SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 1

Chapter-9

Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Light: Nature has enabled the human eye to sensitively detect

electromagnetic waves in a small range of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The radiations belonging to this electromagnetic
spectrum (wavelength approximately 400 nm to 750 nm) are called
light. It is mainly due to the sense of light and vision that we
understand and interpret the world around us. Following are the
properties of light:

 It moves at extremely fast speed.

 It appears to move in a straight line.
 Its value in vacuum is 𝑐 = 2.99792458 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 which is
taken to be approximately 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠.

Light a Ray or Wave?

We learned in Chapter 8 that light is an electromagnetic wave

whose wavelength is in the visible part of the spectrum, but here
we are talking about light as a beam that travels in a straight path.
How to reconcile these two facts? The answer is that the wavelength
of light is very small compared to the size of common objects of
daily life. In this case, the light wave can be considered as traveling
along a straight line from one point to another. This path is called
a light ray and a group of similar rays forms a light beam.

In this chapter, we will study re ection, refraction, dispersion and

other phenomena of light using the ray form of light.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 2

Mirror: It is an object that works on the principle of re ection of

light and re ects the image. When rays of light strike the mirror
surface, they return back to the same medium, forming an image.

Mirror

Plane Spharical
Mirror Mirror

Concave Convex
Mirror Mirror

1) Plane Mirror:

A plane mirror is a mirror whose re ecting surface is at. The image

formed in it is of real size and straight. Plane mirrors are commonly
used in homes, bathrooms, and for decoration.

2) Spherical Mirror:

Spherical mirrors are mirrors, whose re ecting surface is part of a

sphere. These are of two types:

i. Concave Mirror: The re ective surface of a concave mirror

faces inward, like the inside of a bowl. This mirror focuses the
rays of light at a point and is used in torches, headlights, and
solar cookers.

ii. Convex Mirror: The re ecting surface of a convex mirror faces

outward, like the outside of a ball. This mirror di fuses rays of
light and is used in side mirrors and safety mirrors of vehicles.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 3

Re ection of Light: The process in which rays of light collide with

a surface and return back to the same medium is called re ection
of light. This phenomenon occurs when rays of light strike a
smooth surface, such as a mirror.

Laws of Re ection:

1. First Law: The incident ray, re ected ray and normal all lie in
the same plane.

2. Second Law: The angle of incidence and angle of re ection

are always the same.

∠𝒊 = ∠𝒓
where, (𝒊) is angle of incidence and (𝒓) is angle of re ection.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 4

Angle of Incidence:
The angle of incidence is the angle formed between the incident
ray and the normal drawn to the re ecting surface.

Angle of Re ection:
The angle of re ection is the angle formed between the re ected
ray and the normal drawn to the re ecting surface.

Some De nitions Related to Spherical Mirror:

1. Aperture: The part of the mirror through which light enters is

called the aperture. This is the shape of the re ecting surface of
the mirror.

2. Pole: The midpoint of the re ecting plane of the mirror is called

the pole. It is represented by (P).

3. Centre of Curvature: The point which is located at the center

of the sphere of the re ecting plane of the mirror is called the
center of curvature. It is represented by (C).

4. Radius of Curvature: The distance between the pole and the

center of curvature of the mirror is called the radius of
curvature. It is represented by (R).

5. Principal Axis: The line joining the pole and the center of
curvature is called the principal axis. It is parallel to the
re ecting plane of the mirror.

6. Focus: The point at which rays parallel to the principal axis meet
after re ection is called the focal point. It is represented by (F).
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 5

7. Focal Length: The distance between the pole of the mirror and
the focal point is called focal length. It is denoted by (f ) and is
half the radius of curvature, i.e.,
𝑹
𝒇 =
𝟐

8. Normal to Spherical Mirror: To draw a normal to a spherical

mirror means to draw a perpendicular to the tangent drawn at
the point of incidence of the surface. This means that the
normal is the line joining the point of incidence to the center
of curvature of the mirror.

Behavior of Incident Rays on a Spherical Mirror:

The following rules are followed to understand the behaviour of
incident rays on a spherical mirror:

1. Ray Incident on the Pole:

When a ray is incident on the pole of the mirror, it is re ected
at the same angle at which it was incident. This law is similar to
the law of re ection of a plane mirror.

2. Incident Ray Parallel to the Principal Axis:

When a ray is incident parallel to the principal axis, it is re ected
and passes through the principal focus (F).

3. Incident Ray Passing through the Principal Focus (F):

When a ray passes through the principal focus, it is re ected and
parallel to the principal axis.

4. Incident Ray Passing through the Center of Curvature (C):

 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 6

When a ray passes through the center of curvature, it returns

back along the same path. This is because the incident ray at the
center of curvature is normal to the surface of the mirror.

By following these rules, we can understand the behaviour of

re ection of incident rays on a spherical mirror.

Cartesian Sign Convention:

 According to this convention, the object is always placed on the

left side of the mirror/lens and all distances are measured from
the pole of the mirror or the optical center of the lens.
 Distances measured in the direction of incident light are
considered positive and distances measured in the direction
opposite to the direction of incident light are considered
negative.
 Heights measured upwards, relative to the x-axis and normal to
the main axis (x-axis) of the mirror/lens, are considered positive.
Heights measured downwards are taken negative.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 7

Re ection of Light by Spherical Mirrors:

Following are the position, shape and nature of the image for
di ferent positions of the object on spherical mirrors (concave and
convex):

Concave Mirror:

1. Object at In nite:

o Position of Image: At focus (F)

o Image Size: extremely small,

point shaped

o Nature of Image: real and

inverted

2. Object beyond the Center of

Curvature (C):

o Position of Image: Between focus

(F) and center of curvature (C)

o Image Size: small

o Nature of Image: real and inverted

3. Object at center of curvature (C):

o Position of Image: At the center of

curvature (C)

o Image Size: Same as object

o Nature of Image: real and inverted

 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 8

4. Object between the center of curvature (C) and the focus (F):

o Position of Image: Beyond the

center of curvature (C)

o Image Size: Large

o Nature of Image: real and inverted

5. Object at Focus (F):

o Position of Image: at in nity

o Image Size: Extremely large

o Nature of Image: Real and Inverted

6. Object between Focus (F) and Pole (P):

o Position of Image: behind the mirror

o Image Size: Large

o Nature of Image: Virtual and Erect

Convex Mirror:

1. Object is at In nity:

o Image Position: behind the

mirror, at focus (F)
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 9

o Image Size: extremely small, point shaped

o Nature of Image: Virtual and Erect

2. When the Object is situated between the Pole (P) and

In nity:

o Image Position: Behind

the mirror, between the
pole (P) and the focus
(F).

o Image Size: Small.

o Nature of Image: Virtual and Erect.

Uses of Spherical Mirror:

Uses of Concave Mirror:
1. When the object is between the pole and focus of the concave
mirror, it forms a virtual, erect and magni ed image of the
object. This property of concave mirror is used:
 in the shaving mirror
 in makeup mirror
 in dental mirror
2. A concave mirror can direct light from a source in one
direction by re ecting it (spreading it out in all directions),
especially when the source of light is at the focus of the mirror.
This produces a parallel beam of light. Due to this property,
concave mirror is used:
 in vehicle headlights
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 10

 in the ashlight

Uses of Convex Mirror:

A convex mirror covers a wide area in the image it forms. Due to
this quality, it is used as,
1. As a side-view mirror in vehicles to see vehicles coming from
behind.
2. As a security mirror of the shop to keep an eye on the activities
of the customers
3. As road safety mirrors at turns on roads, so that the driver can
keep an eye on vehicles coming from the other side
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 11

Relationship between Radius of Curvature and Focal Length:

In Δ𝐶𝑀𝐷,
𝑀𝐷
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝐶𝐷
In Δ𝐹𝑀𝐷,
𝑀𝐷
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 =
𝐹𝐷
For small value of 𝜃, it can be considered that 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 and
𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 ≈ 2𝜃. Thus,

𝜃= …(1)

2𝜃 = …(2)

By putting value of 𝜃,

𝑀𝐷 𝑀𝐷
2× =
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷
2 1
=
𝐶𝐷 𝐹𝐷
∵ 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅 (radius of curvature)
∵ 𝐹𝐷 = 𝑓(focal length)
2 1
=
𝑅 𝑓
𝑹
𝒇=
𝟐
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 12

दपण सू :
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖

जहां, 𝒇 = focal length

𝒗 = distance of image from pole
𝒖 = distance of object from pole
Proof:

In Δ𝐴𝐵𝑃 and Δ𝐴′𝐵′𝑃,

∠𝐴𝐵𝑃 = ∠𝐴 𝐵 𝑃 (90°)
∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = ∠𝐴 𝑃𝐵 (∠𝑖 = ∠𝑟)
Hence, we can say that ΔABP and ΔA'B'P are similar triangles.
Therefore, according to the law of similarity of triangles,

…(1)

In Δ𝐴′𝐵′𝐹 and Δ𝑀𝑃𝐹,

∠𝐴′𝐵′𝐹 = ∠𝑀𝑃𝐹 (90°)
∠𝐴′𝐹𝐵′ = ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 (vertigo angle)
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 13

Hence, we can say that ΔA'B'F and ΔMPF are similar triangles.
Therefore, according to the law of similarity of triangles,
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐹
=
𝑀𝑃 𝑃𝐹
∵ 𝑀𝑃 = 𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐹
=
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐹
By inverting the equation,

…(2)

From equation (1) and (2),

…(3)

From Cartesian sign convention,

𝐵𝑃 = −𝑢
𝐵 𝑃 = −𝑣
𝑃𝐹 = −𝑓
𝐵 𝐹 = 𝐵 𝑃 − 𝑃𝐹 = −𝑣 − (−𝑓)
Thus,

−𝑢 −𝑓
=
−𝑣 −𝑣 − (−𝑓)
𝑢 𝑓
=
𝑣 𝑣−𝑓
𝑣 𝑣−𝑓
=
𝑢 𝑓
𝑣 𝑣
= −1
𝑢 𝑓
By dividing by 𝑣 in the equation,
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 14

1 1 1
= −
𝑢 𝑓 𝑣
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖

Magni cation:
The ratio of the size of the image (ℎ′) to the size of the object (ℎ)
is called the linear magni cation of the mirror. It is denoted by
the symbol 𝑚. Therefore,
𝒉
𝒎=
𝒉
h and h' will be taken as positive or negative as per the accepted
sign convention. Since from equation (1) we know that,
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑃
=
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑃
On applying sign convention,
ℎ −𝑢
=
−ℎ −𝑣
ℎ 𝑣
∴ =−
ℎ 𝑢
𝒉 𝒗
∴ 𝒎= =−
𝒉 𝒖
 The value of m being positive means that the image is virtual
and erect while being negative means that the image is real
and inverted.
 If 𝟎 < 𝒎 < 𝟏, it means that the size of the image is smaller
than the size of the object and it will be m times smaller than
the image.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 15

 If 𝒎 > 𝟏, it means that the size of the image is larger than the
size of the object and it will be m times larger than the image.

Refraction of Light:
When a beam of light traveling in a transparent medium collides
with another transparent medium, a part of the light is re ected
back into the rst medium. While the remaining part enters
another medium.
When a ray of light enters from one medium to another at an
oblique incidence angle (𝟎° < ∠𝒊 < 𝟗𝟎°), its direction of travel
changes at the interface (the surface separating the two media).

This phenomenon is called refraction of light. Snell propounded

the following laws of refraction through experiments:
i. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point
of incidence to the interface lie in the same plane.
ii. For any pair of two media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence (𝑖) to the sine of the angle of refraction (𝑟) is a
constant.
𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝒊) 𝒏𝟐
= 𝒏𝟐𝟏 = …(1)
𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝒓) 𝒏𝟏
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 16

This is called Snell's law.

Here, 𝑛21 is a constant, which is called the refractive index of the
second medium with respect to the rst medium. It also depends
on the wavelength of light. 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 are the refractive indices of
medium-1 and medium-2 respectively.
 From equation (1) if 𝒏𝟐𝟏 > 𝟏, then 𝒓 < 𝒊 i.e. the refracted ray
bends towards the normal. In this condition medium 2 is called
denser medium than medium 1.
 On the contrary, if 𝒏𝟐𝟏 < 𝟏, then 𝒓 > 𝒊 then the refracted ray
bends away from the normal. This is the situation in which the
incident ray traveling through a denser medium is refracted in a
rarer medium.

If 𝑛21 is the refractive index of medium 2 relative to medium 1 and

𝑛12 is the refractive index of medium 1 relative to medium 2. Then
it is clear that:
𝟏
𝒏𝟐𝟏 =
𝒏𝟏𝟐

If the same ray of light is made to enter medium 2 and then into
another medium 3 and if 𝑛32 is the refractive index of medium 3
relative to medium 2, then it is also clear that,
𝒏𝟑𝟐 = 𝒏𝟑𝟏 × 𝒏𝟏𝟐

Here, 𝑛31 is the refractive index of medium-3 relative to medium-1.

Refractive Index:
Refractive Index of a Medium: The ratio of the speed of light (c)
in vacuum and the speed of light (v) in any other medium is
called the refractive index of that medium. It is expressed by the
symbol 𝜂 or 𝑛 .
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 17

𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐚𝐜𝐮𝐮𝐦 𝒄

𝜼= 𝒐𝒓 𝜼=
𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐢𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐲 𝐨𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫 𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝒗

The refractive index of medium-1 will be expressed as 𝑛1 and the

refractive index of medium-2 will be expressed as 𝑛2 .

Relative Refractive Index: The relative refractive index 𝑛21 of

medium-2 with respect to medium-1 is de ned as the ratio of
refractive index 𝑛2 of medium-2 and refractive index 𝑛1 of
medium-1. Therefore,
𝒏𝟐
𝒏𝟐𝟏 =
𝒏𝟏
𝑐 𝑐
∵𝑛 = ; 𝑛 =
𝑣 𝑣
𝑐/𝑣
𝑛 =
𝑐/𝑣
𝒗𝟏
𝒏𝟐𝟏 =
𝒗𝟐
Therefore, the ratio of the speed of light in medium-1 and the
speed of light in medium-2 is called the relative refractive index
of medium-2.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 18

Some Results based on the Laws of Refraction:

In a rectangular slab,
refraction occurs at two
interfaces (air-glass and
glass-air). It can be easily
seen from the picture that
𝒓𝟐 = 𝒊𝟏 , that is, the exit ray
is parallel to the incident
ray, but there is a lateral
displacement in it relative to the incident ray.

1) The bottom of a pond

lled with water appears
to be raised. Looking
closer in the normal
direction, it can be shown
that the apparent depth
(ℎ1 ) is obtained by
dividing the real depth
(ℎ2 ) by the refractive index
of the medium (water).
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 19

Total Internal Re ection: It is a phenomenon that occurs when rays

of light pass from a denser medium to a rarer medium and the value
of the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle (𝑖 ). In this
situation, the light rays are completely re ected in the denser
medium and do not enter the rarer medium.
Conditions for Total Internal Re ection:
1. Type of medium: The rays of light are going from a dense
medium (like glass or water) to a rarer medium (like air).
2. Angle of incidence: The value of angle of incidence should
be greater than the critical angle.

Critical Angle:
Critical angle is the minimum angle after which incident light
rays are completely re ected. This can be expressed by the
following formula:
𝑺𝒊𝒏(𝒊𝒄 ) = 𝒏𝟐𝟏
Where (𝑖 ) is the critical angle, 𝑛21 is the refractive index of
medium-2 (dense medium) relative to medium-1 (rare medium).
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 20

Example:
1. Shine of Diamond: Diamond has high shine due to total
internal re ection.
2. Mirage: Formation of mirage in the desert is also an example
of total internal re ection.
3. Optical Fiber: Data transmission in optical ber is based on
the principle of total internal re ection.

Total Internal Re ection in Nature and its Industrial Applications:

1. Prism:
Total internal re ection is used in prisms designed to bend light
90° or 180°. Such prisms are also used to invert the image
without any change in its size.
For the rst two cases, the critical angle of the prism material
must be less than 45°. According to Table 9.1, both types of glass
can be crown and int.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 21

2. Optical Fibre:
Optical bre is a type of bre made of glass or plastic and is used
to send optical signals from one place to another.

Structure of Optical Fibre:

Optical bre mainly consists of three parts:
1. Core: This is the innermost part of the bre, which is made
of glass (silica) or plastic. It is through the core that optical
signals travel.
2. Cladding: It surrounds the core and its refractive index is less
than the core. This keeps the optical signal inside the core.
3. Coating: This is the outermost layer, which protects the bre
from external damage.

Principle:
When a signal in the form of light enters one end of the bre at a
proper angle, it is repeatedly completely internally re ected along
its length and nally comes out at the other end. There is no
signi cant loss in the intensity of the light signal in this process.
Optical bres are made in such a way that even after being re ected
on the inner surface of one side, light still falls on the other surface
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 22

at an angle greater than the critical angle. Even if the ber is bent,
light can travel easily inside the bre.

Uses of Optical Fibre:

1. Telecommunications: For Internet, telephone, and cable TV
signals.
2. Medicine: In endoscopy and other medical instruments. For
example, these include internal organs; For example, it is used
as 'light pipe' for visual observation of oesophagus, stomach
and intestines.
3. Decoration: In optical decoration and lighting.
4. It is possible to transmit more than 95% of the light in a 1 km
long bre of silica glass bres.

Refraction by a Spherical Surface:

𝜶 𝜷 𝜸

According to Snell's law,

𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑖) 𝑛
=
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑟) 𝑛
For very small angles,
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 23

{𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑖) = ∠𝑖, 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑟) = ∠𝑟}

∠𝑖 𝑛
=
∠𝑟 𝑛
𝑛 ∠𝑖 = 𝑛 ∠𝑟 …(1)

In Δ𝑁𝑀𝑂,
𝑁𝑀
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 =
𝑂𝑀
In Δ𝑁𝑀𝐶,
𝑁𝑀
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 =
𝑀𝐶
In Δ𝑁𝑀𝐼,
𝑁𝑀
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛾 =
𝑀𝐼
For very small angles,

…(2)

…(3)

…(4)

In Δ𝑁𝑂𝐶,
Since the sum of two interior angles is equal to the exterior angle,
hence
∠𝑖 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 …(5)
In Δ𝑁𝐶𝐼,
Since the sum of two interior angles is equal to the exterior angle,
hence
𝛽 = ∠𝑟 + 𝛾
∠𝑟 = 𝛽 − 𝛾 …(6)
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 24

By substituting the values of ∠i and ∠r from equations (5) and (6)

in equation (1),
𝑛 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑛 (𝛽 − 𝛾)
By substituting the values of α, β and γ from equations (2), (3)
and (4) in the above equation,
𝑁𝑀 𝑁𝑀 𝑁𝑀 𝑁𝑀
𝑛 + =𝑛 −
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
+ = −
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐼
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
+ = −
𝑂𝑀 𝑀𝐼 𝑀𝐶 𝑀𝐶
By Cartesian sign convention,

𝑂𝑀 = −𝑢
𝑀𝐼 = +𝑣
𝑀𝐶 = +𝑅
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
+ = −
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑅 𝑅
𝒏𝟐 𝒏 𝟏 𝒏 𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
− = (𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐧𝟏 𝐭𝐨 𝐧𝟐 )
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹

If light enters from 𝑛2 to 𝑛1 , then in the above formula 𝑛2 will be

written in place of 𝑛1 and 𝑛1 will be written in place of 𝑛2 .

𝒏 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐
− = (𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐧𝟐 𝐭𝐨 𝐧𝟏 )
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹
Where,
𝒏𝟏 = Refractive index of medium-1 (rare medium)
𝒏𝟐 = Refractive index of medium-2 (dense medium)
𝒗 = image distance
𝒖 = object distance
𝑹 = radius of curvature
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 25

Lens:
A lens is a transparent medium which works on the principle of
refraction of light. It is made up of two curved surfaces, which
refract light to form a real or imaginary image of an object. There
are mainly two types of lenses:
1. Convex Lens: This lens is thick in the middle and thin at the
edges. A convex lens is also called a “converging lens” because
it focuses the rays of light to a single point. It is used in
telescopes, microscopes, and camera lenses.
2. Concave Lens: This lens is thin in the middle and thick at the
edges. A concave lens is also called a “diverging lens” because
it diverges the rays of light. It is used in spectacles and to see
distant objects clearly.

Thin Thick

Thick Thin

Thin Thick

Convex Lens Concave Lens

Di ferent parts of the lens:

1. Principal Axis:
The principal axis is the line that passes through the center of the
lens and connects the centers of both curved surfaces.

2. Optical Center:
The central point of the lens is called the optical center.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 26

3. Principal Focus:
 Convex Lens: When parallel rays pass through a convex lens,
they converge at a point called the principal focus.
 Concave Lens: When parallel rays pass through a concave
lens, they diverge and appear to come from a point called
the principal focus.

4. Focal Length:
Focal length is the distance that lies between the light center and
the principal focus of the lens.

Laws of refraction in lenses:

 First law: When a ray parallel to the principal axis of the
lens, it passes through the focus.
 Second law: When a ray comes through the focus, it emerges
parallel to the principal axis of the lens.
 Third law: When a ray passes through the optical center of
the lens, it comes out straight without being refracted.

Lens Formula:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
where,
𝒇 = Focal length (Focal length is positive for convex lens and
negative for concave lens)
𝒗 = image distance
𝒖 = object distance
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 27

Image Formation by Refraction in a Lens:

Convex Lens:
Convex lens is also called converging lens. This lens is thick in
the middle and thin at the edges. Following are the images
formed for di ferent positions of the object in a convex lens:
1. Object at in nity:
o Image: at focus (𝑭𝟐 )
o Nature: Real, Inverted, very small

2. Object beyond the center (𝟐𝑭𝟏 ):

o Image: In between 𝑭𝟐 and 𝟐𝑭𝟐
o Nature: Real, inverted, small

3. Object at center (𝟐𝑭𝟏 ):

o Image: At center (𝟐𝑭𝟐 )
o Nature: Real, inverted, same size

4. Object in between 𝑭𝟏 and 𝟐𝑭𝟏 :

o Image: beyond 𝟐𝑭𝟐
o Nature: Real, inverted, large
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 28

5. Object at Focus 𝑭𝟏 :
o Image: at in nity
o Nature: Real, Inverted, very large

6. Object in between Focus 𝑭𝟏 and Lens:

o Image: same side of lens
o Nature: Virtual, erect, large

Concave Lens:
Concave lens is also called diverging lens. This lens is thin in the
middle and thick at the edges. Following are the images formed
for di ferent positions of the object in a concave lens:
1. Object at in nity:
o Image: At focus 𝑭𝟏
o Image: Virtual, erect, very small

2. Object at any point between in nity and lens:

o Image: between focus 𝑭𝟏 and lens
o Nature: Virtual, erect, small
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 29

Refraction by Lens:
Suppose an object is placed at point O, then one of the two rays of
light coming from it passes through the optical center of the lens
and goes straight without any de ection and the other ray appears
to us to pass through the path 𝑂𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐼 as shown in the picture.
Which meets the rst ray at point I and forms an image.
But in reality, even inside the lens the ray is refracted while going
from 𝑁1 to 𝑁2 .

Now if we assume that the ray of light was refracted only from the
rst spherical surface of the lens whose extension is in nite, then
it would form a virtual image at the 𝐼1 point of the principal axis as
shown in the following gure.

If the refractive index of medium-1 (air) is assumed to be 𝑛1 and

the refractive index of medium-2 (lens) is assumed to be 𝑛2
(where, 𝑛2 > 𝑛1), then from the formula of refraction by a
spherical surface for the ray to enter from 𝑛1 to 𝑛2 ,
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 30

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
∵ − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
By Cartesian convention,
The distance of the object is 𝑢 = −𝑂𝐵, distance of the image is
𝑣 = 𝐵𝐼 and radius of curvature 𝑅 = 𝐵𝐶 .
Therefore, by putting the values,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
− =
𝐵𝐼 −𝑂𝐵 𝐵𝐶

…(1)

Now, as per the above gure, we consider the expansion of the

second spherical plate of the lens to be in nite and the ray refracted
by the rst spherical plate will be the incident ray for the second
spherical plate, which will again be refracted by the second plate
and go to the point I of the principal axis and form an image as it
actually happens. This time the virtual image formed at point 𝐼 will
act as an image for the second spherical surface. Hence, from the
formula of refraction by a spherical surface for the entry of ray from
𝑛 to 𝑛 ,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
∵ − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
By Cartesian convention,
The distance of the object is 𝑢 = 𝐷𝐼 , distance of the image is 𝑣 =
𝐷𝐼 and radius of curvature 𝑅 = −𝐷𝐶 .
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 31

Therefore, on keeping the values,

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
− =
𝐷𝐼 𝐷𝐼 −𝐷𝐶
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
− =
𝐷𝐼 𝐷𝐼 𝐷𝐶

If the thickness 𝐵𝐷 of the lens is considered negligible then the

distances 𝐵𝐼 and 𝐷𝐼 can be considered equal. Hence, after
substituting 𝐷𝐼 = 𝐵𝐼 in the above equation,

…(2)

By adding equations (1) and (2),

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
+ + − = +
𝐵𝐼 𝑂𝐵 𝐷𝐼 𝐵𝐼 𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶

𝑛 𝑛 1 1
+ = (𝑛 − 𝑛 ) +
𝑂𝐵 𝐷𝐼 𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶

1 1 1 1
𝑛 + = (𝑛 − 𝑛 ) +
𝑂𝐵 𝐷𝐼 𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶

1 1 𝑛 −𝑛 1 1
+ = +
𝑂𝐵 𝐷𝐼 𝑛 𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶

1 1 𝑛 1 1
+ = −1 +
𝑂𝐵 𝐷𝐼 𝑛 𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶

By Cartesian symbol convention,

𝑂𝐵 = −𝑢
𝐷𝐼 = 𝑣
𝐵𝐶 = 𝑅
𝐷𝐶 = −𝑅

1 1 𝑛 1 1
+ = −1 +
−𝑢 𝑣 𝑛 𝑅 −𝑅
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 32

1 1 𝑛 1 1
− = −1 −
𝑣 𝑢 𝑛 𝑅 𝑅

1 1 1
⎧ ∵ − = (lens formula) ⎫
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
⎨∵ 𝑛 = 𝑛 (relative refractive index)⎬
⎩ 𝑛 ⎭

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= (𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏) −
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

It is called the Lens-Maker Formula.

The same formula is also valid for a concave lens, but in the case of
a concave lens, 𝑅2 is positive and 𝑅1 is negative, hence the value of
𝑓 is negative. Whereas for a convex lens the f value is always
positive.

Magni cation by Lens:

𝒉 𝒗
𝒎= =
𝒉 𝒖
where,
𝒉 = height of image from principal axis
𝒉 = height of object from principal axis
𝒗 = distance of image
𝒖 = distance of object

 If the value of m is positive then it means that the image is virtual

and erect.
 If the value of m is negative then it means that the image is real
and inverted.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 33

 If 𝒎 > 𝟏 then it means that the image is m times larger than the
size of the object.
 If 𝟏 > 𝒎 > 𝟎 then it means that the image is m times smaller
than the size of the object.

Lens Power:
The maximum ability of a lens to converge or diverge a ray of light
incident on itself is called the power of that lens. It is denoted by
the symbol.
The power of a lens is de ned as the
tangent of the angle of convergence or
divergence (δ) of a ray of incident light
coming from a unit distance and
parallel to the principal axis of the lens.
Thus,
𝑃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿
ℎ
∵ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿 =
𝑓
∵ℎ=1
𝟏
𝑷=
𝒇

Therefore, the lens power P is equal to the reciprocal of its focal

length 𝑓.

Unit  The SI unit of lens power is Diopter, which is represented

by (D).
𝟏
𝟏𝐃 = 𝟏𝒎
Focus distance f is always taken in meters (m).
The power of a convex lens is always positive and the power of a
concave lens is always negative because the focal length of a convex
lens is positive and the focal length of a concave lens is negative.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 34

Since the lens-maker formula is,

1 1 1
= (𝑛 − 1) −
𝑓 𝑅 𝑅
1
∵ =𝑃
𝑓
𝟏 𝟏
𝑷 = (𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏) −
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐

Combination of Lenses:

Suppose two thin lenses of focal lengths 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are placed in

contact with each other in such a way that their optical centers
are exactly adjacent to each other and this is represented by the
central point P. An object is rst placed at a point O away from
the focus of the lens A. The rst lens forms an image at point 𝐼1 .
Since the image 𝐼1 is real, it acts as a virtual image for the second
lens B and the nal image is formed at I. Here the formation of
image from the rst lens is considered only to determine the
position of the nal image. In fact, the direction of the rays
emerging from the rst lens changes according to the angle at
which they hit the second lens.
Since the lens formula is,
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 35

1 1 1
∵ − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
Therefore, for the image formed by the rst lens A,

1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
And for the image formed by the second lens B,

1 1 1
− =
𝑣 𝑣 𝑓
By combining both the equations,

1 1 1 1 1 1
− + − = +
𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓
1 1 1 1
− = +
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓 𝑓
1 1 1
∵ − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐

Here, 𝑓 is the focal length of the single lens formed by combining

both the lenses.
Similarly, if 𝑛 lenses with focal lengths 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , 𝑓3 … … … 𝑓 are
combined, then the focal length of the single lens formed by the
combination will be as follows,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + ………+
𝒇 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟑 𝒇𝒏
1
∵ =𝑃
𝑓
𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 … … … + 𝑷𝒏
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 36

The magni cation of a single lens formed by a combination of n

lenses with magni cation 𝑚 , 𝑚 , 𝑚 … … … 𝑚 is equal to the
product of the magni cations of all the lenses. Therefore,

𝒎 = 𝒎𝟏 × 𝒎𝟐 × 𝒎𝟑 … … … × 𝒎𝒏

Refraction in a Prism:

A light ray is passed through a prism ABC as shown in the gure.

The angle of incidence and angle of refraction on the rst face AB
are 𝑖 and 𝑟1 respectively, while the angle of incidence on the second
face (glass to air) AC is 𝑟2 and the angle of refraction or angle of
emergence is 𝑒. The angle between the emergent ray RS and the
direction PQ of the incident ray is called the angle of deviation (δ).

In quadrilateral 𝐴𝑄𝑁𝑅 , ∠𝐴𝑄𝑁 and ∠𝐴𝑅𝑁 are two right angles,

hence the sum of ∠𝐴 and ∠𝑁 will be 180°.

∠𝐴 + ∠𝑁 = 180°

In Δ𝑄𝑁𝑅,
𝑟 + 𝑟 + ∠𝑁 = 180°
𝑟 + 𝑟 = 180° − ∠𝑁
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 37

{∵ 180° − ∠𝑁 = ∠𝐴}
∴ 𝒓𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐 = ∠𝑨

In the gure we can see that the total deviation (δ) is the sum of
the deviations on both the faces.
𝛿 = ∠𝑀𝑄𝑅 + ∠𝑀𝑅𝑄
∵ ∠𝑀𝑄𝑅 = 𝑖 − 𝑟
∵ ∠𝑀𝑅𝑄 = 𝑒 − 𝑟
𝛿 = (𝑖 − 𝑟 ) + (𝑒 − 𝑟 )
𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑒 − (𝑟 + 𝑟 )
{∵ 𝑟 + 𝑟 = 𝐴}
𝜹=𝒊+𝒆−𝑨
Where, δ = angle of deviation, 𝑖 = angle of incidence, 𝑒 = angle of
refraction or exit and 𝐴 = prism angle.
For refraction in a prism, the graph between the angle of
incidence and the angle of deviation is divided as follows,

From the graph we can see that for every deviation angle (δ)
except in one case (𝑖 = 𝑒), we get two values of the angle of
incidence (𝑖) due to which we get the angle of refraction (𝑒) on
the second face. Also, two values are obtained.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 38

Minimum deviation angle (𝑫𝒎 ): The value of deviation angle (δ)

at which the angle of incidence (𝑖) and the angle of refraction (𝑒)
become equal and the ray of light is parallel to the base of the
prism while passing through the prism. is called the minimum
deviation angle (𝐷 ) of that prism.
{∵ 𝛿 = 𝑖 + 𝑒 − 𝐴}

In case of minimum deviation angle, 𝛿 = 𝐷 , and 𝑖 = 𝑒,

∴ 𝐷 = 2𝑖 − 𝐴
𝑨 + 𝑫𝒎
𝒊=
𝟐
∵𝐴=𝑟 +𝑟

If 𝑖 = 𝑒 then 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 is also true. Therefore,

∴ 𝐴 = 2𝑟
𝑨
𝒓=
𝟐
If the refractive index of the material of the prism is 𝑛21 , then
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑖)
∵𝑛 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝑟)
𝑨 + 𝑫𝒎
𝑺𝒊𝒏
𝒏𝟐𝟏 = 𝟐
𝑨
𝑺𝒊𝒏
𝟐
By nding the values of 𝐴 and 𝐷 in the laboratory, the refractive
index of any prism can be determined by the above formula.
𝑨 𝑫𝒎 𝑨 𝑫𝒎 𝑨
If the angles are very small then, 𝑺𝒊𝒏 = and 𝑺𝒊𝒏 =
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
is true. Thus,
𝑨
𝟐
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 39

𝐴+𝐷
𝑛 = 2
𝐴
2
𝐴+𝐷
𝑛 =
𝐴
𝐷
𝑛 =1+
𝐴
𝑫𝒎 = (𝒏𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏)𝑨

Optical Instruments:
Optical instruments are devices designed to magnify or analyze
images using light waves. These instruments are mainly of two
types:
o Microscope
o Telescope
Microscope:
Microscope is an optical instrument which is used to magnify
microscopic objects. These are mainly of two types:
1. Simple Microscope:
o It has only one lens.
o It is a converging lens of short focal length. It is used for
magni cation.
o In this, the lens is kept near the object at a focal distance (𝑓)
or less and the eye is kept close to the lens on the other side
of the lens.
o If the object is situated at the focal length (𝑓) then its erect,
magni ed and virtual image is formed at in nity.
o However, if the object is placed at a distance less than the
focal length (𝑓), then the image is formed at a distance less
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 40

than in nity i.e. at a distance of 25 cm or slightly more. This

is called the nearest comfortable distance, near point (D = 25
cm).
o Although the closest comfortable viewing distance is at the
near point (D = 25 cm), it causes some strain on the eyes.
That is why the image formed at in nity is often considered
suitable for viewing with relaxed eyes.

Linear Magni cation (m) by a Simple Microscope for the

Image formed at Near Point D:

Eye focused
on Near Point

From lens formula,

1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
On multiplying by 𝑣,
𝑣 𝑣
=1−
𝑓 𝑢

1 …(1)

𝑣
∵ =𝑚
𝑢
Putting the value in equation (1),
𝑣
𝑚=1−
𝑓
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 41

From the Cartesian symbol convention in the picture above ,

𝑣 = −𝐷,
(−𝐷)
𝑚=1−
𝑓
𝑫
𝒎=𝟏+
𝒇

This formula is valid only when the image is formed at the near
point (𝐷 = 25𝑐𝑚).

Linear Magni cation (m) by a Simple Microscope for an Image

formed at In nity:
ℎ
∵𝑚=
ℎ
We can also de ne ℎ as the tangent of the angle subtended by the
image to the human eye (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ) and h as the tangent of the angle
subtended by the image to the human eye (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ). Therefore,
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑚=
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
If the value of the angle is very small, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 can be considered as
𝜃 and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 can be considered as 𝜃 . Therefore,
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽𝒊 𝜽𝒊
𝒎= =
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽𝒐 𝜽𝒐
When we keep the object at a close distance D and look at it only
with eyes without the help of lens, then it appears clearly to us. In
this situation, if the height of the image is h, then when placed at
a close distance D, the
angle 𝜃 subtended by
the image on the human
eye will be like this,
ℎ
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝐷
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 42

ℎ
𝜃 = (for small angle)
𝐷

Similarly, when an object of height h is placed in front of the lens

at its focal length 𝑓, its very large image is obtained at in nity but
the angle 𝜃 subtended by the
image on the human eye can be
expressed as,
as shown in picture,
ℎ
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑓 Eye focused
on In nity
ℎ
𝜃 = (for small angle)
𝑓
𝜃
∵𝑚=
𝜃
ℎ
𝑓
𝑚=
ℎ
𝐷
𝑫
𝒎=
𝒇

This formula is valid only when the image is formed at in nity.

This is one less magni cation than the situation in which the
image is formed at the near point, but viewing the image is
relatively more comfortable and the di ference in magni cation is
also relatively small.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 43

2. Compound Microscope:

Eyepiece

Objective

o The maximum magni cation of a simple microscope for

lenses of real focal lengths is (𝑚 ≤ 9). For greater
magni cation, two lenses are used, in which one lens increases
the e fect of the other lens, this is called compound
microscope.
o The arrangement diagram of a compound microscope is
shown in the gure. The lens closest to the object is called
objective which forms a real, inverted and magni ed image of
the object. This image acts as an image for the second lens.
o The second lens is called an eye-piece, which essentially acts
as a simple microscope and produces a nal magni ed virtual
image.
o The distance between the two lenses is called the length (L)
of the microscope.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 44

Thus, the rst inverted image occurs near (at or inside the focus)
the focal point of the eyepiece, at a distance from the eyepiece
that is suitable for forming the nal image at in nity.

𝐈𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞
∵ 𝐌𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐢𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 =
𝐎𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞
𝐴"B"
𝑚=
𝐴𝐵
𝐴"B" 𝐴 𝐵
𝑚= ×
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵
𝐴"B"
∵ = 𝑚 नेि का का आवधन
𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝐵
∵ = 𝑚 अ भ क का आवधन
𝐴𝐵
𝒎 = 𝒎𝒆 × 𝒎𝒐

Case 1st: For the image formed at the near point,

𝐷
⎧∵ 𝑚 = 1 +
⎫
𝑓
⎨ ∵𝑚 =𝑣 ⎬
⎩ 𝑢 ⎭
𝒗𝒐 𝑫
𝒎= 𝟏+
𝒖𝒐 𝒇𝒆

Here we assume that,

𝑣 ≈ 𝐿 (distance between the two lenses or length of the microscope)

𝑢 ≈ 𝑓 (focal length of objective)
Thus,

𝑳 𝑫
𝒎= 𝟏+
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 45

Case 2nd: For re ection on in nity,

𝐷
⎧∵ 𝑚 = ⎫
𝑓
⎨∵ 𝑚 = 𝑣 ⎬
⎩ 𝑢 ⎭
𝒗𝒐 𝑫
𝒎=
𝒖𝒐 𝒇𝒆

∵ 𝑣 ≈ 𝐿 (distance between the two lenses or length of the microscope)

∵ 𝑢 ≈ 𝑓 (focal length of objective)

Thus,

𝑳 𝑫
𝒎=
𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 46

Telescope:
It is an optical instrument with the help of which distant objects
can be seen in magni cation. Like- Moon, planets, stars etc. These
are of two types:
1) Refracting Telescope
2) Re ecting Telescope

1) Refracting Telescope:
 It works on the principle of refraction.
 The objective lens (O) has longer focal length and larger
aperture and the eyepiece lens (E) has shorter focal length
and smaller aperture.
 The objective lens forms a real and inverted image A'B' of
an object situated at in nity.
 A'B' acts as an image for the eyepiece lens whose nal
image is formed at A"B".

𝑩" 𝑩′

𝑨′

𝑨"
magnifying power of telescope,

𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐲𝐞

𝒎=
𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐲𝐞
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 47

𝛽
𝑚=
𝛼
If the angles are very small then 𝜷 ≈ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷 and 𝜶 ≈ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜶 can be
considered to be true. Thus,
tan 𝛽
𝑚=
tan 𝛼
⎧∵ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 = 𝐴 𝐵 ⎫
⎪ 𝑢 ⎪
⎨∵ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 𝐴 𝐵 ⎬
⎪ −𝑓 ⎪
⎩ ⎭
𝐴𝐵
𝑢
𝑚=
𝐴𝐵
−
𝑓
𝒇
𝒎=− 𝒐 …(1)
𝒖𝒆

Case 1st: If the nal image is obtained at the near point (D):
From lens formula,
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
∵𝑓=𝑓
∵ 𝑣 = −𝐷
∵ 𝑢 = −𝑢
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 −𝐷 −𝑢
1 1 1
= +
𝑢 𝑓 𝐷
Putting the value in equation (1),

1 1
𝑚 = −𝑓 +
𝑓 𝐷
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 48

𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
𝒎=− 𝟏+
𝒇𝒆 𝑫

Case 2nd: If the nal image is obtained at in nity:

From lens formula,
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
∵𝑓=𝑓
∵𝑣=∞
∵ 𝑢 = −𝑢
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 ∞ −𝑢
1 1
=
𝑢 𝑓
Putting the value in equation (1),

𝒇𝒐
𝒎=−
𝒇𝒆

Disadvantages of Refracting Telescope:

i. The objective lens has a larger aperture and longer focal
length.
ii. Telescopes are expensive and heavy.
iii. chromatic aberration defect
iv. Spherical Aberration Defect

2) Re ecting Telescope:
Re ecting telescope is used to correct the defects of refracting
telescope. In this, a convex mirror (secondary mirror) and a
parabolic concave mirror (objective mirror) are used.
 SAHIL SONI SIR PHYSICS 49

Objective
Mirror
Secondary
Mirror

Eyepiece

In this telescope, parallel rays from in nity fall on the objective

mirror, which is focused on the secondary convex mirror,
which is again focused by the secondary mirror on the eyepiece
as shown in the gure. This telescope is called Cassegrain
Telescope after the name of its inventor.
The largest telescope in India is in Kavalur, Tamil Nadu. It is a
2.34 m diameter Cassegrain re ecting telescope. It is being
used by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore.
The world's largest re ecting telescopes are the pair of Keck
telescopes in Hawaii, United States, whose re ectors have a
diameter of 10 meters.

Advantages of Re ecting Telescope (Cassegrain Telescope):

i. There is no chromatic aberration in the mirror
ii. The problem of mechanical support is also much less
because, compared to the lens, a mirror of equivalent
optical quality is relatively less heavy.