise, 10 wanted mustard and catsup, 7 wanted mayonnaise and catsup
and 6 wanted all three as dips. How many students wanted (a) catsup dip only; (b) mustard but
not mayonnaise; (c) mayonnaise but not mustard; (d) catsup and mustard but not mayonnaise;
(e) mayonnaise and mustard but not catsup; and (f) none of the three dips?

Problems or situations similar to the above are solvable by using concepts related to
sets such as Venn diagram. A Venn diagram provides a visual representation of the distribution
of the elements among the given sets. By using Venn diagram, it becomes easier to see how
many elements belong to one set only, to either of any two sets only, to both of any two sets, to
all of the three sets, and to none of the given sets. Naming a set is done arbitrarily, but naming a
set with a particular letter that has relation with the characteristics of the elements of a set may
also be done especially if it facilitates memory recall about the set. Use legend to identify what
set a given letter represents by providing descriptive words about the set. Thus, in the example,
R is used for catsup because it is red, Y for mustard because it is yellow and W for mayonnaise
because it is white.
Let: R Y U
6 4
R = Catsup 11
6
Y = Mustard 1 5
W = Mayonnaise 7
2
U = Math 21 students of Ma’am Xinom W
So and
withMa’am August
the use of Venn diagram above, we can now answer the questions in the
problem. There are (a) 6 students who wanted catsup dip only; (b) 15 students wanted mustard
but not mayonnaise; (c) 8 students wanted mayonnaise but not mustard; (d) 4 students wanted
catsup and mustard but not mayonnaise; (e) 5 students wanted mayonnaise and mustard but
not catsup; and (f) 2 students did not want any of the three dips.

IMAGE CREDIT:https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/ourboox-media-
prod/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/30110559/cheering.jpg
 Exercise 2.2
Sets

Name:____________________________ Score:_____
Course and Year:___________________ Date:______

1. Draw one Venn diagram to represent the relationship of the following sets of numbers.
Irrational Numbers ℚ’ Rational Numbers ℚ Real Numbers ℝ
Integers ℤ Whole Numbers Counting Numbers ℕ

2. From Example 2.2.12, represent the sets described in questions a, b, c, d, e, and f using the
following symbols: , , −, .

3. Given the following sets: * , , , , , , , , + * , , , , +

*, , , + * , , , , +
* , , , , + * , , , +
Determine:a) b) c) ( )– ( )
d) e) ( ) f)

4. Doctor Armel and Doctor Nike have twenty-four patients. Twelve of the patients have
symptom alpha, six of the patients have symptom beta, and fifteen of the patients have
symptom gamma. There is only one patient who has all the three symptoms. Two of the
patients show symptoms alpha with beta, but do not have symptom gamma. Two of the
patients have symptom beta and gamma but do not have symptom alpha. If all of the
patients of Doctor Armel and Doctor Nike have at least one of the mentioned symptoms,
how many patients are sick with disease Omega, if disease Omega is manifested by
symptoms alpha and gamma but not beta? Draw a complete Venn diagram to represent the
problem situation.

5. Complete a Venn diagram to represent the following:

There are 208 students under the new BS Math course. The Mathematics-Physics-Statistics
Department offers math subjects under Prof. Annie, Prof. Ennet and Prof. Yano.
 4 students take math subjects under all three professors.
 48 students are enrolled under Prof. Ennet.
 There are twice as many students who are enrolled under both Prof. Ennet and Prof.
Yano (but not Prof. Annie) as those who are enrolled under both Prof. Ennet and Prof.
Annie (but not Prof. Yano), and 4 times as many as those who are enrolled under all 3
professors.
 124 students join the math classes of Prof. Yano.
 27 poor misguided BS Math students do not study any math subject.
 The group of students who are enrolled under both Prof. Ennet and Prof. Yano (but not
Prof. Annie) is exactly the same size as the group made up of students who are enrolled
under both Prof. Annie and Prof. Yano.
 Lesson 2.3
RELATIONS

In ordinary language, relations are a kind of links existing between objects. For
example, the phrases “mother of,” “neighbor of,” “is older than,” “is an ancestor of,”
suggest a relation between two people. In like manner, the phrases “is greater than,” “is
less than,” “is the square of,” and “is the cube root of” describe how two numbers are
related.

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to be able to
1. Define a cartesian product;
2. Identify the cartesian product of any given two sets;
3. Define relations in their own words;
4. Correctly describe relations in different ways;

We now introduce the concept of cartesian product between two sets. This
concept plays a major role in formally defining a relation.

Cartesian Product of Two Sets

Given two sets A and B (not necessarily different), the set AxB (read as A cross B) is
called the cartesian product of sets A and B . The elements of AxB consist of all ordered pairs
 a,b  where a  A and a  B . The cartesian product is also called product set, direct
product, or cross product.

AxB   a, b  | a  A, b  B
The cartesian product is named after Rene Descartes whose formulation of analytic
geometry gave rise to this concept.

Example 2.3.1

Given two sets A and B such that A  1, 2,3 and B  a, b, c . Then
AxB  1, a  , 1, b  , 1, c  ,  2, a  ,  2, b  ,  2, c  , 3, a  , 3, b  , 3, c  .

Definition of Relation

Given two sets A and B (not necessarily different), a relation R from A to B is any
subset R A B . We call R a binary relation from A to B or between A and B . If a, b
R , we write a R b and say a is related to b . If a is not related to b , that is, a, b R , we
write a R b . In addition, when A=B a relation R A B is called a relation in or on A .
Example 2.3.1

Given two sets A  1, 2,3 and B=a,b,c , then

AxB  1, a  , 1, b  , 1, c  ,  2, a  ,  2, b  ,  2, c  , 3, a  , 3, b  , 3, c  .

From this cartesian product, we can define several relations from A to B by identifying
a subset. Here are some.
R1  1, a  , 1, b  , 1, c 
R2  1, a  ,  2, a  ,  3, a 
R3   2, a  ,  2, b  ,  2, c  ,  3, a  ,  3, b  ,  3, c 
R4  1, a  ,  2, b  ,  3, c 
R5  1, a  , 1, b  , 1, c  ,  2, a  ,  2, b  ,  2, c  ,  3, a  ,  3, b  ,  3, c 
R6  

In contrast, the following are not relations from A to B since they are not subsets of
AxB .
R7   a,1 , 1, b  , 1, c 
R8   a, b  ,  2, b  ,  2, c  ,  3, a  ,  3, b 
 Lesson 2.4
FUNCTIONS

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to be able to
1. Define functions;
2. Describe functions in different ways;
3. Differentiate relations from functions;
4. Enumerate, define, and describe different types of functions; and
5. Solve problems on functions.

Brief History

Developed in the seventeenth century, the concept of function remains as one of the
most basic and important concepts in Mathematics. Galileo (1564-1642) gave the idea of
function as the dependency relationship between two quantities, such as the time it takes an
object to descend along an inclined plane that is raised to a certain height depends on the slope
or length of the inclined plane.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650), in his book Geometry (1637), used the concept to
describe many mathematical relationships. In a 1673, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716)
introduced the term function to mean any quantity varying from point to point of a curve, such as
the length of a tangent or a normal line. Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) formalized the
representation of a function by denoting it as f(x).

Definition of a Function

A function is a set of ordered pairs, (x,y), drawn from two sets of values X and Y in which
every x-value is paired to a unique y-value. This means that a set of ordered pairs in which an
x-value is paired to more than one y-value is not a function. However, a set of ordered pairs in
which more than one x-value are paired to one y-value is a function and it is called a many-to-
one function.

Example 2.4.1

Consider all the relations provided in example 2.3.1 (R 1-R6). Of these, only R2 and R4 are
considered functions because they contain no two ordered pairs that have the same x - value.

Ways of Representing a Function

Ordered Pairs. By definition, a function is a set of ordered pairs.

Example 2.4.2

Let us define a function on single digit natural numbers by the following set of order pairs {(1,1),
(2,4), (3,6), (4,8)}. The elements of this function consist of four ordered pairs.
X Y
Mapping or Arrow Diagram. This is done by
directing a one-sided arrow from each of the first
coordinate to its corresponding second coordinate. The 1 1
2
2 3
4
3 5
6
4 7
8
function in the example 2.4.2 is the same as the arrow diagram at the right.

Table Form. It is important that when using a table, the correspondence between the
coordinates of each ordered pair is maintained. The following table is the same function
described in example 2.4.2.
X 1 2 3 4
Graph. A function may be graphed by plotting each Y 2 4 6 8
ordered pair in the cartesian plane. The first coordinate of each
ordered pair is plotted against the horizontal axis while that of
the second coordinate is plotted against the vertical axis. The
graph at the right side represents the function described in
example 2.4.2. The four points correspond to the four ordered
pairs of the function.

Equation. A function may be represented by an equation

which shows the relation between the first coordinate and the second coordinate in each
ordered pair. In example 2.4.2, the relation between the x-values and the y-values is such that
each y-value is twice that of the x-value in each ordered pair. Thus
y  2 x where x  5 and x  ¥ .

The first three ways of representing a function is used when the function has finite
number of elements. The last two ways are practical in describing a function with infinite number
of elements.

Example 2.4.3.

Consider a relation of the set of real numbers (¡ ) onto itself. Then the cross product
¡ x¡ or ¡ 2 consists of infinitely many ordered pairs. From this cross product, let us define our
first function as the set of ordered pairs in which the first coordinates consist of whole numbers
less than or equal to five while the second coordinates are the cube of the first coordinates. This
function is finite and may be represented in the following ways:

Ordered Pair  0,0 , 1,1 ,  2,8 , 3, 27  ,  4,64  , 5,125

X Y
Arrow Diagram

0 0
1 1
8
2
27
3
64
4 125
5

Table X 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y 0 2 8 27 64 125
 Now, we define our second function on ¡ as the set of ordered pairs whose y
coordinates are four less than the square of their first coordinates. The number of elements of
this function is infinite because the first coordinates are the entire real number which is
uncountable, and it follows that the second coordinates are also uncountable. Thus, the
practical ways of representing this function are equation and graph.

Equation y  x2  4 where and x  ¡ .

Graph

Function Notations and Terminology

Naming a function. Functions are usually named using letters. For instance, the
function represented by
f : X  Y defined by y  f ( x)  x2  4

is read as “the function ƒ from X to Y defined by f ( x)  y  x 2  4 " is understood to have the

name "f" and f ( x)  y  x2  4 is the rule from which the elements of set X are paired with
the elements of set Y . The arrow,  , is read "is mapped to" while f ( x) is read “f of x”.
Moreover, f ( x) is alternatively written as y.

Domain of a Function. This is the set of all first coordinates in the set of ordered pairs
of a function. In the function f : X  Y , the domain is set X .

Codomain of a Function. This is the set of all elements from which the elements of the
domain are paired. In the function f : X  Y , the codomain is set Y .

Range of a Function. This is the set of all second coordinates in the set of ordered
pairs of a function. It is the subset of the codomain whose elements have pairs in the domain.

Image refers to the specific element in the codomain with which an element in the
domain is paired. This element will be also termed as output.

Pre-image refers to the specific element in the domain with which an element in the
codomain is paired. This element will be also termed as input.

Example 2.4.4
 Consider the function, g : X  Y , X Y
which is illustrated in the diagram at the right 31
1
side. Identify the name of the function, its 0
domain, codomain, and range. Also, identify 1 2
the image of 1 and 4 and the pre-image of 9 2
and 1. 3 3 126
4
Function name: g 65
5 9
Domain: 1, 2,3, 4,5 11
Codomain: 1, 2,3,9,11,31, 65,126
Range: 1, 2,3,9, 65
The image of 1 is 2. Likewise, the image of 4 is 65.
The pre-image of 9 is 2 while that of 1 is 0.
 Exercise 2.4.1
Definition of Functions, Notations and Terminology

Name:___________________________ Score:_______
Course and Year:__________________ Date:________

A. Write F if the following represents a function, otherwise write MR if it just a mere

relation.
1. {(2,3), (3,4), (5,1), (6,2), (2,4)} 1.
2. {(2,3), (3,4), (5,1), (6,2), (7,3)} 2.
3. {(2,3), (3,4), (5,1), (6,2), (3,3) 3.
4. {(2,3), (3,4), (5,1), (6,2), (3,3)} 4.
5. {(10,12), (5,3), (15, 10), (5,6), (1,0)} 5.
6. {(1,1), (2,1), (3,1), (4,1), (5,1)} 6.
7. 8. 9. 10.
7.

8.

9.

10.
11. 12.
X 0 1 3 5 3 9 X -2 -1 0 1 2 3 11.
Y 8 9 10 6 10 7 Y 5 5 5 5 5 5
12.
13. 14. 15. 16.
13.

14.

15.

16.
17. 18. 19. 20.
17.
1 𝛼 1 𝛼 1 𝛼 1 𝛼
𝛽 18.
2 𝛽 2 𝛽 2 𝛽 2
3 𝛾 3 𝛾 3 𝛾 3 𝛾
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 19.
4 4 4 4
𝜙 𝜙 5 𝜙 5 𝜙 20.
1 1 1 1
B. Given the relation A = {(5,2), (7,4), (9,10), (x, 5)}.
1. Which of the following values for x will make relation A a function? 7,9 or 4?
2. Identify the domain and range of A. Also, identify the image of 7 and the pre-image of 10.
Domain: ___________ Range: ___________ Image of 7: ___ Pre-image of 10: ___
Evaluating Functions

Evaluating a function means determining the corresponding image (output) of a given

pre-image (input). It simply means finding the y-value for a given x-value of the function.

f  x   3x  5

output
function input
name
Examples 2.4.5

Given the function f  x =2x+5 , evaluate f  3  , f  2  , and f  a 1 .

Solution

This problem is like finding the y-value when the x-value is 3, -2, and (a+1).

f  x  2x  5 f  x  2x  5 f  x   2x  5
f  3  2  3  5 f  2   2  2   5 f  a  1  2  a  1  5
 65  4  5  2a  2  5
 11 1  2a  7
The image of 3, -2, and (a+1) is 11, 1, and (2a+7) respectively. If these values
are written as an ordered pair, then they appear as  3,11 , (-2,1), (a+1, 2a+7).

Examples 2.4.6

Let h(m)  3m3  m2  m  2 , find h(2) , h( 12 ) , and h( x  2) .

Solution
h(m)  3m3  m 2  m  2 h(m)  3m3  m 2  m  2
h  2   3  2    2    2   2 h  12   3  12    12    12   2
3 2 3 2

 3  8    4    2   2  3  18    14   12  2
 24  4  2  2  83  14  12  2
 32   118
 h(m)  3m3  m 2  m  2
h  x  2  3 x  2   x  2   x  2  2
3 2

   
 3 x3  6 x 2  12 x  8  x 2  4 x  4  x  2  2
 3x3  18 x 2  36 x  24  x 2  4 x  4  x  2  2
 3x3  18 x 2  x 2  36 x  4 x  x  24  4  2  2
 3x3  19 x 2  41x  32

The Algebra of Functions

Given two functions, f  x  and g  x  , we use shorthand notation to indicate the

operations of adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing the formulas of these
functions. These operations, known as algebra of functions, are described below.

Addition  f  g  x   f  x   g  x 
Subtraction  f  g  x   f  x   g  x 
Multiplication  f gg  x   f  x gg  x 
 f  f  x
Division    x  , g  x  0
g g  x

Examples 2.4.6

Find the sum, difference, product and quotient of the following functions:
f  x   x2 1 g  x  x 1
Solution

Sum Difference
 f  g  x   f  x   g  x   f  g  x   f  x   g  x 
  x 2  1   x  1   x 2  1   x  1
 x2  x  x2  x  2

Product Quotient
 f gg  x   f  x gg  x   f  f  x
   x 
  x 2  1  x  1 g g  x

 x3  x 2  x  1 x2 1

x 1


 x  1 x  1
x 1
 x 1
Composition of Functions

The composition of two functions is such that one function serves as the pre-
image of the other. That is, given two functions f  x  and g  x  , their compositions are
as follows

f o g  x   f  g  x   and  g o f  x   g  f  x  .

In the first composition, the function g  x  serves as the pre-image of the function
f  x  . In the second composition, the function f  x  serves as the pre-image of the
function g  x  . Take note that the function written at the right most side serves as the
pre-image of the function preceding it.

Examples 2.4.7

Given the following two functions:

f  x   x2 1 g  x  x 1 ,
find  f o g  x  and  g o f  x  .
Solutions

f o g  x   f  g  x    g o f  x   g  f  x  
 f  x  1  g x2 1 
  x  1  1  
2
 x2 1  1

 x2  2 x  1 1   x2
 x2  2x

Practice Exercises 3

Given the following functions: f  x   x2  x g  x  x  4 h  x   x , evaluate:

1. f (3) 7. ( f  g )( x)
2. g (8) 8. ( f  h)( x)
3. h(103.1) 9.  h o f  x 
4. f (2 x  1) 10.  g o f 1
5. ( f  g )( x)
11.  g o g  x 
6. ( f  h)( x)
12.  f oh o g  x 
 Exercise 2.4.2
Function Evaluation and Algebra of Functions

Name:___________________________ Score:_______
Course and Year:__________________ Date:________

A. Perform the task in each item for the given functions below.

f  x  3 g  x   x2  x  2 h  x   x3  1
1.  h  f  x  2.  h  f  5

3.  g gf  x  4.  g gf  1

5.  g  h  x  6.  g  h   12 

7.  g gg  x  8.  f  f  x 

9.  g  h  f  x  10.  g  h  f  0 

11.  g o h o f  x  12.  f oh o g  x 
Types of Functions

One - to - One (Injective). A function f is said to be one-to-one, if and only if

whenever f  x   f  y  , x  y .
This means that each element of the range has a unique pre-image.

Example 2.4.8
1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4
5 6 5 6
7 8 7 8
10 10
a one-to-one function not one-to-one

Both of the above diagrams illustrate a function but only one of them is one-to-one. The
diagram at the right side is not one-to-one because one element of the range (4) has two pre-
images (5 and 7). That is, f  5  f  7  but 5  7 .

Example 2.4.9

Consider the two functions on the set of natural numbers ( ¥ ), and on the set of integers
( ¢ ) respectively.
1. f : ¥  ¥ defined by f  x   x 2
2. f : ¢  ¢ defined by f  x   x 2

The two functions above are not the same. Only the first function is one-to-one. For in
the second function, we can identify an element from the range that has more than one pre-
image (e.g. f 1  f  1  1 ).

Onto (surjective). A function f from a set A to a set B is onto, if and only if for every
element y in B , there is an element x in A such that f  x   y ; that is, f is onto if and
only if f  A  B , or if the range is exactly the codomain.
Example 2.4.10
1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4
5 6 5 6
7 8 7 8
an onto function not onto 10

The function at the right side is not onto since there is an element (10) of the
codomain that has no pre-image.
Example 2.4.11

The function f  x   x 2 from the set of natural numbers ¥ to the set of non-
negative even numbers E is an onto function. However, f  x   2 x from ¥ to ¥ is not
onto because the odd numbers in the codomain do not have pre-images in the domain.

Bijection. A function is called a bijection, if it is both onto and one-to-one.

Example 2.4.12

The function f  x   2 x from the set of natural numbers ¥ to the set of non-negative
even numbers E is one-to-one and onto. Thus, it is a bijection.
 Exercise 2.4.3
Types of Functions and its Inverse

Name:___________________________ Score:_______
Course and Year:__________________ Date:________

A. Identify the type of each given function. Write 1-1 if one-to-one, O if onto, B if
bijection, and N if neither one-to-one nor onto.

Function Answer
1. 2.
1 𝛼 1 𝛼
2 𝛽 2 𝛽 1.
3 𝛾 3 𝛾
4 𝜃 4 𝜃
5 𝜙 𝜙
1 1
2.
3. 4.
1 𝛼 1 𝛼
2 𝛽 2 𝛽 3.
3 𝛾 3 𝛾
4 4 𝜃
5 𝜙 5 𝜙
1 1 4.
5. 6.
1 𝛼 1
2 𝛽 2 5.
3 𝛾 3 𝛾
4 𝜃 4
5 𝜙 5
1 6.
7. f : ¡  ¡ defined by f  x   x 3
7.
8. f : ¡  ¡ defined by f  x   2 x
8.
9. f : ¡  ¡ defined by f  x   x3  x
9.
10. f : ¡  ¡ defined by f  x   2 x  8 10.
 Lesson 2.5
ELEMENTARY LOGIC

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students are expected to be able to
1. Define a proposition in their own words;
2. Differentiate a proposition from not a proposition;
3. Enumerate, define, and describe the logical operators;
4. Symbolize compound statements;
5. Construct the truth table of a compound proposition;
Logic

Etymology. Logic comes from the classical Greek “logos,” meaning “word, thought,
idea, argument, account, reason or principle.” It is the study of the principles and criteria of valid
inference and demonstration.

Definition. It is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish valid from
invalid reasoning. It is a science that aims to develop the reasoning power of man. It is also the
science of correct thinking.

Division of Logic

Traditional Logic. This is another name for Aristotelian logic. This may be described as
syllogistic logic, logic of classes, or logic of terms. It’s the logic of statements that can be
represented in terms of classes of things, and relationships between those classes.

Propositional Logic. This is another name for Liebnizian logic. This is may be
described as modern logic, logic of statements, logic of proposition, or logic of sentences.
Specifically, propositional logic studies the ways of joining and/or modifying the entire
propositions to form more complex propositions.

Propositional Logic

Proposition. A declarative statement which is either true or false but not both.

Example 2.5.1

Consider the following statements:

1. My name is Juan De La Cruz.
2. I am a person under investigation.
3. Please erase the blackboard.
4. I was surprised!
5. x-2=4.

The first two sentences are propositions because they may either be true or false. On
the other hand, the rest of the sentences are not proposition because their truth values cannot
be determined. Further, the last statement is called an open sentence since it involves a
variable. An open sentence may only become a proposition when an element of a set under
consideration is substituted to the variable.
Practice Exercise 4

Identify the sentences that are considered propositions. Then tell if they are true or false.
1. Today is Monday.
2. This book is expensive.
3. If a number is smaller than 0 then it is positive.
4. Fire your gun Man, fire!
5. La Trinidad is one of the 13 Municipalities of Benguet.
6. The earth is spherical in shape.
7. 2 -7 = -5.
8. 9+ 3 > 7 + 3.
9. He is the president of Benguet State University
10. Rosal is the national flower of the Philippines.
11. 15 – 3 = 10.
12. 8 > 6 + 2.
13. x + 6 = 10.
14. Blow your horns!
15. What makes you busy?
16. You should relax and move forward.
17. Tomorrow is a holiday.

Propositional Variable

Propositional variables are arbitrary propositions represented by uppercase letters. They

serve as the building blocks from which new propositions are formed. These variables assume
two truth values, true (1) or false (0).

Connectives/Logical Operators

Operators are used to construct compound propositions by joining two or more simple
propositions. Here are the five connectives that we may use.

Conjunction. The proposition P  Q , read as " P and Q " is called the conjunction of
the simple propositions P and Q . This statement is true when both P and Q are true, otherwise
false. Moreover, P and Q are called conjuncts.

Aside from “and,” the following words indicate a conjunction of propositions: but,
however, moreover, nevertheless, whereas, while, despite, yet, furthermore, more so, although,
nonetheless.

Disjunction. The proposition P  Q , read as "P or Q " is called the disjunction of

P and Q . This statement is false when both P and Q are false, otherwise it is true. Moreover,
P and Q are called disjuncts.

Aside from “or,” the following words indicate a disjunction of propositions: either-or,
neither-nor, unless, or else.
 Implication/Conditional. The proposition P  Q , read as “ P implies Q ” or “If P , then
Q ” is called an implication. P is called the antecedent while Q the consequent. This
proposition is false only when P is true and Q is false; otherwise, it is true. It is important to
note that the causal relationship between the antecedent and the consequent is not a
requirement for the implication to be true or false.

Aside from “if-then,” the following words indicate an implication between propositions:
implies that, entails that, granted that, on the condition that, given that, is sufficient for, is
necessary for.

Some related implications from P Q.

Converse QP
Contra-positive Q  P
Inverse P  Q
Practice Exercise 5

Write the converse, contra-positive, and inverse of the proposition below.

If you are a Mathematics major, then you must be hardworking.
Converse: ______________________________________________
Contra-positive: __________________________________________
Inverse: ________________________________________________

Bi-conditional. The proposition P  Q , read as “ P if and only if Q ” is called a bi-

conditional. This proposition is true when P and Q have the same truth values. The phrase “if
and only if” is often abbreviated as “iff.”

Quality of a Proposition

Refers to whether a sentence is negative or affirmative.

Quality Symbol Expressions

Negative  No, not, never, it is false that, it is not the
case that, it is not true that
Affirmative none none

Symbolizing Propositions

A simple proposition is usually symbolized by assigning it a capital letter of the English

alphabet. If a statement is composed of more than one simple proposition (compound
statement), then each of these simple propositions is symbolized by a unique letter and joined
together by logical operators.
Example 2.5.2

Let T, C, and W be the following sentences respectively.

Today is Tuesday.
My class ends at 12.
Today is Wednesday.

Symbolic
Compound Sentence
Representation
Today is Tuesday and my class ends at 12. T C
Today is Tuesday or Wednesday. T W
If today is Tuesday, then my class ends at 12. T C
My class ends today if and only if today is Tuesday. C T
It is not the case that if today is Wednesday, my class ends at 12.  W  C 
If today is Wednesday, then my class does not end at 12. W  C
It is not the case that today is not Tuesday.   T 

Truth Values and Truth Tables

A truth table facilitates the determination of the truth values of a compound proposition
under all circumstances. Also, it can be used to determine whether two or more compound
statements are equivalent. The truth table below shows the truth values of a compound
proposition with respect to the logical operator used.

Let P and Q be any proposition.

P Q P Q P Q P Q P Q P
1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 1

Nature of Compound Propositions

Tautology. A compound proposition that is always true.

Contradiction . A compound proposition that is always false.

Contingency. A compound proposition that has a mixture of truth values of true in some
circumstances and false in other circumstances.
Example 2.5.3

Generate the truth table of each compound proposition and determine its nature.

A.  N   S  S   N
N S N S S  S N   S  S   N   S  S   N
1 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
Hence  N   S  S   N is a tautology.

B.  K  J   J
K J K  J  K  J   J
1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1
Hence ( ) is a contingency.

C. R      R 
 R R    R  R     R 
1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
Therefore, R      R  is a contradiction.

Practice Exercise 6

Identify the nature of the following propositions.

1.   A  A
2.   A  A
3.  A  B    A  B 
4. A  A  B  B
5. A  B  B  A
6. A  B  B  A
7. A  B  C  D
Equivalence

Two propositions are logically equivalent if their truth tables have the same truth values.

Example 2.5.4

Determine whether or not the two propositions are equivalent.

P   Q  R 
Q   P  R
P Q R P QR P   Q  R  P R Q   P  R
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1

Hence, the two propositions are logically equivalent

Practice Exercise 7

2. Determine whether these two propositions are equivalent.

 P  Q  R 
 P  Q   R
 Exercise 2.5
Elementary Logic
Name:___________________________ Score:_______
Course and Year:__________________ Date:________

A. State which of the following sentences are propositions. For a proposition, write P on
the blank after each sentence and NP for not a proposition.

1. Go yeah and multiply!

2. The Polar bear’s habitat is Arctic Ice.
3. There is a largest even number
4. What made you qualify for the program?
5. 13 is equal to the sum of five
and eight.
6. The sum of m and r is twelve.
7. You are incredible.
8. Attract the insect for nectar collection.
9. The Mamasapano encounter sacrificed 44 lives of SAF members.
10. Today, the Taal volcano erupted.
11. The entire Luzon is under extreme community quarantine.
12. Justice delayed is justice denied.
13. The year 2020 is a leap year.
14. A salamander is an amphibian.
15. Gauss said “Mathematics is the queen of all ciences.”
16. Do this in remembrance of him.
17. implify the complex and it’s over.
18. He who loves to teach must never cease to learn.
19. The corona virus is a new type of virus.
20. Baguio is the lone city of the province of Benguet.

B. Identify whether the following are true of false.

1. Rome is the capital of Italy or Rome is the capital of Spain.

2. Today is Monday or tomorrow is a holiday.
3. It is not the case that BSU is the only state university in Benguet and BSU is a
more than a decade.
4. “ angus” is the Philippine national fish or Rosal is the Philippine national flower.
5. 2 is an even prime number.
6. The set of whole numbers includes zero whereas the set of integers does not.
7. Manila is the capital of the Philippines or it is not the case that both Quezon City
and San Juan City are cities of Metro Manila.
8. Yellow is a primary color, but the color green is not.
9. If Baguio is the summer capital of the Philippines, then Benguet is the vegetable
capital of the country.
10. The number zero is neither positive nor negative or a counting number.
C. Given the following simple propositions, symbolize the compounds statements.
M : Metro Manila’s OVID cases worsen.
P : The Philippines is on extreme enhanced community quarantine for two weeks.
R : Rapid test kits are available.
N : The number of Persons Under Investigation (PUI) is increasing.
F : All front liners report to duty.
1. Metro Manila’s OVID cases worsen and rapid test kits are not
available.
2. It is not true that the number of persons under investigation (PUI) is
increasing, but not all front liners report to duty.
3. Either the number of persons under investigation (PUI) is increasing, or
all front liners report to duty.
4. It is not the case that if Metro Manila’s OVID cases worsen, then not
all front liners report to duty.
5. The Philippines is on extremely enhanced community quarantine for two
weeks, and if the number of persons under investigation (PUI) is
increasing, then all front liners report to duty.
6. If front liners report to duty, and if the number of persons under
investigation (P I) is increasing, and Metro Manila’s OVID cases
worsen then Philippines will be on extreme enhanced community
quarantine for two weeks.
7. The Philippines is on extreme enhanced community quarantine for two
weeks, if the number of a person under investigation (PUI) is increasing.
8. Metro Manila’s OVID cases worsen is a sufficient condition for the
Philippines to implement an extreme enhanced community quarantine for
two weeks.
9. Metro Manila’s OVID-19 cases worsen, whereas if rapid test kits are
available, then it is not the case that the Philippines is on extremely
enhanced community quarantine for two weeks, or all front liners report to
duty.
10. If the Philippines is on extremely enhanced community quarantine, then
all front liners report to duty.

D. If A, B, and C are true statements and X, Y, and Z are false statements, identify
whether the following are true or false.
1. A  B 6. X  Y   B  C
2. Y  C 7. B  C  C  B
3. B  X 8. X  Z   X  Z 
4. Z  X 9. A  B
5. B  C  Y  Z  10. X  Y   B  C

E. Identify the nature of the following statements, then identify which are equivalent.
1. R    P  R    P  Q 
2.  P   R  Q    P  R    P  Q 
3.  P   R  Q   R
 Key Answers to practice Exercises
Practice Exercise 1
1. B
2. D
3. A
4. D
5. D
6. B

Practice Exercise 2
1. a. A, B, D, E, G, H
b. A=G; B=H
c. ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
d. C
e. E
2. All equal sets are equivalent.

Practice Exercises 3
Given the following functions: f  x   x2  x g  x  x  4 h  x   x , evaluate:
1. f (3)
f  3   3   3
2

 93
 12
2. g (8)
g 8  8  4
4
3. h(103.1)
h 103.1  103.1
4. f (2 x  1)
f  2 x  1   2 x  1   2 x  1
2

 4 x2  4 x  1  2 x 1
 4 x2  2 x
5. ( f  g )( x)
( f  g )( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)
 
 x 2  x   x  4
 x 2 4
6. ( f  h)( x)
( f  f )( x)  f ( x)  h( x)
 
 x 2 x   x
 x 2 2 x
7. ( f  g )( x)
 ( f  g )( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)

 x 2 x  x 
 x3  x 2
8. ( f  h)( x)
f ( x)
( f  h)( x) 
h( x )
x2  x

x
2
x x
 
x x
 x 1
9.  h o f  x 
 h o f  x   h( f ( x))
 h( x 2  x )
 x2  x
10.  g o f 1
 g o f  x   g ( f ( x))
 g ( x 2  x)
 ( x 2  x)  4
 x2  x  4
 g o f 1  1  1  4
2

 1 1  4
 4
11.  g o g  x 
 g o g  x   g ( g ( x))
 g ( x  4)
 ( x  4)  4
 x 8
12.  f oh o g  x 
 f o h o g  x   f (h( g ( x)))
 f (h( x  4))
 f ( x  4)
 ( x  4) 2  ( x  4)
 x 2  8 x  16  x  4
 x 2  9 x  20
Practice Exercises 4
1. Not a proposition
2. Not a proposition
3. Proposition, False
4. Not a proposition
5. Proposition, True
6. Proposition, True
7. Proposition, True
8. Proposition, True
9. Not a proposition
10. Proposition, False
11. Proposition, False
12. Proposition, False
13. Not a proposition
14. Not a proposition
15. Not a proposition
16. Not a proposition
17. Not a proposition

Practice Exercise 5
Converse: If you are hardworking, then you are a Mathematics major.
Contra-positive: If you are not hardworking, then you are not a Mathematics major.
Inverse: If you are not a Mathematics major, then you are not hardworking.

Practice Exercise 6

Truth Table Nature

1.   A  A
A A A  A   A  A Contradiction
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
2.   A  A
A A A  A   A  A Tautology
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
3.  A  B    A  B 
A B  A  B  A  B  A  B   A  B
1 1 1 1 1 Tautology
1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1
4. A  A  B  B Contradiction
 A B A B  A  A  B  B  A  A  B  B
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0
5. A  B  B  A
A B  A  B   B  A A  B  B  A
1 1 1 1 1 Tautology
1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 1
7. A  B  C  D
A B C D  A  B   C  D  A  B  C  D
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Contingency
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Practice Exercises 7
Determine whether these two propositions are equivalent.
  P  Q  R  and  P  Q   R
( ) ( )
1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
The two propositions are equivalent since their truth values (yellow columns) are the same.