LAB #1 :Overview of Networks & Cabling .

Objectives
 Study of different types of Network cables and Practically implement the cross-wired
cable and straight through cable using clamping tool.

 Study of following Network Devices in Detail : Repeater, Hub, Switch, Bridge and Router

(Components): RJ-45 connector, Climping Tool, Twisted pair Cable

Procedure: To do these practical following steps should be done:

1. Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be very careful at
this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so could alter the
characteristics of your cable, or even worse render is useless. Check the wires, one more time for
nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off, and start over.

2. Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other hand.
You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket. Category 5 cable must
only have 1/2 of an inch of 'untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will be 'out of spec'. At this
point, you obviously have ALOT more than 1/2 of an inch of un-twisted wire.

3. You have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable. If you are using a pre-made
cable, with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install - the crossed over end.
Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the cables for each type of cable
end. Decide at this point which end you are making and examine the associated picture below.

Diagram shows you how to prepare straight through wired connection

Diagram shows you how to prepare Cross wired connection

NETWORKS DEVICES :

1. Repeater: Functioning at Physical Layer.A repeater is an electronic device that receives a

signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher power, or onto the other side of an
obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances. Repeater have two ports ,so cannot
be use to connect for more than two devices.

2. Hub: An Ethernet hub, active hub, network hub, repeater hub, hub or concentrator is a
device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and making
them act as a single network segment. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI
model. The device is a form of multiport repeater. Repeater hubs also participate in collision
detection, forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a collision.

3. Switch: A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that connects
network segments.The term commonly refers to a network bridge that processes and routes data
at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches that additionally process data at the
network layer (layer 3 and above) are often referred to as Layer 3 switches or multilayer
switches.

4. Bridge: A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (Layer 2) of
the OSI model. In Ethernet networks, the term bridge formally means a device that behaves
according to the IEEE 802.1D standard. A bridge and switch are very much alike; a switch being a
bridge with numerous ports. Switch or Layer 2 switch is often used interchangeably with
bridge.Bridges can analyze incoming data packets to determine if the bridge is able to send the given
packet to another segment of the network.

5. Router: A router is an electronic device that interconnects two or more computer networks,
and selectively interchanges packets of data between them. Each data packet contains address
information that a router can use to determine if the source and destination are on the same
network, or if the data packet must be transferred from one network to another. Where multiple
routers are used in a large collection of interconnected networks, the routers exchange
information about target system addresses, so that each router can build up a table showing the
preferred paths between any two systems on the interconnected networks.

Network Types:

Different types of networks are distinguished based on their size (in terms of the number of
machines), their data transfer speed, and their reach. There are usually said to be two categories
of networks:
 Local Area Network (LAN) : is limited to a specific area, usually an office, and
cannot extend beyond the boundaries of a single building. The first LANs were limited to
a range (from a central point to the most distant computer) of 185 meters (about 600
feet) and no more than 30 computers. Today’s technology allows a larger LAN, but
practical administration limitations require dividing it into small, logical areas called
workgroups.

A workgroup is a collection of individuals who share the same files and databases over the LAN.

Wide Area Network (WAN):If you have ever connected to the Internet, you have used the
largest WAN on the planet. A WAN is any network that crosses metropolitan, regional, or
national boundaries. Most networking professionals define a WAN as any network that uses
routers and public network links. The Internet fits both definitions.
The OSI Model:
Understanding the Seven Layers of Computer Networks

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference tool for understanding data
communications between any two networked systems. It divides the communications processes
into seven layers. Each layer both performs specific functions to support the layers above it and
offers services to the layers below it. The three lowest layers focus on passing traffic through the
network to an end system. The top four layers come into play in the end system to complete the
process.
The main benefits of the OSI model include the following: • Helps users understand the big
picture of networking • Helps users understand how hardware and software elements function
together • Makes troubleshooting easier by separating networks into manageable pieces •
Defines terms that networking professionals can use to compare basic functional relationships
on different networks • Helps users understand new technologies as they are developed • Aids in
interpreting vendor explanations of product functionality
Layer 1 – The Physical Layer

The physical layer of the OSI model defines connector and interface specifications, as well as the
medium (cable) requirements. Electrical, mechanical, functional, and procedural specifications
are provided for sending a bit stream on a computer network.
Components of the physical layer include:

• Cabling system components.

• Adapters that connect media to physical interfaces
• Connector design and pin assignments
• Hub, repeater, and patch panel specifications
• Wireless system components
• Parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
• Network Interface Card (NIC)

Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer

Layer 2 of the OSI model provides the following functions:

• Allows a device to access the network to send and receive messages
• Offers a physical address so a device’s data can be sent on the network
• Works with a device’s networking software when sending and receiving messages
• Provides error-detection capability

Common networking components that function at layer 2 include:

• Network interface cards
• Ethernet and Token Ring switches
• Bridges NICs have a layer 2 or MAC address.
A switch uses this address to filter and forward traffic, helping relieve congestion and collisions
on a network segment. Bridges and switches function in a similar fashion; however, bridging is
normally a software program on a CPU, while switches use Application-Specific Integrated
Circuits (ASICs) to perform the task in dedicated hardware, which is much faster.
Layer 3 – The Network Layer

Layer 3, the network layer of the OSI model, provides an end-to-end logical addressing system
so that a packet of data can be routed across several layer 2 networks (Ethernet, Token Ring,
Frame Relay, etc.). Note that network layer addresses can also be referred to as logical
addresses. Initially, software manufacturers, such as Novell, developed proprietary layer 3
addressing. However, the networking industry has evolved to the point that it requires a common
layer 3 addressing system. The Internet Protocol (IP) addresses make networks easier to both set
up and connect with one another. The Internet uses IP addressing to provide connectivity to
millions of networks around the world. To make it easier to manage the network and control the
flow of packets, many organizations separate their network layer addressing into smaller parts
known as subnets. Routers use the network or subnet portion of the IP addressing to route traffic
between different networks. Each router must be configured specifically for the networks or
subnets that will be connected to its interfaces. Routers communicate with one another using
routing protocols, such as Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open version of Shortest
Path First (OSPF), to learn of other networks that are present and to calculate the best way to
reach each network based on a variety of criteria (such as the path with the fewest routers).
Routers and other networked systems make these routing decisions at the network layer. When
passing packets between different networks, it may become necessary to adjust their outbound
size to one that is compatible with the layer 2 protocol that is being used. The network layer
accomplishes this via a process known as fragmentation. A router’s network layer is usually
responsible for doing the fragmentation. All reassembly of fragmented packets happens at the
network layer of the final destination system.
Layer 4 – The Transport Layer
Layer 4, the transport layer of the OSI model, offers end-to-end communication between end
devices through a network. Depending on the application, the transport layer either offers
reliable, connection-oriented or connectionless, best-effort communications.
Some of the functions offered by the transport layer include:
• Application identification
• Client-side entity identification
• Confirmation that the entire message arrived intact
• Segmentation of data for network transport
• Control of data flow to prevent memory overruns
• Establishment and maintenance of both ends of virtual circuits
• Transmission-error detection
• Realignment of segmented data in the correct order on the receiving side
• Multiplexing or sharing of multiple sessions over a single physical link The most common
transport layer protocols are the connection-oriented TCP Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
and the connectionless UDP User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
Layer 5 – The Session Layer

Layer 5, the session layer, provides various services, including tracking the number of bytes that
each end of the session has acknowledged receiving from the other end of the session. This
session layer allows applications functioning on devices to establish, manage, and terminate a
dialog through a network.
Session layer functionality includes:
• Virtual connection between application entities
• Synchronization of data flow
• Creation of dialog units
• Connection parameter negotiations
• Partitioning of services into functional groups
• Acknowledgements of data received during a session
• Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device
Layer 6 – The Presentation Layer

Layer 6, the presentation layer, is responsible for how an application formats the data to be sent
out onto the network. The presentation layer basically allows an application to read (or
understand) the message.
Examples of presentation layer functionality include:
• Encryption and decryption of a message for security
• Compression and expansion of a message so that it travels efficiently
• Graphics formatting • Content translation • System-specific translation
Layer 7 – The Application Layer
Layer 7, the application layer, provides an interface for the end user operating a device
connected to a network. This layer is what the user sees, in terms of loading an application (such
as Web browser or e-mail); that is, this application layer is the data the user views while using
these applications.
Examples of application layer functionality include:
• Support for file transfers
• Ability to print on a network
• Electronic mail
• Electronic messaging
• Browsing the World Wide Web

TCP/IP Model Overview