UNIT I

2.INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING MECHANICS

2.1 Introduction
Mechanics is a science that describes and predicts the conditions of
rest or motion of bodies under the action of forces. Mechanics can be broadly
classified as mechanics of solids and mechanics of fluids. Further divisions of
mechanics are shown in Fig. 2.1
Fig. 2.1 Branches of Mechanics

Engineering mechanics deals with mechanics of rigid bodies which is

further classified as statics and dynamics. Statics treats the equilibrium of
stationary bodies under the influence of various kinds of forces. Dynamics,
on the other hand, includes the motion of bodies and forces that causes it.

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Study of motion of bodies without considering force causing the motion is

called Kinematics. On the other hand study of motion of bodies considering
the force causing the motion is called Kinetics.

If the internal stresses developed in a body are to be studied, the

deformation of the body should be considered. This field of mechanics is
called Mechanics of Deformable Bodies/Strength of Materials/Solid
Mechanics. This field may be further divided into Theory of Elasticity and
Theory of Plasticity.
Liquids and gases deform continuously with application of very small shear
forces. Such materials are called Fluids. The mechanics dealing with
behaviour of fluids is called Fluid Mechanics.

Mechanics of ideal fluids, mechanics of viscous fluid and mechanics of

incompressible fluids are further classification in this area.

2.2 Idealization in Mechanics

A number of ideal conditions are assumed to exist while applying the
principles of mechanics to practical problems. In fact without such
assumptions it is not possible to arrive at practical solutions. The following
idealizations are usually made in engineering mechanics.
a) The body is rigid.
b) The body can be treated as continuum.
c) If the size of the body is small compared to other distances involved in the
problem, it may be treated as a particle.

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d) If the area over which force is acting on a body is small compared to the
size of the body, it may be treated as a point force.

Continuum
A body consists of several matters. It is a well known fact that each particle
can be subdivided into molecules, atoms and electrons. It is not possible to
solve any engineering problem by treating a body as a conglomeration of such
discrete particles. The body is assumed to consist of a continuous distribution
of matter. In other words, the body is treated as continuum.

Rigid Body
A body is said to be rigid, if the relative positions of any two particles in it do
not change under the action of the forces.

Particle
A particle may be defined as an object which has only mass and no size. Such
a body cannot exist theoretically. However in dealing with problems
involving distances considerably larger compared to the size of the body, the
body may be treated as particle, without sacrificing accuracy.

2.3 Basic Principles of Mechanics

The following are the fundamental laws of mechanics:
i. Newton’s first law
ii. Newton’s second law
iii. Newton’s third law

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iv. Newton’s law of gravitation

v. Law of transmissibility of forces, and
vi. Parallelogram law of forces

2.3.1 Newton’s First Law

It states that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line unless it is compelled by external agency acting on it. This leads
to the definition of force as the external agency which changes or tends to
change the state of rest or uniform linear motion of the body.
2.3.2 Newton’s Second Law
It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the impressed force and it takes place in the direction of the
force acting on it. Thus Second law gives the magnitude of force. ie., F= m . a
where, F= resultant force, m= mass of the particle, a = acceleration of the
particle.

2.3.3 Newton’s Third Law

It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Consider
the two bodies in contact with each other. Let one body applies a force F on
another. According to this law, the second body develops a reactive force R
which is equal in magnitude to force F and acts in the line same as F but in
the opposite direction.

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2.3.4 Newton’s Law of Gravitation

The force of attraction between any two bodies is directly proportional to
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.

Where ‘G’ is the constant of proportionality and is known as constant of

gravitation.
2.3.5 Law of Transmissibility of Force
According to this law the state of rest or motion of the rigid body is unaltered
if a force acting on the body is replaced by another force of the same
magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on the body along the line of
action of the replaced force
(Fig. 2.2) where, P= Force

Fig.2.2 Transmissibility of Forces

Principle of Physical Independence of Forces

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It states that the action of forces on bodies are independent, in other words the
action of forces on a body is not influenced by the action of any other force
on the body.
Principle of Superposition of Forces
It states that net effect of a system of forces on a body is same as the
combined effect of individual forces acting on the body
(Fig. 2.3).
Where, P1 and P2 = Forces; a1 and a2 = Acceleration due to force

Fig.2.3 Principle of Superposition

2.3.5 Parallelogram Law of Forces

This law states that "if two forces acting simultaneously on a body at a point
are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the
diagonal of the parallelogram which passes through the point of intersection
of the two sides representing the forces".

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2.4 Concepts of force

Force: Force is the action exerted by one body upon another. Force tends to
change the state of rest or motion of a body to which it is applied.
Gravitational force, Push or Pull are the examples of force.
A force is characterized by its points of application, magnitude and direction.
A force is represented by vector. Mass is the property of the body which
measures the resistance of the body to a change of motion.

2.5 Characteristics of a force

From Newton’s first law, we defined the force as the agency which tries to
change state of rest or uniform motion of the body. From Newton’s second
law, we arrived at practical definition of force. Thus 1 Newton is the force
required to produce an acceleration of 1 m/sec2 in a body of 1 kg mass. It may
be noted that a force is completely defined only when the following four
characteristics are specified
i. Magnitude
ii. Point of application
iii. Line of action, and
iv. Direction

Fig. 2.4 Characteristics of a force

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In Fig. 2.4, AB is a ladder leaning against a wall. At point ‘C’, a person

weighing 600 N is standing. The force applied by the person on the ladder has
the following characters:
i. Magnitude is 600 N
ii. The point of application is at C which is 2 m from ‘A’
iii. The line of action is vertical, and
iv. The direction is downward.

2.6 System of Forces

When number of forces act simultaneously on a body, they are called the
system of forces.
Depending upon the orientation of the forces acting on a body, the system of
forces is classified as
i) Coplanar force system
ii) Non-coplanar force system.
Coplanar force system consists of a set of forces with their lines of action
lying in the same plane. Non-coplanar force system consists of a set of
forces whose lines of action do not lie in the same plane. Further
classifications are indicated in Fig. 2.5 and Fig. 2.6 (a) and Fig. 2.6(b). The
types of force system with their characteristics and typical example is listed in
Table 2.1(a) and Table 2.1 (b).

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Force System

Coplanar (Plane) Non-coplanar (space)

 Collinear  Concurrent
 Concurrent  Parallel
 Parallel  Non-concurrent,
 Non-concurrent, Non parallel
Non parallel

Fig.2.5 Classification of Forces

Coplanar Collinear Forces Non-coplanar Collinear Forces

Fig. 2.6 (a) Force Systems

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Coplanar Concurrent Forces Non-coplanar Concurrent Forces

Coplanar Parallel Forces Non-coplanar Parallel Forces

Coplanar Non-Parallel Forces Non-coplanar Non-Parallel Forces

Fig. 2.6 (b) Force Systems

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Table 2.1(a) Types of force systems

Force System Characteristics Examples
Collinear forces Line of action of all Forces on a rope in
the forces act along a tug of war
the same line
Coplanar Parallel All forces are parallel System of forces
forces to each other and lie acting on a beam
in a single plane subjected to
vertical loads
Coplanar like All forces are parallel Weight of a
Parallel forces to each other and lie stationary train on
in a single plane and a rail when the
act in the same track is straight
direction
Coplanar Line of action of all Forces on a rod
concurrent forces forces pass through a resting against a
single point and wall
forces lie in the same
plane

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Table 2.1(b) Types of force systems

Coplanar non All forces do not meet Forces on a ladder
concurrent forces at a point but lie in a resting against a
single plane wall when a person
stands on a rung
which is not at its
centre of gravity
Non coplanar All the forces are The weight of
parallel forces parallel to each other benches in a class
but not in the same room
plane
Non coplanar All forces do not lie A tripod carrying a
concurrent forces in the same plane ,but camera
their lines of action
pass through a single
point
Non coplanar non All forces do not lie Forces acting on a
concurrent forces in the same plane and moving bus
their lines of action do
not pass through a
single point

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2.7 Moment of a Force

A force applied on a body can create i) a tendency to translate and /or ii)
tendency to rotate about an axis or a point. The effect of a force on a body to
rotate it about a fixed point is called Moment. Moment is measured as the
product of force and distance between point of rotation and line of action of
force. The point of rotation is called as Moment Centre and distance
between point of rotation and line of action measured perpendicular to the
force is called as Arm of force or Lever Arm.
For example the force applied by a wrench to a nut can rotate the nut (Fig.
2.7). Similarly the force applied at a door (to open or close) allows it to rotate
on its hinge. (Fig. 2.7).

Fig 2.7
Moment of a
Force
2.7.1 Moment
about a point
The magnitude
of moment or
tendency of the force to rotate the body about the axis O-O (Fig. 2.8)
perpendicular to the plane of the body is proportional to both the magnitude
of the force and to the moment arm d, therefore magnitude of the moment is
defined as the product of force and moment arm.
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Moment = Force x moment arm

M = F×d

Fig. 2.8 Moment about a point

The moments are classified according to the direction in which the force tends
to rotate the body about a fixed point
i. Clockwise and
ii. Anticlockwise moment

Clockwise Moment
When the force tends to rotate the body in the same direction in which the
hands of clock move is called clockwise moment.

Anticlockwise Moment
When the force tends to rotate the body in the opposite direction in which the
hands of clock move is called anti clockwise moment.

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Example 2.1
Find the moment of force F = 600N about A as shown in the
Fig. 2.9

Fig. 2.9
Solution:
Moment of the force can be obtained by resolving the given force as shown in
Fig. 2.10

Fig. 2.10
MA = (600 Cos 30o) (0.2) – (600 Sin 30o) (0.3)
MA = 13.92 N-m (Anticlockwise Moment)

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Example 2.2
A 200 N force acts on the bracket as shown in Fig. 2.11 Determine the
moment of the force about point A.

Fig. 2.11
Solution:
Moment
about A =
MA=
Force x
perpendicular distance
=200 x CB ( )
From triangle BCD CB= DB x cos 45 = 70.71 mm
MA= 200 x 70.71 = 14142 N-mm = 14.142 N-m
Alternatively:
The force at B is resolved into x and y components and the moment about A
is computed using Varignon’s theorem
+ve
MA=200 cos 45 x 100 – 200 sin 45 x 200
= -14.142 N-m ( )

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2.8 Couple
Two parallel forces of same magnitude but opposite direction separated by a
distance‘d’ as shown in Fig 2.12 form couple.

Fig. 2.12 Couple of Force

As matter of fact a couple does not produce any straight-line motion but
produces rotation in the body on which it acts. So couple can be defined as
unlike parallel forces of same magnitude but opposite direction which
produce rotation about a specific direction and whose resultant is zero.

2.8.1 Moment of couple

The moment of the couple is the product of the force (one of the force of the
two equal and opposite parallel forces) and the arm of the couple.
Magnitude of the couple is equal to the product of the force and the distance
between the parallel forces. M= F x d.
Moment of couple = force x arm of couple
Moment of couple = F x d

Moment of a couple about any point is same.

Let us find the moment of couple about a point ‘O’ on the couple arm AB as
shown in Fig 2.13

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Fig. 2.13 Moment of couple

Moment of Couple about ‘O’
= F  r1  F  r2  F (r1  r2 )  F  r ( Anticlockw ise ) .
Moment of Couple about ‘A’= F  r ( Anticlockw ise ) .
Moment of Couple about ‘B’=. F  r ( Anticlockw ise )

2.9 Resolution of a Force

The process of splitting of a force into its rectangular components (horizontal
and vertical) is known as resolution of the force.

Fig. 2.14 Resolution of a Force

In the Fig. 2.14, F is the force which makes an angle θ with the horizontal
axis and has been resolved into two components, namely Fx and Fy,
In ΔCAD,

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2.10 Equivalent force couple system

A force P acting at a point A on a body can be resolved into a force and a
couple at any other point B as shown in Fig. 2.15

Fig. 2.15 Equivalent force couple system

Equal and opposite force of magnitude P is applied at B and this does not
change the equilibrium of the body. The downward force P at A and upward
force P at B constitute a couple M = P x at B. Therefore a force P at A is
replaces by the same force P and a couple M at B.

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Example 2.3
Replace the given system of forces acting on the beam AB shown in the Fig.
2.16 by
a) An equivalent force couple system at A
b) An equivalent force couple system at B.

Fig. 2.16
Solution: RX = ∑ FX = 0
Ry = ∑Fy = 300 -1200 +200 - 500
Ry =-1200N
R = 1200N
MA = (300) (2) – (1200) (5) + (200) (7) – (500) (11)
MA = -9500 Nm
MA = 9500 Nm
The equivalent force couple system at A is as shown in Fig. 2.17

Fig. 2.17
MB = (500) (1) – (200) (5) + (1200) (7) – (300) (10)
MB = 4900Nm

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Example 2.4
Replace the 6 kN force and 10 kN-m moment acting on a beam shown in Fig.
2.18 by a single force. Where does this force cross the x-axis.

Fig. 2.18
Solution:
Finding the summation of all forces in horizontal and vertical directions

F x  4.24 kN F y  4.24

R  6kN   45 
The summation of moment of all forces about ‘A’  M A  52 .426 kN  m
MA
X-Intercept of the Resultant=  12.35m from ‘A’
 Fy

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2.11 Composition of Forces

It is the process of combining a number of forces into a single force such that
the net effect produced by the single force is equal to the algebraic sum of the
effects produced by the individual forces.
The single force in this case is called the resultant force which produces the
same effect on the body as that produced by the individual forces acting
together.

Sign conventions:
Following sign conventions are used in determining the resultant force
1. Horizontal forces:
i. Left to Right +ve i. Right to Left -ve
2. Vertical forces:
i. Upward +ve ii. Downward -ve

Example 2.5
Determine the rectangular components of the forces F1 and F2 shown in the
Fig. 2.19

Fig 2.19
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Solution:
F1x = 0; F1y = -100N
F2x = - 200 cos 300
F2y = 200 sin 300

2.12 Resultant of coplanar concurrent force system

Fig. 2.20
If two or more forces are acting in a single plane and passing through same
point such a force system is known as coplanar concurrent force system.
In a coplanar concurrent force system, we can calculate the magnitude and
direction of the resultant.
Let, F1, F2, F3, F4 be the concurrent forces acting on a body and making
angles θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4 respectively with the horizontal as shown in the Fig. 2.20.

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Steps to find the resultant (Method of Resolution)

i) Resolve all the forces acting on the body into rectangular components.
ii) Calculate the algebraic sum of all the forces acting in the
x-direction (horizontal forces).

iii) Calculate the algebraic sum of all the forces acting in the y-direction
(vertical forces).

iv) Determine the magnitude of the resultant using the formula

v) Determine the direction of the resultant using the formula

Example 2.6
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of coplanar concurrent
force system shown in the figure 2.21.

Fig. 2.21
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Solution:
ΣFx = 2 cos 300 - 4+3 cos 600 = -0.77kN.
ΣFy = 2sin 300 -1 – 3 sin 600 = -2.59kN.

= 2.70kN.

Example 2.7
Three forces acting on a hook are as in Fig. 2.22 Determine the direction of
the fourth force of magnitude 100N such that the hook is pulled in x direction
only. Determine the resultant force in x direction.

Fig. 2.22

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Solution: let the force of 100N act at angle θ with x axis in the first quadrant
as shown in the Fig. 2.23

Fig. 2.23
As the resultant is horizontal, its Y-component is zero.
∑FY = 0
100sinθ + 80sin30 + 80sin60 - 200sin60 = 0
θ = 39.73°
RX = R = ∑FX
R = 100cos39.73 + 80cos30 + 80cos60+200cos60
R = 286.19kN
Example 2.8
The forces 20 N, 30 N, 40 N, 50 N and 60 N are acting at one of the angular
points of a regular hexagon, towards the other five angular points, taken in
order. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

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Solution:
The system of given forces is shown in Fig. 2.24

Fig. 2.24
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving all the forces horizontally (i.e., along AB),
ΣH = 20 cos 0° + 30 cos 30° + 40 cos 60° + 50 cos 90° + 60 cos 120° N
= (20 × 1) + (30 × 0.866) + (40 × 0.5) + (50 × 0) + 60 (– 0.5) N
= 36.0 N
And now resolving the all forces vertically (i.e., at right angles to AB),
ΣV = 20 sin 0° + 30 sin 30° + 40 sin 60° + 50 sin 90° + 60 sin 120° N
= (20 × 0) + (30 × 0.5) + (40 × 0.866) + (50 × 1) + (60 × 0.866) N
= 151.6 N
We know that magnitude of the resultant force,

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= 155.8 N
Direction of the resultant force
Let θ = Angle, which the resultant force makes with the horizontal (i.e., AB).

θ= 76.6°
Example 2.9
A boat is moved uniformly along a canal by two horses pulling with forces
P=890N and Q=1068N acting under an angle α=60֯ as shown in Fig. 2.25.
Determine the magnitude of the resultant pull on the boat and the angles ‘β’
and ‘γ’

Fig. 2.25
Solution:
Given P=890N and Q=1068N

Fig 2.26
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Since the Resultant is along the x-Direction, Referring to Fig 2.26 F x R

and F y 0

Finding the summation of all the forces along y-Direction and equating

F y to zero, we get

P sin   Q sin   0
sin   1.2 sin 
    60
  33
  27
R   Fx  P cos   Q cos 
R  1698N
Example 2.10
A system of forces acting on a body resting on an inclined plane is as shown
in Fig. 2.27. Determine the resultant force if θ = 60° and if W = 1000 N; N =
500 N; F = 100 N; and T = 1200 N.

Fig. 2.27

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Solution:
In this problem, note that selecting X and Y axes parallel to the plane and
perpendicular to the plane is convenient.
Rx = ΣFx = T – F – W sin θ
= 1200 – 100 – 1000 sin 60° = 233.97 N
Ry = ΣFy = N – W cos 60° = 500 – 1000 cos 60° = 0.
∴ Resultant is force of 233.97 N directed up the plane
2.13 Varignon’s Theorem
Varignon’s Theorem states that the moment of a force about any point is
equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of its components about that point.
Principal of moments states that the moment of the resultant of a number of
forces about any point is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of all the
forces of the system about the same point.
Proof:

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Fig. 2.28(a) Fig 2.28(b)

Fig.2.28 (a) shows two forces F1 and F2 acting at point O. These forces are
represented in magnitude and direction by OA and OB. Their resultant R is
represented in magnitude and direction by OC which is the diagonal of
parallelogram OACB. Let ‘O’ is the point in the plane about which moments
of F1, F2 and ‘R’ are to be determined. From point O’, draw perpendiculars on
OA, OC and OB.
Let r1= Perpendicular distance between F1 and O’.
d= Perpendicular distance between R and O’.
r2= Perpendicular distance between F2 and O’.
Then according to Varignon’s principle,
Moment of R about O’ must be equal to algebraic sum of moments of
F1 and F2 about ‘O’.
R × d = F1 × r1 + F2 × r2
Now refer to Fig 2.28(b). Join OO’ and produce it to D. From points
C, A and B draw perpendiculars on OD to meet at D,E and F respectively.
From A and B also draw perpendiculars on CD meeting the line CD at G
and H respectively.
Let θ1 = Angle made by F1with OD,
θ = Angle made by R with OD
θ2 = Angle made by F2 with OD.

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In Fig 2.28.(b), OA = BC and also OA parallel to BC, hence the projection of

OA and BC on the same vertical line CD will be equal i.e., GD = CH as GD is
the projection of OA on CD and CH is the projection of BC on CD.
Then, from Fig. 2.28(b), we have
P1 sin θ1 = AE = GD = CH
F1 cos θ1 = OE
F2 sin θ1 = BF = HD
F2 cos θ2 = OF = ED
(OB = AC and also OB || AC. Hence projections of OB and AC on the same
horizontal line OD will be equal i.e., OF = ED)
R sinθ =CD, R cos θ =OD
Let the length OO’ = x.
Then x sin θ1 = r1, x sin θ = d and x sin θ2 = r2
Now moment of R about O’
= R × (distance between O’ and R)
=R×d
= R × x sin θ (d= x sin θ)
= (R sin θ) × x
= CD × x (R sin θ = CD)
= (CH +HD) × x
= (F1 sin θ1 + F2 sin θ2) × x
= F1 × x sin θ1 + F2 × x sin θ2

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= F1 × r1 + F2 × r2
( x sin θ1 = r1 and x sin θ2 = r2)
= Moment of F1 about ‘O’ + Moment of F2 about ‘O’.
Hence moment of R about any point in the algebraic sum of moments of its
components F1 and F2 about the same point. Hence Varignon’s principle is
proved.
The principle of moments (or Varignon’s principle) is not restricted to only
two concurrent forces but is also applicable to any coplanar force
system, i.e., concurrent or non-concurrent or parallel force system.

2.14 Resultant of coplanar non-concurrent force system

If two or more forces are acting in single plane, but not passing through the
single point, such a force system is known as coplanar non-concurrent force
system.
Consider a system of forces P1, P2, P3, … etc., acting on a rigid body at the
points A1, A2, A3, etc., located at a distance d1, d2, d3 …. etc., as shown in Fig.
2.29 (a)
Each force is replaced by a force of same magnitude, direction and a couple
perpendicular to the force at ‘O’. Forces P1, P2, P3…etc acting at A1, A2, A3
….etc., respectively are replaced by respective force and corresponding
couple as shown in Fig. 2.29 (b) At ‘O’ the forces are replaced by the
resultant R and net couple Mo. Further this couple Mo and resultant R at O
can be reduced to a single force R at the point B such that Mo=R x d.

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(a) (b)
Fig. 2.29

Therefore, d  M o
, where, R  R 2x  R 2y , Rx=Fx and Ry=Fy. The x and
R
y intercept of the resultant on x and y axes is computed using theorem of
 Mo  M
moments as x  and y  o .
Ry Rx

In coplanar non-concurrent force system, we can calculate the magnitude,

direction and position of the resultant force as follows:
i) Magnitude of resultant using the formula

ii) Direction of the resultant using the formula

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iii) Position of resultant

Position of the resultant means the calculation of d, or x and y intercepts as
shown in the figure
R x d = algebraic sum of moments of number of forces about that point.
R x d = ΣMo

X- intercept:

Y- intercept:

Example 2.11
Four parallel forces 2 kN, F1, F2 and 10 kN have a downward resultant of 5
kN that acts at a distance of 1.8m to the right of 2kN force as shown in Fig.
2.30. Determine F1 and F2.

Fig. 2.30

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Solution
From Fig  Fy  2  F1  F2  10  5 kN

F1  F2  13 ---(1)
Summation of Moment of all forces about ’A’ is
 M A   F1  3F2  40 ------(2)
Moment of the Resultant about ‘A’ is  5X 1.8 ----(3)
According to varignon’s theorem, Moment of the Resultant is equal to the
sum of the moments of component forces.
Equating (2) and (3)
 F1  3F2  49 -------(4)

Solving (3) and (4)

F2=18kN F1=5kN
Example 2.12
Determine the magnitude, direction and position of the resultant force with
respect to C as shown in Fig. 2.31.

Fig. 2.31

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ΣFx = -135 cos 45+ 90 cos 63.43-105+120 cos 63.43-75 cos 45

ΣFx =-159.56 N
ΣFy = 135sin45+90sin 63.43- 120 cos 63.43+180-75sin45
ΣFy =249.25 N

ΣMC = (105x200) - (75 sin 45x200)-(135cos 45x200) +

(135 sin 45x200) + (90cos 63.43x 200)+(90sin63.43x100)
ΣMC = 26494.13 N-mm.

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Example 2.13
Determine the resultant of the three forces acting on the dam shown in Fig.
2.32 and locate its intersection with the base AB. For a good design, this
intersection should occur within the middle third of the base. Comment
whether it is a good design or not.

Fig. 2.32
Solution:
+ve Fx 103.5 -62 cos 30=49.8 N
+veFy = -246- 62 sin 30 = -277N

F
F   Fy =281.44N, tan    5.56   79.8
2 2
R
y

F
x
x

 MA
x
 Fy

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MA=103.5 x 1.8 + 246 x 2.1 – 62 x cos30 x 2.2sin60 + 62 sin60 x (5.7 - 2.2

cos60) = 847.5 kN-m
 847.5
x   3.05m . For safe design the resultant should act within the
277
middle third. For this the position should be in the range of 1.9m and 3.8 m.
Hence the given design is safe.

Example 2.14
Determine the magnitude and Y-intercept of the force system acting on the
lamina as shown in Fig. 2.33

Fig. 2.33
Solution: The angle for the 600N force with horizontal is tan-1 =

26.565°

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RX = ∑FX = 400 + 600cos26.565

RX = 936.66N
Ry = ∑Fy = 200 – 600sin26.565
Ry= -68.33N
R= =
R = 939.15N
θ = tan-1 ( / ) = tan-1 (68.33/936.66)
θ = 4.17°
Plot the resultant on Y-axis at distance Y from O as shown in Fig.
2.34 using Varignon’s theorem at ‘O’

Fig. 2.34
- (400) (400) – (600sin26.565) (400) = - (936.66) (Y)
Y = 285.41mm

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Example 2.15
For the non-concurrent coplanar system shown in Fig. 2.35 determine the
magnitude, direction and position of resultant force with reference to ‘A’.

Fig. 2.35
Solution: RX = ∑FX =100 – 100 + 100 cos45 = 100N
Ry = ∑Fy = 200 - 100 sin45 = 100N
R=
R = 141.42N
θ = tan-1(100/100)
θ = 45°
The perpendicular distance of the resultant from A can be obtained using
Varignon’s theorem at A
(200)(2) – (100)(4) – (100 sin45) (4) = (141.42)(d)
d = -2.828m

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As the perpendicular distance is negative, the resultant produces clockwise

moment about A. The position of resultant with respect to A is shown in Fig.
2.36

Fig. 2.36
Note the X-intercept will be = 4m to the left of A and

Y-intercept is also 4m above A.

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Example 2.16
A rigid plate is subjected to the forces as shown in Fig. 2.37, compute
resultant of forces and position of resultant force with respect to centroid
point O of the plate.

Fig. 2.37
Solution: For the 50kN force at A, the angle with horizontal is tan-1(1.2/1.6)
= 36.87°
RX = ∑FX = 40 – 50cos36.87 = 0
Ry = ∑Fy = 50– 20 - 50sin36.87 = 0
R=0
As the resultant force is zero, the resultant can be a moment.
MO = - (40) (0.6) – (20) (0.8) +100
MO = 60kN-m
The resultant is a couple moment of 60kN-m . This moment can act
anywhere in the plane.

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Example 2.17
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant for the system of
coplanar forces shown in Fig. 2.38. Also determine the position of resultant
with respect to ‘O’

Fig. 2.38
Solution: Referring to the Fig 2.38
 Fx  347.62 N
 Fy  104.87 N
R  363.01N
 M o  373.69 N  m
R  d   Mo

d  1.02m
Example 2.18 Three forces of 2P, 3P and 4P act along the three sides of an
equilateral triangle of side 100 mm taken in order. Find the magnitude and
position of the resultant force.

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Solution:
The system of given forces is shown in Fig. 2.39

Fig. 2.39
Magnitude of the resultant force
Resolving all the forces horizontally,
ΣH = 2P + 3P cos 120° + 4P cos 240°
= 2P + 3P (– 0.5) + 4P (– 0.5)
= – 1.5 P
And now resolving all the forces vertically.
ΣV = 3P sin 60° – 4P sin 60°
= (3P × 0.866) – (4P × 0.866)
= – 0.866 P
We know that magnitude of the resultant force

Position of the resultant force

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Let x = Perpendicular distance between B and the line of action of the

resultant force.
Now taking moments of the resultant force about B and equating the same,
1.732 P × x = 3P × 100 sin 60° = 3P × (100 × 0.866) = 259.8 P

2.15 Equilibrium of Forces

A body is said to be under equilibrium, under external forces, when it
continues to be at rest or under motion.
2.15.1 Equilibrium of Concurrent force systems:
For a body to be under equilibrium, the resultant of force system should be
zero. If a resultant exists, then the resultant of force system should be zero. If
a resultant exists, then the body can be under equilibrium by applying a force
of equal magnitude and opposite. This force is called as equilibrant. For

F   Fy  0 . To satisfy this condition sum of the

2 2
equilibrium R  x

components along both directions taken separately should be zero, ie., Fx=0
and Fy=0

Equations of equilibrium for coplanar Concurrent force systems:

Fx=0 and Fy=0

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2.16 Lami’s Theorem:

Fig 2.40
Statement: If a body is in equilibrium under action of three forces, each force
is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces.
Referring to Fig 2.40
P Q R
P  sin ; Q  sin ; R  sin ; or  
sin  sin  sin 
Note: In the above equation all the three forces are considered to be of
similar nature, ie., either all are acting away (Tensile) or acting towards the
point (Compressive). If any of the force is unlike, then that force is considered
as negative.
Proof: Applying sine rule to the triangle ABC in Fig. 2.40 the following
expression is evaluated
AB BC CA
  ;
sin BCA sin CAB sin ABC
P Q R
 
sin(180  ) sin(180   ) sin(180  )
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P Q R
 
sin  sin  sin 
Because sin (180-) = sin
2.17 Free Body Diagram (FBD)
In practice the problem is derived from actual physical situation. A sketch
showing the physical condition of the problem is known as space diagram. In
order to obtain solution for this problem, the body under consideration and all
the forces acting on the body is considered. Free body diagram is a sketch of
isolated body which shows the external forces on the body and the reactions
exerted on it by the removed elements. Some examples of writing free body
diagram is shown in Fig. 2.41

Fig. 2.41
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Example 2.19
A sphere of weight 100 N is tied to a smooth wall by a string as shown in Fig.
2.42 Find the tension T in the string and reaction of the wall.

Fig. 2.42
Solution: Free body diagram of the sphere is shown in Fig. 2.42 along with
force diagram. Solution is obtained by applying Lami’s theorem
T R 100 Considering two terms at a time the unknowns are
 
sin 90 sin 195 sin 75
computed
100  100
T  sin 90  103.53N and R   sin 195  26.79 N
sin 75 sin 75

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Example 2.20
A spherical ball of weight 75 N is attached to a string and is suspended from
the ceiling as shown in Fig. 2.43(a) Find the tension in the string, if a
horizontal F is applied to the ball as shown in Fig. 2.43(b) Determine the
angle the string makes with the vertical and also the tension in the string if
F=150 N

Fig. 2.43(a) Fig. 2.43 (b)

Solution:
i) When the ball is hanging from the ceiling, the tension in the string
is equal to the weight of the ball i.e., T=W=75 N.
ii) Free body diagram of ball is shown in Fig. 2.4(b) when a
horizontal force F is applied. Magnitude of tensile force and
inclination  of string with vertical can be computed using the
method of components and equilibrium condition.

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+ve Fx =0; -T sin + 150 =0 --(1)

+ve Fy =0; T cos - 75 =0 --(2)

Equations (1) and (2) can be simplified as T sin = 150;

T cos  = 75
Dividing first equation by the second equation;
T sin 
 2; tan  2 and   tan -1 2  63.43
T cos 
Substituting value of  in (1) the value of T is computed as T=167.7N
Alternatively, using Lami’s theorem, the solution can also be obtained as
T 75 150
 
sin 90 sin(90  ) sin(180  )

T sin (90+) =75 or T cos  = 75 and T sin(180-) = 150 or

T sin  = 150
These two equations are similar to equations (2) and (1) and hence the
solution leads to the same result ie  = 63.43 and
T = 167.7 N

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Example 2.21
Determine the reactions at contact points for the system shown in Fig. 2.44

Fig. 2.44
Solution:
The free body diagram of ball 1 and 2 is shown in Fig. 2.44. From triangle

ABC the inclination of AB with AC (), is computed as cos   AC , where

AB
AC= 90-20-30 = 40mm. and
AB = 50 mm.  = 36.87
Equations of equilibrium is applied to Free Body Diagram of Ball1 as
+ve Fx =0; RR –RQ cos =0 -- (1)
+veFy =0; RS-100- RQ sin =0 --(2)

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Equations of equilibrium is also applied to Free Body Diagram of Ball 2 as

+ve Fx =0; RQ cos - RP =0 --(3)
+veFy =0; RQ sin-300=0 --(4)

300
From equation (4) RQ   500 substituting this in equation (3), the
sin 36.87
value of RD is computed as RP = 500 cos 36.87 = 400 N
Substituting the value of RQ in (1) and (2);

RR = 500 cos36.87 = 400 N;

RS = 100+ 500 sin 36.87 =400 N

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Example 2.22
Two identical cylinders each weighing 2kN are supported by vertical and
inclined plane ash shown in Fig. 2.45. Assuming smooth surfaces determine
the reactions at A, B and C

Fig. 2.45
Free body diagram of cylinder 1 and ball 2 is shown in Fig 2.45 (b) and
2.45(c). The solution is obtained by considering first the free body diagram of
cylinder 2. Lami’s theorem is applied on this as there are three forces in
equilibrium
RA RD 2
  ; RA=1.73 kN; RD=1 kN
sin 60 sin 30 sin 270

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Lami’s theorem cannot be applied on the free body diagram of cylinder 1, as

there are four forces acting on this cylinder. Hence the solution is obtained
using the method of components and equilibrium condition.
+ve Fx =0; RC-RBcos60-RDcos30 =0 --(1)
+veFy =0; -2+RBsin60-RDsin30 =0 --(2)
Substituting value of RD in (2) , the magnitude of RB is computed as
RB = (2 + 1 sin30)/sin60 = 2.88 kN
Magnitude of RC is computed by substituting RD and RB in(1)
RC= 2.88 cos60+ 1 cos30 =2.31 kN

Example 2.23
A 3 kN is to be supported by the rope and pulley arrangement shown in Fig.
2.46 Determine the magnitude and direction of the force’ F’, which should be
exerted at the free end of the rope.

Fig. 2.46

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Solution:
In this problem, the size of pulley is ignored. The force F and its inclination 
is computed by applying Lami’s theorem to the free body diagram shown in
Fig 2.46
2F F 3
  ,
sin(90  ) sin(90  ) sin(180  (  ))
3.6
Here   tan 1 ( )  73.74 
1.05
Considering the first two terms, the value of  is computed as
2F sin163.74 = F cos   = 55.94
Substituting this value in the second and third term:
3 sin 163.74
F ; F  1.09 kN
sin(180  129.68)

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Example 2.24
Five guy wires tied at a point and are pulled in radial directions, equally
spaced from one another. If the magnitude of pulls on three consecutive
wires is 50 kN, 70 kN and 60 kN determine the magnitude of pulls on two
other wires.
Solution:
The forces in guy wires taken in the order is shown in Fig 2.47

Fig 2.47
The given force system is in equilibrium. The equation of equilibrium is
applied to find T1 and T2.
+ve Fx = 0;
50+70cos72-60cos36-T1cos36+T2cos72 =0 -- (1)
+veFy =0;
70sin72+60sin36-T1sin36-T2sin72 =0 --(2)

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The equations are simplified as

0.81T1-0.31T2 = 23.09-----(1a)
0.59T1+0.95T2 = 101.84---(2a)
Solving (1a) and (2a); T1 = 56.18 kN and T2 = 72.31 kN

Example 2.25
A string AB, BC and CD are attached to two fixed point A and D. They have
equal weights of 1kN knotted to it at B and C as shown in Fig. 2.48. Find the
tension in the portion AB, BC and CD of the strings; also find the inclination
of BC with vertical.

Fig. 2.48
Solution: Let TAB, TBC and TCD be the tensile forces in the string AB, BC and
CD respectively.
The forces acting at B and C is shown in Fig. 2.49

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Fig. 2.49
Lami’s theorem is applied on the free body diagram at B and C.
TAB TBC 1
  ---(1)
sin  sin 150 sin( 210  )

TBC TCD 1
  ---(2)
sin 120 sin(180  ) sin( 60  )

Following expressions are obtained after simplifying equation (1)

sin  ---(3)
TAB 
sin( 210  )

sin 150
TBC  ---(4)
sin( 210   )
sin 120
TBC  ---(5)
sin( 60  )
sin(180  )
TCD  ---(6)
sin( 60  )

Value of  is obtained by equating (4) and (5)

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  = 59.95 The force is strings are obtained by substituting this value in

(3), (4) and (6)
TAB=1.73 kN; TBC= 1 kN and TCD = 1 kN

Example 2.26
A uniform wheel of 600 mm diameter, weighing 5 kN rests against a rigid
rectangular block of 150 mm height as shown in Fig.2.50. Find the least pull,
through the centre of the wheel, required just to turn the wheel over the corner
A of the block. Also find the reaction on the block. Take all the surfaces to be
smooth.

Fig. 2.50
Solution:
Given: Diameter of wheel = 600 mm; Weight of wheel = 5 kN and height of
the block = 150 mm.
Least pull required just to turn the wheel over the corner.
Let P = Least pull required just to turn the wheel in kN.

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A little consideration will show that for the least pull, it must be applied
normal to AO. The system of forces is shown in
Fig. 2.51. From the geometry of the figure, we find that

Fig. 2.51

Now taking moments about A and equating the same,

Reaction on the block

Let R = Reaction on the block in kN.
Resolving the forces horizontally and equating the same,
R cos 30° = P sin 30°

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Example 2.27
A light string ABCDE whose extremity A is fixed, has weights W1 and W2
attached to it at B and C. It passes round a small smooth peg at D carrying a
weight of 300 N at the free end E as shown in Fig.2.52. If in the equilibrium
position, BC is horizontal and AB and CD make 150° and 120° with BC, find
(i) Tensions in the portion AB, BC and CD of the string and (ii) Magnitudes
of W1 and W2.

Fig. 2.52
Solution:
Given: Weight at E = 300 N
For the sake of convenience, let us split up the string ABCD into two parts.
The system of forces at joints B and C is shown in
Fig. 2.53

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Fig. 2.53
(i) Tensions is the portion AB, BC and CD of the string
Let TAB = Tension in the portion AB, and
TBC = Tension in the portion BC,
We know that tension in the portion CD of the string.
TCD = TDE = 300 N
Applying Lami’s equation at C,

TBC = 300 sin 30° = 300 × 0.5 = 150 N

and W2 = 300 sin 60° = 300 × 0.866 = 259.8 N
Again applying Lami’s equation at B,

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Example 2.28
Three cylinders weighting 100 N each and of 80 mm diameter are placed in a
channel of 180 mm width as shown in Fig.2.54. Determine the reactions at all
the points of contact.

Fig. 2.54

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Solution:
Consider the equilibrium of the cylinder A. It is in equilibrium under the
action of
The following forces, which must pass through the centre of the cylinder as
shown in Fig.2.55.
1. Weight of the cylinder 100 N acting downwards.
2. Reaction R1 of the cylinder B on the cylinder A.
3. Reaction R2 of the cylinder C on the cylinder A.
Now join the centres O, P and Q of the three cylinders. Bisect PQ at S and
join OS as shown in Fig. 2.55.

Fig. 2.55
From the geometry of the triangle OPS, we find that
OP = 40 + 40 = 80 mm and PS = 90 – 40 = 50 mm

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Since the triangle OSQ is similar to the triangle OPS, therefore is also
equal to 38.7°. Thus the angle between R1 and R2 is 2 × 38.7° = 77.4°. And
angle between R1 and OS (also between R2 and OS) = 180° – 38.7° = 141.3°
The system of forces at O is shown in Fig. 2.56(a). Applying Lami’s equation
at O

R2=R1
R3 = Reaction from the wall on the cylinder B
R4 =Reaction from the floor on the cylinder B

Fig. 2.56 (a)

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Fig 2.56 (b)

Now consider the equilibrium of the cylinder B. It is in equilibrium under the
action of the following forces, which must pass through the centre of the
cylinder as shown in Fig. 2.56 (a).
1. Weight of the cylinder 100 N acting downwards.
2. Reaction R2 equal to 64.0 N of the cylinder A on the
cylinder B.
3. Reaction R3 of the cylinder B on the vertical side of the channel.
4. Reaction R4 of the cylinder B on the base of the channel.
The system of forces is shown in Fig. 2.56 (b). Applying Lami’s equation at
P,

R3 = 64 sin 38.7° = 64 × 0.6252 = 40 N

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Example 2.29
The 12 m boom AB weighs 1 kN, the distance of the centre of gravity G
being 6 m from A. For the position shown in Fig. 2.57. Determine the tension
T in the cable and the reaction at B.

Fig. 2.57
Solution:
The free body diagram of the boom is shown in Fig. 2.58.

Fig. 2.58
ΣMA = 0, gives T sin 15° × 12 – 2.5 × 12 cos 30° – 1 × 6 cos 30° = 0
T = 10.0382 kN.

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∑ H = 0, gives HA – T cos 15° = 0

HA = 9.6962 kN.
∑V = 0, gives
VA = 1 + 2.5 + T sin 15° = 6.0981 kN

RA = 11.4544 kN

Example 2.30
A beam 3 m long weighing 400 N is suspended in a horizontal position by
two vertical strings, each of which can withstand a maximum tension of 350
N only. How far a body of 200 N weight be placed on the beam, so that one
of the strings may just break?
Solution:
The system of given forces is shown in Fig. 2.59

Fig. 2.59
We know that one of the string (say A) will just break, when the tension will
be 350 N. (i.e., *RA= 350 N). Now taking clockwise and anticlockwise
moments about B and equating the same,

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350 × 3 = 200 (3 – x) + 400 × 1.5

1050 = 600 – 200 x + 600 = 1200 – 200 x
200 x = 1200 – 1050 = 150

Example 2.31
A block of weight 120N is kept on a smooth inclined plane as shown in
Fig.2.60. The plane makes an angle of 32° with horizontal and a force F allied
parallel to inclined plane. Compute F and also normal reaction.

Fig. 2.60
Solution:
Draw FBD

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Applying Lami’s theorem to the system of forces

Example 2.32
Determine the horizontal force P to be applied to a block of weight 1500 N to
hold, it in position on a smooth inclined plane AB which makes an angle of
30° with the horizontal Fig. 2.61.

Fig. 2.61
Solution:
Draw FBD

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Applying Lami’s theorem to the system of forces

The above problem may be solved using equations of equilibrium also

Example 2.33
A system of connected flexible cables shown in Fig. 2.62 is supporting two
vertical forces 200 N and 250 N at points B and D. Determine the forces in
various segments of the cable.

Fig. 2.62
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Solution:
Draw FBD

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Example 2.34
Two cylinders, A of weight 4000 N and B of weight 2000 N rest on smooth
inclines as shown in Fig. 2.63 They are connected by a bar of negligible
weight hinged to each cylinder at its geometric centre by smooth pins. Find
the force P to be applied as shown in the figure such that it will hold the
system in the given position.

Fig. 2.63
Solution:
Draw FBD

Applying Lami’s theorem to the system of forces on cylinder A, we get

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Consider cylinder B.
Summation of the forces parallel to the inclined plane (45° to horizontal) = 0,
gives:

Example 2.35
A cable car used for carrying materials in a hydroelectric project is at rest on a
track formed at an angle of 30° with the vertical. The gross weight of the car
and its load is 60 kN and its centroid is at a point 800 mm from the track half
way between the axles. The car is held by a cable as shown in Fig. 2.64 The
axles of the car are at a distance 1.2 m. Find the tension in the cables and
reaction at each of the axles neglecting friction of the track.

Fig. 2.64

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Solution:
Let T be the tension in the cable and the reaction at the pair of wheels be R1
and R2 as shown in Fig. 2.64

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Q. Objective Questions
No.
1 The resultant force of two concurrent forces becomes maximum and
minimum if angle between them is_____
2 Differentiate between Resultant force and Equilibriant
3 A block weighing 10KN rests on an inclined plane of inclination 300
with the horizontal. The magnitude of the component of weight
parallel to inclined plane is _________
4 Define Free body diagram
5 State Conditions of equilibrium for coplanar non concurrent force
system
6 A 500 N force makes an angle of 300 with the Y-axis in second
quadrant. Its x-component is _____________.
7 The resultant of two forces each equal to P acting at right angles is
__________.
8 The process of finding out resultant force is called __________.
9 If the relative position of two points in a body does not change after
the application of external force, the body is said to be _________.
10 Principle of transmissibility of forces is applicable for
_____________.
11 State and prove Lami’s Theorem
12 Lamis theorem can be applied when the maximum number of
unknowns is __________.
13 The equations of equilibrium of coplanar non- concurrent force
system are __________________.
14 What is system of forces? Define Coplanar force system and
concurrent non planar force system.
15 State the conditions of static equilibrium.
16 Define force. Mention the elements of force.

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 Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

Q. Descriptive Questions
No.
1 Determine magnitude, direction and position of the resultant for the
force system acting on the plate as shown in Fig. 1. with respect to ‘A’.

Fig. 1
2 Two cylinders of radii 2m and 1m are placed in a rectangular box as
shown in
Fig 2.

Fig. 2
Neglecting the effect of friction, determine the reactions at contact
surfaces.
3 A string is subjected to the force of 6KN and ‘P’ as shown in Fig.3.
Determine the magnitude of ‘P’ and the tensions induced in the various
portions of the string using Lamis theorem.

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 Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

Fig. 3
4 Two spheres each of radius 100mm and weight 5 KN is in a rectangular
box as shown in Fig.4. Calculate the reactions at all the points of
contact.

Fig. 4

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 Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

5 Determine magnitude, direction and position of the resultant for the

force system acting on the plate as shown in Fig. 5. with respect to ‘A’.

Fig. 5
6 A system of cable is in equilibrium condition under two vertical loads
300 N and 500 N as shown in Fig.6. Determine the forces developed in
the various portions of the string.

Fig. 6

7 Determine the magnitude direction and position of the resultant force

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 Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

for system of forces shown in Fig.7 with respect to point O.

Fig. 7
8 A block of Weight 200N, resting on an inclined plane is in equilibrium
by applying a force ‘P’ as shown in Fig.8 Draw the free body diagram
for the block.

Fig. 8
9 Determine the Moment of 100 N force about A, shown in Fig.9

Fig. 9
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 Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Unit I

10 Draw the Free Body Diagram of sphere shown in Fig. 10 and determine
the reactions at the points of contact using Lamis theorem

Fig. 10

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