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Electronics 3finals

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COLLEGIATE DEPARTMENT

ECE13
Bachelor of Science in ECE

FINAL TERM
Electronics3
Colegio de San Juan de Letran
B A T A A N
COLLEGIATE DEPARTMENT

COURSE COURSE
ELECTRONICS 3 ECE13 UNITS 3.0Lec/ 1.0Lab
TITLE CODE
Bachelor of Science in
Program Faculty Engr. Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT
Electronics Engineering

A. Course Overview
This course teaches the theory and operating characteristics of electronic devices
and control circuits for industrial processes;
Industrial control applications; electronics instrumentation; transducers; and data
acquisition system, interfacing techniques and sensors.
Students are expected to come up with a documentation portfolio showcasing
everything they have learned in the course.

B. Course Objectives
After completing this subject, you should be able to:

1. Apply electronic concepts in the design of control circuits in industrial


applications.

2. Analyze different circuits for electronics instrumentation.

3. Analyze and design interfacing circuits.

4. Familiarize concepts and solve problems on Programmable Logic Circuits.

5. Design interfacing circuits.

6. Design and create simple electronic system that utilizes the devices introduced
in this course.

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C. Course Outline and Timeframe

Week Topic

10 III.Photoelectronics

11 Optoelectronic Devices
Photodiodes
Photocells
12 Industrial Photoelectronic Devices
Optoisolators and Optointerrupters

IV. Input Devices:


13 Sensors
Transducers

Temperatue Sensor
Pressure Sensors
Mechanical Sensor
14 Level Sensors
Speed Sensors
Light Sensors
Position Sensors
15 V. Programmable Logic Controllers

16 VI. Industrial Robots

17 VII. Fire and Life Safety Controls

18 FINAL EXAMINATION

D. Required Readings (Textbook)

• Maloney, Timothy J., Modern Industrial Electronics ,4th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2005
• Satori, Glenn, Industrial Electronics, Prentice Hall, 2006

E. Course Requirements

Attendance, Quizzes, Assignments, Seat Works, Quizzes, Portfolio, Scientific


Calculator, Hand-outs

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F. Grading System

Midterm Grade: Pre-final Grade:

Class Standing - 15% Class Standing - 15%


Long Test - 15% Long Test - 15%
Quizzes - 30% Quizzes - 30%
Midterm Exam - 40% Pre-final Exam - 40%
100% 100%

Final Grade = (Midterm Grade + Pre-final Grade) / 2

G. Online Course Policies

Academic Integrity. Students should not plagiarize text from papers or online resources
written by others.

Online Participation. This course will be conducted entirely online and will sometimes
require video conferencing and other activities that will be announced ahead of time.

Assessment Tasks. Students will be required to complete weekly assignments with


specific due dates.

Emergencies. Students who are affected by an emergency should contact the instructor
at the earliest possible time to make special arrangements.

Copyright. All course materials students receive or to which students have online access
are protected by copyright laws. The course materials attached should be exclusively
used for those who are officially enrolled in class in the Colegio.

H. Consultation Hours

TBA

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Pre-Assessment
Instruction: Select the best answer. Write the complete answer (do not include the
letter) of the chosen answer in a separate sheet of paper. Scanned copy or take a
picture of your answer sheet and submit it to our google classroom account. Don’t
forget to write your name at the upper left most part of your answer sheet. Use A4
bond paper.

1. The specially designed semiconductor diode used as fast counters in


electronic circuits is .
a. Light Emitting Diode
b. Photodiode
c. Photovoltaic Cell
d. Solar Cell

2. Basic heat sensor.


a. Thermostat
b. Radiator
c. Thermistor
d. Terminator

3. What is the effect of light in a photodiode?


a. Reverse current
b. Limits the flow of current
c. Forwards current
d. Renders unstable current

4. In a forward-biased photodiode with increase light intensity, the diode current:


a. Increases
b. Remains constant
c. Decreases
d. None of these

5. It is used for position measurements.


a. Ultrasonic Sensors
b. Photogates
c. Proximity Sensor
d. Magnetic Sensor

6. An optoisolator contains .
a. An infrared LED
b. A photodetector
c. Both an infrared LED and a photodetector
d. None of these

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7. Converts pressure changes into electrical form.
a. Piezoelectric Crystal
b. Microphone
c. Speaker
d. Tactile Transducer

8. The are two of the most common mechanical configuration of industrial


robots.
a. Spherical and pneumatic
b. Articulated and cylindrical
c. Spherical and hydraulic
d. Jointed-arm and electric

9. One advantage of hydraulic actuator in industrial robots include .


a. Great force capability handling heavy loads.
b. Lower operating cost than the other type.
c. Low initial cost than the other type.
d. Clean no oil leaks.

10. A programmable, multifunction manipulator designed to move materials,


parts, tools or specific devices.
a. Industrial Robot
b. Android
c. Actuator
d. End Effector

11. Thermal flowmeters use to sense the temperature of the fluid flowing in the
pipe.
a. a thermocouple
b. a thermistor
c. an RTD
d. None of the above

12. The pulses transmitted upstream in an ultrasonic flowmeter are waves.


a. Electromagnetic
b. Light
c. Sound
d. Infrared

13. A conductive probe is capable of making ____-type measurements.


a. point
b. continuous
c. both a and b
d. neither a nor b

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14. It is any device that converts one form of energy into another.
a. thyristors
b. transducers
c. sensors
d. optoelectronic devices

15. A thermistor has a _____ temperature coefficient.


a. Positive
b. Negative
c. Zero
d. Absolute

*** Nothing Follows***

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ELECTRONICS 3

Module 1
Photoelectronics

Prepared by
Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT

C O L L E G I A T E D E P A R T M E N T
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Module 1
Photoelectronics
Objectives
At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to:
1. Describe the operational theory of the three components that make up a
photoelectric sensor.
2. Familiarize with the operational theory, characteristics, and application
examples of different photoelectric methods of detection.

Introduction

Sensors come in a wide variety, and each type has strengths and weaknesses.
Sensing with light became popular in the 1950s. The early photoelectric systems
consisted of two elements: an incandescent lamp and a light-sensitive resistive
device called a photocell. The lamp was placed so that its light could be projected
across the sensing area to the photocell. These systems had three shortcomings.
First, the bulb lost its intensity and became ineffective as it aged. Second, the
filaments would break if exposed to temperature extremes or high vibration. Third,
in order for the photocell to differentiate between the beam of the lamp and ambient
light, both elements had to be carefully aligned and positioned within a limited
distance. All of these problems were eliminated by the development of the
semiconductor sensing devices presently used.

Lesson 1
Optoelectronic Devices

One of the fast-emerging technology fields that deal with applying electronic
devices to the sourcing, detection and control of light is Optoelectronics.
Telecommunication using fiber optics and X-ray machines in hospitals are a few
illustrations of this technology.

Optoelectronics is the communication between optics and electronics which


includes the study, design and manufacture of a hardware device that converts
electrical energy into light and light into energy through semiconductors. This
device is made from solid crystalline materials which are lighter than metals and
heavier than insulators. Optoelectronics device is basically an electronic device
involving light.

Optoelectronics are classified into different types such as photodiode, solar cells,
light emitting diodes (LEDs), optical fiber, and laser diodes.

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Solar Cell.
A solar cell or photo-voltaic cell is an electronic device that directly
converts sun’s energy into electricity. When sunlight falls on a solar
cell, it produces both a current and a voltage to produce electric
power. Sunlight, which is composed of photons, radiates from the
sun. When photons hit the silicon atoms of the solar cell, they transfer
their energy to lose electrons; and then, these high-energy electron
flows to an external circuit. The first layer is loaded with electrons, so
these electrons are ready to jump from the first layer to the second
layer. The second layer has some electrons taken away, and
therefore, it is ready to take more electrons.

Light-Emitting Diodes.
It is a P-N semiconductor diode in which the recombination of
electrons and holes yields a photon. When the diode is electrically
biased in the forward direction, it emits incoherent narrow spectrum
light. When a voltage is applied to the leads of the LED, the electrons
recombine with the holes within the device and release energy in the
form of photons. This effect is called as electroluminescence. It is the
conversion of electrical energy into light. The color of the light is
decided by the energy band gap of the material. The usage of LED
is advantageous as it consumes less power and produces less heat.
LEDs last longer than incandescent lamps.

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Optical Fiber.
It is a plastic and transparent fiber made of plastic or glass. It can
function as a light pipe or waveguide to transmit light between the
two ends of the fiber.

Optical fibers usually include three concentric layers: a core, a


cladding and a jacket.

The core, a light transmitting region of the fiber, is the central


section of the fiber, which is made of silica.

Cladding, the protective layer around the core, is made of


silica. This creates an opticalwaveguide that limits the light in
the core by total reflection at the interface of the core cladding.

Jacket, the non-optical layer around the cladding, typically


consists of one or more layers of a polymer that protect the
silica from the physical or environmental damage.

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Along with the fiber-optic cable, jackets are available in different
colors. These colors allow the recognition of the fiber-optic cable and
the type of cable one is dealing with.

For example, an orange-color cable clearly indicates a single-mode


fiber, while a yellow one indicates a multimode fiber. In the single-
mode fiber, one mode propagates and the light rays travel straight
through the cable. In a multimode cable, the light rays travel through
the cable following different modes. The advantages of using optical-
fiber cable include their higher bandwidth, less signal degradation,
weightlessness and thinness than a copper wire, costeffectiveness,
flexibility, and hence they are used in medical and mechanical
imaging systems.

Laser Diodes.
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser) is a
source of highly monochromatic, coherent and directional light. It
operates under stimulated emission condition. The function of a laser
diode is to convert electrical energy into light energy like infrared
diodes or LEDs. The beam of a typical laser has 4×0.6mm extending
at a distance of 15 meters.

Lesson 2

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Photodiodes

It is a semiconductor light sensor that generates a voltage or current when light


falls on the junction. It consists of an active P-N junction, which is operated in
reverse bias. When a photon with plenty of energy strikes the semiconductor, an
electron or hole pair is created. The electrons diffuse to the junction to form an
electric field. This device can be used in three modes: photovoltaic as a solar cell,
forward biased as an LED and reverse biased as a photo detector.

Application

In the figure above, the photodiode is employed in an alarm system.


The reverse current Iλ will continue to flow as long as the light beam
is not broken. If the beam is interrupted, Iλ drops to the dark current
level and sounds the alarm.

Lesson 3

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Photocells
Photocell is a two-terminal semiconductor device whose terminal resistance varies
(linearly) with the intensity of the incident light. For obvious reasons, it is frequently
called a photoresistive device. The typical construction of a photoconductive cell
is provided in the figure below.

As the illumination on the device increases in intensity, the energy state of a larger
number of electrons in the structure will also increase because of the increased
availability of the photon packages of energy. The result is an increasing number
of relatively “free” electrons in the structure and a decrease in the terminal
resistance.

Application
One rather simple but interesting application of the device is on
voltage regulator. The purpose of the system is to maintain V o at a
fixed level even though Vi may fluctuate from its rated value. As
indicated in the figure, the photoconductive cell, bulb, and resistor all
form part of this voltage-regulator system. If Vi should drop in
magnitude for any of a number of reasons, the brightness of the bulb
would also decrease. The decrease in illumination would result in an
increase in the resistance (Rλ) of the photoconductive cell to maintain
Vo at its rated level as determined by the voltage-divider rule.

Lesson 4

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Industrial Photoelectronic Devices

PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS
Photoelectric sensors use light to detect the absence or presence of an object.
Detection occurs if a light beam is interrupted or reflected by the object being
sensed. The advantages photosensors are: no physical contact with the target is
required, and the object can be detected at varying distances ranging from one
inch to several hundred feet. Photoelectronic sensors may be divided into three
components: the light source, the light sensor, and the sensor circuitry.

Light Source.
It supplies the light beam, which is transmitted to the light sensor.
The light source is also referred to as an emitter or transmitter. Light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) are used most frequently as light sources.
Semiconductors made of gallium arsenide produce infrared light,
which is invisible to the human eye. Infrared LEDs produce
approximately ten times as much light energy as visible red LEDs.
Table 1.6.1 shows spectrum range that indicates the wavelength of
each type of light generated by LEDs and the uses for the various
LEDs.

Both visible and infrared LEDS are used as the light source for
photoelectric transmitters. Visible LEDs can be monitored visually
during their operation, are easy to align, and are used in applications
where specific colors or contrasts must be detected. Infrared LEDs
produce a stronger light than visible LEDs. Also, photodiodes and
phototransistors used in the sensing component respond only to the
infrared wavelength and not to visible light waves. They are also
popular for security applications because infrared light is invisible.

Light Sensor.
The detector or the receiver detects the absence or presence of an
object. The most common types of light-sensitive components used
for detection are photodiodes and phototransistors. Photodiodes are
linear, operate at high frequencies, and detect reddish visible light
and infrared light waves, while phototransistors amplify, have greater
light sensitivity than photodiodes, operate at much lower speeds, are

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nonlinear, and have large temperature coefficients. Focusing the
waves through a lens, as shown in Figure 1.6.5, can maximize the
amount of light captured by a photodetector.

Sensor Circuitry.
The block diagram of the emitter and detector for the photoelectric
sensor circuitry is shown in Figure 1.6.6 (a).

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Emitter Block.
The amount of light generated by the LED of an emitter is determined by
the amount of current it is conducting. To increase the distance that the
LED emits light, the amount of current must be increased. However,
excessive current levels will cause the LED to become destroyed by
generating too much heat. A technique called modulation provides a way
to prevent the LED from overheating when conducting current at elevated
levels. By tuning the amplifier in the receiver to the frequency of the
modulation, only that frequency is amplified and others are rejected.
(Receiving unwanted signals is called cross talk.) This principle of
operation is similar to the way in which a radio receiver tunes to one station
while rejecting all the other radio waves. In Figure 1.6.6(a), the oscillator
circuit modulates the LED by turning it on and off at a high frequency. The
frequency of the modulated wave ranges from 5 to 40 kHz, depending on
the application. These frequencies are much higher than can be detected
by the human eye. Using an operation called synchronous detection can
maximize the modulation technique. In this method, the emitter and
detector are synchronized so that the receiver is activated to detect the
signal from its own emitter only when the LED is turned on. The waveform
in Figure 1.6.6(b) shows how the detector searches for its own LED when
it is pulsed. Modulation allows the amount of current, and therefore the
amount of emitted light, to far exceed what would be allowed if the LED
were on continuously.

Detector Block.
The detector portion of the sensor in Figure 1.6.6(a) shows that a
phototransistor is used to detect the light. As the light wave strikes the
transistor base, the signal produced is applied to the input of a high-gain
amplifier tuned to the modulated frequency. The output of the amplifier is
demodulated by a filtered rectifier. The demodulation function reduces the
problem of critical alignment, and it allows the sensor to be used in areas
where ambient light levels are relatively high or when dirt, oil, or smoke
obscures the lens. A Schmitt trigger is used to increase the switching speed
for very high-speed applications, for hysteresis, for noise immunity, and for
logic level outputs. The receiving sensor unit is available with or without the
demodulator. A sensor without the demodulator has a gain that is limited
to the point at which the receiver recognizes ambient light. Therefore, it
requires critical alignment because of the long-focal-point lens it uses. In
contrast, a demodulated receiver ignores ambient light and responds only
to the modulated light source. As a result, the gain of the amplifier may be
turned up to a very high level. The high-gain operation reduces the problem
of critical alignment and enables the sensor to detect light effectively even
when its lens is obscured by dirt, oil, or smoke. Some non-demodulated
sensors are also referred to as ambient receivers. They are used to detect
objects that emit their own light, such as red hot metals, hot glass, or
anything that emits infrared light energy that is many times stronger than
ambient infrared light.

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Methods of Detection.
There are several ways in which the light source and receiving elements
can be physically positioned to detect objects. These types of arrangements
are referred to as methods of detection. The mode that is selected is based
on sensing distance, the arrangement that yields the strongest signal, and
mounting restrictions. Selection also depends on the characteristics of the
object to be detected. For example, it is important to know whether the
objects are opaque, translucent, or clear; whether they are highly or slightly
reflective; and whether they are in the same position or randomly positioned
as they pass the sensor.

There are two modes used to detect an object with photoelectronic sensors.
The first mode, referred to as light-to-dark, uses a detector that sees energy
coming from an emitter until it is obstructed by the object it is detecting. The
second mode is referred to as dark-to-light. It uses a detector that looks for
an energy source and sees it either through reflection or when an
obstruction is removed. Most sensing applications rely on one of six
commonly used methods of detection: opposed sensing, retroreflective
sensing, diffuse sensing, convergent sensing, specular sensing, and color-
mark sensing.

Opposed Sensing Method.


The emitter and detector are positioned opposite each other. The
light from the transmitter shines directly at the receiver, as shown in
Figure 1.6.7. Because the target sensed by this method is usually
opaque, the mode of detection is light-to-dark. The object is detected
when it breaks the light beam. To ensure that the target is reliably
sensed, the emitter’s beam must be completely blocked. Since the
emitter shines its light directly at the receiver, maximum light energy
is transmitted to the detection device. This characteristic enables this
sensor to perform some operations better than other sensing
techniques, such as penetrating air that has contaminants,
overcoming lens contamination or misalignment, and providing
longer sensing distances. Opposed sensors are used in applications
that require the detection of small parts, accurate positioning, and
parts counting. Whenever there is an application requiring the
detection of small parts, the size and shape of the beam should be
smaller than the smallest profile that will ever have to be sensed,
while retaining as much lens area as possible. Often, the easiest way
to detect small parts is to reduce the size of the beam by placing an
aperture over the lens. The drawback of using an aperture is that the
transmitted light energy is reduced. The opposed scanning method
is also known as direct scanning, beam break, and through beam.

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Retroreflective Sensing Method.
The retroreflective sensing method (also called retrosensing) is by
far the most popular method of optical sensing. In this system, the
emitter and detector are mounted next to each other in the same
housing. The beam from the transmitter is reflected back to the
receiver by a prismatic retroreflector that is mounted opposite the
sensor unit, as shown in Figure 1.6.8. A good reflector returns up to
3,000 times as much light as does a piece of white paper. This is why
it is easy for a retroreflective sensor to recognize only the light from
its retroreflector. The mode of detection is light-to-dark because the
detection of the target occurs when the light beam is broken.

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Diffuse Sensing Method.
The transmitter and receiver are contained inside the sensor
housing, as with the retro sensor. The target is sensed when its
position is in line with the light beam. As the object is struck by the
transmitter beam, the light is scattered (or diffused), with enough light
being returned to the receiver to indicate its presence. This dark-to-
light mode of detection is opposite to that of the opposed and retro
sensing methods. Figure 1.6.9 shows a diffuse sensor. Because the
light is scattered, only a small percentage of it reaches the receiver.
Therefore the scanning distance is limited.

Convergent Sensing Method.


The convergent sensing method is similar to diffuse sensing. Both
function on the principle of light being diffused from the target. Figure
1.6.10 shows the convergent sensor. The transmitter and receiver
are set at the same angle from the vertical axis to capture the light.
The sensor is designed to detect a target at one set distance. By
using special lenses, the light source from the transmitter is focused
to a narrow depth-offield. (The depth-of-field is the distance on either
side of the sensor’s focus point.) Objects nearer or farther from the
depth-of-field will not activate the sensor.

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The convergent mode should not be used to detect objects that pass
at an unpredictable distance from the sensor. To prevent an
unwanted light reflection from a shiny background surface, the
sensor should be rotated at an angle away from a perpendicular
position. The convergent optical method is also referred to as fixed
focus.

Specular Sensing Method.


It is used to detect objects with mirror-like surfaces. Figure 1.6.11
shows that the transmitter and receiver are placed at equal angles
from the object. To operate effectively, the distance between the
sensor and the target must remain constant. The angle between the
light source and the receiver determines the depth of the sensing
field. With a narrow angle, there is more depth and less accuracy
than when a wide angle is used. In a fill level detection application,
for example, the wider angle between the source and the receiver
provides a more precise measurement. The specular sensing
method is used in applications in which it is necessary to differentiate
between shiny and dull surfaces.

Color-Mark Sensing Method.


It is different from other types of photoelectric sensor methods.
Instead of scanning an object as it passes an inspection point, color-
mark instruments detect the contrast between two colors. The two
colors being sensed can be on the same surface or on separate
objects.

Color marks are used extensively in packaging operations. For


example, they are the reference point for indexing the cutoff location
of packaging materials so that printed information always appears in
the same location. Convergent beam sensors with a visible light are
commonly used to detect the color-mark. The best source of light for
color sensing is white, because it contains all colors. White is
produced by clear LEDs or incandescent lamps. The greatest optical

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contrast is provided when a black color mark is printed on a white
surface. Visible LEDs with a red color are used most frequently to
transmit the light in color-mark applications because they are
spectrally matched to a phototransistor.

Photoelectric Sensor Adjustable Controls


Some types of optical sensors are designed to activate an output when the
monitored light source changes from dark to light, changes from light to
dark, or produces a signal that exists for a different time deviation than when
a target is detected. Figure 1.6.11(a) shows adjustable switches and
potentiometers that can be changed on a sensor to customize its operation
for various application requirements.

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Light/Dark Operation.
Light-operated device is when the sensor turns on if the light level
rises as the target enters the field-of-view, such as with retroreflective
or diffuse optical detectors. To produce an output when the sensor
detects an increase in light intensity, the DK/LT DIP switch on the
sensor is placed in the LT position. For applications that require the
output to activate when the light intensity is reduced, the DIP switch
is placed in the DK position.

Sensitivity.
It is a measure of the amount of change in light intensity that is
required by the optical sensor to produce a switching action at its
output. It is possible to vary the sensitivity of the sensor by making a
potentiometer adjustment to its sensitivity potentiometer (shown in
Figure 1.6.11(a)) that changes the gain of its electronic amplifier
circuitry. The sensitivity setting affects the ability of the sensor to
detect a target.

On-Delay Operation.
When a target is detected, a period of time passes before the output
turns on if the on-delay function of the sensor is activated. Figure
1.6.11(b) graphically shows the on-delay operation. The duration of
the delay is determined by placing the ON DIP switch to the S (short)
or L (long) position, and adjusting the Delay On potentiometer. The
span and the length of time are greater when the DIP switch is in the
L position. If no time delay is desired, the potentiometer should be
adjusted to the minimum setting. Preventing an alarm from turning
on unless a dangerous condition exists for a period of time is an
example of an on-delay operation.

Off-Delay Operation.
Figure 1.6.11(c) graphically shows the off-delay operation. When a
target is detected, the output immediately turns on. When the target
is lost, a period of time passes before the output of the sensor turns
off. The duration of the delay is determined by placing the OFF DIP
switch to the S (short) or L (long) position, and adjusting the Delay
Off potentiometer.

One-Shot Operation.
The function of a one-shot operation is to produce an output for a
duration that is either longer or shorter than the time at which the
target is detected, as graphically shown in Figure 1.6.11(d). The
output is activated when the sensor detects a target, and stays on
for a specific period of time before it automatically turns off. To
operate in the one-shot mode, the ONE SHT DIP switch is placed in

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the ONE SHT position. The time at which the output is on is
determined by the adjustment made to the Delay Off potentiometer.

Photoelectric Package Styles


Photoelectric sensors are available in two package styles: self-contained
and remote. The lenses, LED, photodetector, and electronic circuitry are all
a part of the self-contained package. Cables for providing power and data
transfer are connected to the package. Remote photoelectronic sensors
contain only the optical components of the sensing system. The circuitry for
the sensor is at another location. For this reason, remote sensors can be
placed in smaller and more hostile environments than self-contained
sensors.

In some situations, the space is too confined, the size of the target is too
small, or the environment is too hostile even for remote sensors. For such
applications, fiber-optic conductors may be used. Fiber optics are
transparent strands of glass or plastic that transfer light to and from such
locations. Fiber-optic “light pipes” are capable of conducting light around
corners and operating when exposed to high temperatures or vibration.
They are immune to magnetic noise. Plastic fibers are used in applications
where there is repeated flexing, such as on a reciprocating machine.
However, their drawbacks are that they cannot be exposed to extreme
temperatures, and they can be damaged if exposed to chemicals. Glass
fibers can withstand high temperatures and exposure to chemicals, but they
break if bent too often or too sharply.

Operating Specifications
Data specifications are available for each type of optical sensor. This
information helps the user select the proper sensor by indicating how well it
will operate under certain conditions. The data sheets provide information
on sensitivity, excess gain, field-of-view, and sensor response.

Sensitivity.
It is a measure of the amount of change in light intensity that is
required by the sensor to cause a switching action at its output.
Sensitivity is the combined result of several design factors of the
sensing device, such as: 1.) the amount of amplification incorporated
in the electronic circuitry; 2.) the light power of the LED; and 3.) the
size, shape, and quality of the lens. Each of these variables affects
the operating distance at which the sensor detects a target.

Most photoelectric systems have a sensitivity adjustment mounted at


a convenient location on the enclosure. This adjustment sets the

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level of the phototransistor current at which control action takes
place. It involves making adjustments when the target is in view of
the sensor and when it is not present.

Excess Gain.
It is a measurement of the amount of light energy that falls on the
receiver beyond the minimum amount of light required to operate the
sensor amplifier. In equation form, it is expressed as:

An excess gain of 1× (one times) indicates the minimum amount of


light energy required to cause switching action by the detector. If the
light intensity is twice the minimum amount needed by the detector,
the excess gain value is 2×.

Two factors affect the light energy from the emitter that reaches the
detector: the distance and the environmental conditions between
them. Light intensity seen by the detector decreases as its distance
from the emitter increases. Light is attenuated by obstructions such
as dirt, smoke, and other contaminants.

Contrast.
All photoelectric sensing applications require differentiating between
two light levels received by the detector. These light levels pertain to
the maximum light that shines on the detector (called the light state)
and the minimum light that shines on the detector (called the dark
state). The comparison between the two light levels is referred to as
contrast. Also known as the light-to-dark ratio, it is represented by
the following formula:

Field-of-View.
It is the dispersion angle within which the sensor can effectively
sense light from the emitter. Some sensors are only capable of
detecting a narrow beam within 2 degrees of where the light is aimed.
Other types can sense light that is spread over a wide angle,
exceeding 60 degrees. The broader the field-of-view of a
photoelectric sensor, the easier it is to align. The narrower the field-
of-view, the greater the light intensity becomes, enabling the sensor
to increase its sensing range. Some narrow beam sensors detect
light up to several hundred feet.

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Sensor Response.
The response time of the sensor becomes important whenever
fastmoving objects are sensed. Sensor response time is the
maximum amount of time that elapses from an input transition mode
(light-to-dark or dark-to-light) until the output switches. The required
sensor response time is calculated by the following formula:

The sensor selected for this application must have a switching speed
of at least 50 ms to operate effectively. There is a correlation
between sensor response time and excess gain. As the gain is
increased, its switching speed slows down.

Guidelines for Selecting an Optical Sensing Method


When selecting the most appropriate method for a particular application, the
following operating conditions should be considered:

Size and shape of the target.


The opposed method is often used to detect small objects because
it has a narrow beam. The convergent sensing method is often used
to detect the surface of an object that is not flat.

Distance between the emitter and the detector.


In applications where the emitter and detector are far apart, the
opposed sensing method has the longest range. When detecting an
object at a specific distance, the convergent method is most
effective.

Physical characteristics of the object.


If the object is shiny, place a retroreflective optosensor at a skewed
angle instead of perpendicular. If the object surface is clear, use the
diffuse sensing method.

Unwanted ambient light or background.


Retroreflective sensors with polarized filters should be used when
there is unwanted ambient light present.

Rate of speed at which the target passes the light beam.


The opposed sensing method is often used for fast, repetitive
operations, such as counting gear teeth, because it has a narrow
beam.

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Module Discussion Forum

INSTRUCTION: Post your answer in Google class stream page where this
question is posted. This is a group work.

Questions:

1. Differentiate LED from Photodiode.


2. Define how photoelectronic sensors work.
3. Define the operational theory, characteristics, and application
examples of the following – opposed sensing, diffuse sensing,
specular sensing, retroreflective scanning, convergent and color-
mark sensing – photoelectric methods of detection.

Activity 1
INSTRUCTIONS: Copy and answer the following items below. Write your answer
in a A4 bond paper and scan or take a photo of your output and save all images in
a single file in pdf format. This activity will be compiled together with the remaining
activities.

This activity is a collaborative learning exercises, thus the learners will work as a
group. Each group must consist of a maximum of five (5) students. The activity will
be graded according to its correctness of answer (70%) and presentation (30%).

1. What are the three concentric layers of optical fibers?

2. Infrared LEDs produce _______ light energy than visible LEDs.

3. Phototransistors best respond to ______ light.

4. The _______ detects the absence or presence of an object.

5. To increase the distance that the LED emits light, the amount of current
must be ________.

6. Non-demodulated sensors are also referred to as ______________.

7. ____________ uses a detector that sees energy coming from an emitter


until it is
obstructed by the object it is detecting and ____________ uses a detector
that looks for an energy source and sees it either through reflection or when
an obstruction is removed.

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8. Opposed sensors are used in applications that require ____________.

9. The convergent optical method is also referred to as _____________.

10. ____________________ detect the contrast between two colors.

11. The best source of light for color sensing is _______, because it
contains all colors.

12. What are the two package styles of photoelectric sensors?

13. ___________ are transparent strands of glass or plastic that transfer


light to and from such locations.

14. ______________cannot be exposed to extreme temperatures, and they


can be damaged if exposed to chemicals, while ___________ can
withstand high temperatures and exposure to chemicals, but they break if
bent too often or too sharply.

15. The comparison between the light state and dark state is referred to as
_________.

16. The optical sensing method is capable of detecting clear objects at a


specific distance.

17. What are the different methods of light detection that uses a disk that
looks like a bicycle reflector?

18. What method of light detection uses a series of sensors to form a light
curtain?

19. Fiber-optic cables should be used to perform detection operations under


what conditions?

20. Suppose the diameter of a target is 2 inches, the light beam width is 1⁄2
inch, and the speed of the object is 5 inches per second. What is the
minimum response time required by the sensor?

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Lesson 5
Optoisolators and Optointerrupters

OPTOISOLATORS
The opto-isolator is a device that incorporates many of the characteristics
described in the preceding section. It is simply a package that contains both an
infrared LED and a photodetector such as a silicon diode, transistor Darlington
pair, or SCR. The wavelength response of each device is tailored to be as identical
as possible to permit the highest measure of coupling possible. In Fig. 17.52 , two
possible chip configurations are provided, with a drawing of each. There is a
transparent insulating cap between each set of elements embedded in the
structure (not visible) to permit the passage of light. They are designed with
response times so small that they can be used to transmit data in the megahertz
range.

Two Litronix Opto-isolators

Below are the schematic representations for a photodiode, a photo-Darlington, and


a photo-SCR opto-isolator.

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OPTOINTERRUPTERS
A device similar to the photo-reflector except that the emitter is pointed directly into
the phototransistor. The slotted optical switch can be used to build shaft encoders.
Shaft encoders can give the robot feedback on how far its wheels have turned or
on synchronizing two wheels' velocity. A shaft encoder usually consists of a slotted
optical switch and a striped wheel with a palette of radically alternating holes or
slots on it. The palette of stripes will alternately reflect or not reflect light to the
phototransistor, yielding a pulse-train output. The robot can then tell how far its
wheels have rotated by counting the pulses.

Note:

When using the optointerrupter, make sure that the object that interrupts the
beam can completely block an infrared beam.

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Assessment
Assessment #01: Final Term
(Topics Covered: Module 1)

Remember:
Questions will be uploaded to google classroom a day after the
discussion of module 1 or on the agreed schedule. You are given
time to answer the quiz after it’s uploaded to google classroom. This
is an individual assessment, therefore, individual submission of
answer to google classroom account where this is posted.

Instructions:
Write the problem and show the complete solutions and box your
final answer. Use two decimal places. Write your answer in A4 bond
paper. Use the format (Last Name, MI, First Name) in the upper left
most part of your paper. Scanned copy or take a picture of your
answer and submit it on or before the deadline of submission to our
google classroom account where this quiz is posted.

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ELECTRONICS 3

Module 2
Input Devices: Sensors
& Transducers

Prepared by
Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT

C O L L E G I A T E D E P A R T M E N T

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Module 2
Input Devices: Sensors & Transducers
Objectives
At the end of the discussion of the module the students will be able to:
1. Understand the different types of transducers and sensors as well as on
how those devices operate.

Introduction
There are many variables which affect our everyday lives: speed of a car, velocity
of the wind, temperature of the oven, light level in the room. In most situations
these variables are continuously monitored. It is these variables that are the
feedback used to control the speed of a car, oven temperatures, and light levels.
The elements that sense these variables and convert them to a different output
energy are transducers.

On the other hand, sensors are devices that sense the presence or absence of
objects. The sensors gather information and convert it into a signal that can be
read and/or seen by an observer or a piece of equipment. Sensors are used in
everyday applications such as cars, machines, manufacturing and robotics, and
perform several functions. It can be thought of as an automatic switch. In a factory,
a sensor can be used to detect a problem on the production line and stop the
process automatically. No human intervention is necessary.

There are a large variety of sensors on the market and many types of load devices
to which they can be connected. Unfortunately, not all of the sensors or load
devices are compatible because they either do not use the same types of signals
or operate within different voltage or current ranges. If the voltage and current
requirements are not electrically matched, the sensor or load device either may be
damaged or will not operate properly.

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Lesson 1
Temperature Sensor

TRANSDUCER
A transducer is any device that converts one form of energy into another.
Examples of common transducers include the following:

a. A microphone converts sound into electrical impulses and a loudspeaker


converts electrical impulses into sound (i.e., sound energy to electrical energy
and vice versa).
b. A solar cell converts light into electricity and a thermocouple converts thermal
energy into electrical energy.

Transducers and sensors usually work hand-in-hand. Many sensors consist of a


transducer and the electronics needed to evaluate the transducer’s input and
output. Therefore, a sensor can be defined as a device that receives and responds
to a signal. This signal is produced by some type of energy, such as heat, light,
motion, or chemical reaction that, in many cases, is the output from a transducer.

TEMPERATURE

Temperature Control
Due to kinetic energy, molecules of matter behave in continuous motion and
that molecular movement creates heat known as thermal energy. Thermal
energy is measured in temperature. Thermal equilibrium is attained when
the object’s temperature reaches the elevated temperature. Thermal
movement from hot to cold is called thermodynamics.

Thermodynamic Transfer

Conduction.
The process by which heat is transferred by a solid. The best solid-
material thermal conductors are metals. Some types of nonmetal
solids are insulators.

Convection.
The transfer of heat through fluids such as liquids and gases takes
place since most fluids are poor conductors of heat, thus fluids have
very little thermodynamic transfer through the process of conduction

Radiation.
Thermal energy can also be transferred through a vacuum. Bundles
of energy are radiated away from atoms in the heat source as

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wavelike patterns that travel at the speed of light. Radiated heat
transfer also takes place through air.

Thermal Energy Source


There are several common types of thermal energy sources used in
industrial applications. It includes hot and cold temperature systems
such as:

Industrial Furnaces.
The most common heat source for many manufacturing operations
is the furnace. It is usually made up of metal and brick because these
materials will withstand high temperatures. Industrial furnaces
provide high temperatures to harden metals by a process called heat
treating. These furnaces are also designed to melt materials, such
as iron in a foundry.

Combustion Furnace
The most common heat source in industry is the combustion furnace.
It usually combines fossil fuel and oxygen at a high temperature to
produce heat.

Electric Furnaces
Furnaces can also be heated by electricity. There are three types of
electrical heating systems commonly used in industry: arc,
resistance, and induction.

Arc Furnaces.
The arc furnace is used in the process of smelting steel in a foundry.
The voltage is applied by connecting one power supply terminal to
an electrode and the other terminal to a crucible made of a
conductive material such as graphite.

Resistance Furnaces.
Resistance furnaces use heating elements similar to those in a
kitchen oven. The element has large resistance, which produces
heat when current flows through. The elements are placed inside
an insulated chamber where all surfaces of the object or material
being heated are uniformly exposed to heat.

Induction Furnaces.
Induction furnaces are also used to melt metals. Again, insulated
chambers are used to hold the work to be heated. Coils of wire are
wrapped around the chamber and AC current is applied. A magnetic
field constantly expands and contracts around the coils. As the field
sweeps across the iron, an eddy current is induced, which causes
molecules to move around. As the molecules shift positions, an
intense heat results in a very short period of time.

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Cooling Systems
The most common type of refrigeration system is the household
refrigerator. Refrigeration systems are used in the food processing
industry to keep perishable products at low temperatures. In Figure
7-8, the refrigeration system is illustrated.

The refrigeration system consists of a compressor, a condenser, a


capillary tube, an evaporator, and two fans. The compressor is the
device that pumps the refrigerant throughout the system. The freon
in liquid form enters the capillary tube through a port with a small
diameter. As the freon leaves the small capillary tube, it enters a
larger tube called the evaporator. The sudden increase in tube size
creates an abrupt drop in pressure which causes the liquid freon to
evaporate into a gas and cool down. As the cold gas flows through
the evaporation coils, it absorbs heat from the contents in the
refrigerator compartment. The heat energy transfer is assisted by an
evaporator fan. As the compressor runs, it creates a suction and
draws the warmer gas into its inlet port. The condenser is a radiator
that releases heat from the warm freon flowing through the tubes to
the outside. The heat transfer is assisted by the fan that blows air
over the condenser coils.

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Temperature Scales

Fahrenheit Scale.
The first temperature scale that was developed in the early 1700s by
Gabriel Fahrenheit.

Celsius Scale.
Developed was designed by Anders Celsius

Differential Temperature
The difference between two temperature measurements is used in
some applications. Comparing one temperature to another is called
differential temperature. The relative efficiency is calculated using
the formula:

ELECTRONIC SENSORS
2 Types of Electronic Sensors

i. Thermoresistive sensors
Thermistors and resistance temperature detectors - change
resistance as the ambient temperature varies.

ii. Thermoelectric sensors


Thermocouples - produce a voltage proportional to the surrounding
temperature.

Thermistor
The thermistor exhibits a large change in electrical resistance when
subjected to a relatively small change in temperature. Temperature
variations can be caused either by a change in the ambient
temperature external to the thermistor or, internally, by a change in

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the current through the thermistor. Figure 7-9 shows the construction
of a thermistor.

As the temperature rises, the thermal activity of the atom increases.


Valence electrons gain sufficient energy to break away from the
atoms. The electrons become free to take part in current that flows
through the material. As temperature increases, more electrons
become available and the resistance of the material decreases. This
characteristic of the thermistor is called a negative temperature
coefficient.

Temperature Measurement
To find out the temperature measurement of a thermistor,
temperature measuring voltage divider can be used. Figure 7-10
illustrates the circuit of a temperature measuring voltage divider.

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In measurement instruments, this resistance is often converted into
a voltage reading by using a voltage divider as part of a voltage
divider network. As temperature increases, the thermistor resistance
decreases. Therefore, the voltage across the resistor increases. If a
meter with a scale that reads temperature is placed across the output
terminals, its reading will increase as temperature increases. The
output voltage as a function of temperature can be expressed by the
following formula

Temperature Compensation
To offset the temperature-resistance changes, the negative
coefficient properties of a thermistor can be used. A thermistor can
be used to compensate for the resistance change of the coil as
shown in Figure 7-11. The resistance of the thermistor changes
significantly more than that of the coil over the same temperature
range. By placing a shunt resistor of the proper value across the
thermistor, the equivalent resistance of the parallel network provides
a negative coefficient nearly equal to the positive coefficient of the
copper.

Resistance Temperature Detectors


The resistance of electrical conductivity metals varies directly with
temperature. Therefore, metals have a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC). This means that as their temperature increases,
their resistance increases. Some types of metals are used in a
temperature-sensing device called a resistance temperature
detector (RTD). Two metals commonly used in RTDs are nickel and
platinum.

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RTDs are constructed by placing a coil of fine wire inside a housing,
shown in Figure 1.7.12a, to protect it from outside contamination. By
connecting an RTD in series with a resistor, a constant voltage
source, and a voltmeter, changes in temperature at the RTD can be
determined by measuring a change in the voltage. RTDs are also
constructed by placing a thin film on a ceramic substrate, as shown
in Figure 1.7.12b. A laser beam is used to burn away the film until its
resistance is at a prescribed value. The complete assembly is then
sealed in a protective enclosure.

RTD Applications

Overcurrent Protection.
The positive temperature coefficient characteristics of an RTD make
it an ideal overcurrent protection device. During normal operating
conditions, the RTD resistance is low. Therefore, its effect on current
flow is minimal. When a short circuit or an overcurrent condition
occurs, the RTD resistance goes high and limits the current to a low
level.

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Motor Starting.
A single-phase AC motor has a start winding and a run winding that
are connected in parallel branches. After the motor is running, the
start winding should not be used. At full speed, a centrifugal switch
opens the branch with the start coil. An RTD is used to replaces the
centrifugal switch. At ambient temperature, the initial resistance of
the RTD is about 100 ohms. It allows sufficient current to flow through
the start winding when the motor starts. By the time the motor is at
full speed, the RTD is heated and its resistance is high. This reduces
the current flow through the start winding to near zero.

Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a transducer that converts heat into voltage. The
amount of voltage developed by a thermocouple junction is affected
by the amount of heat applied to it. The higher the temperature, the
greater the voltage produced. The voltage–temperature
characteristics of a thermocouple are nonlinear over its rated
temperature range. Equal changes of temperature at the low end of
its rated working temperature range produce different output
voltages than do equal changes of temperature at its high end.

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The junction exposed to the temperature to be measured, as shown
in Figure 1.7.15 is called the hot junction. The other junction in the
loop is called the cold junction. The output voltage that appears
across the opening will be proportional to the temperature difference
between the junctions. If the temperature of one of the junctions is
known, the voltage across the opening can be used to calculate the
temperature of the other junction. The cold junction is considered the
reference junction in a thermocouple because the temperature
applied to it is a known value. A temperature display instrument is
usually connected across the open leads. The value it displays is
determined by the voltage.

There are several different methods, used to join the thermocouple


wires at the junction, include twisting, soldering, brazing, and
welding, as shown in Figure 1.7.16.

There are devices that perform automatic compensation for


thermocouples which are commercially available. They are called
cold junction compensators. In recent years, computers have also
been used to compensate thermocouples. They have become
standardized by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
and are identified by letter designations. The more common types
include:

Iron–Constantan (Type J).


This type is suggested for applications in which reducing atmospheres
exist. A reducing atmosphere refers to a reduced level of oxygen in the air.
If the air has a high level of oxygen combined with a high temperature,
certain metals, especially iron, will become oxidized. Therefore, a
thermocouple with iron as one of its metals should only be exposed to a
reducing atmosphere, otherwise it will deteriorate at an accelerated rate.

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Copper–Constantan (Type T).
The copper produces the positive voltage and the constantan produces the
negative voltage. This type is used in low-temperature applications. It is
capable of resisting moisture and is effective when exposed to reducing
atmospheres and oxidizing conditions.

Chromel–Alumel (Type K).


The chromel produces the positive voltage and the alumel produces the
negative voltage. This type is recommended for high-temperature
applications and can be used in high-oxidizing conditions, but not reducing
atmospheres.

Chromel–Constantan (Type E).


The chromel produces the positive voltage and the constantan produces
the negative voltage. This type has the highest sensitivity because it
produces the highest output and can be used over a wide range of
temperatures. It should not be used in applications with reducing
atmospheres.

Platinum–Rhodium, Platinum (Types R, S, and B. The difference


depends on the ratios of the two metals.)
The combined metals produce the positive voltage and the pure platinum
produces the negative voltage. These types are recommended for very
high-temperature measurements in which an oxidizing atmosphere exists
and high accuracy is required.

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Radiation Thermometry
Most temperature instruments are invasive devices that make
physical contact with the solids, liquids, or gases being measured.
However, it is also possible to take temperature readings without
making physical contact by using a noninvasive device. A method
called radiation thermometry infers temperature by measuring the
thermal energy radiated from the surface of the measured body. The
instrument used to make these readings is usually referred to as a
radiation pyrometer.

The principle of operation of radiation thermometry is based on the


basic law of physics, which states that every object at a temperature
above absolute zero radiates electromagnetic energy. The frequency
range of the electromagnetic waves includes visible light and lower
frequency infrared light. As the temperature of the object changes,
the frequency also changes.

Optical Pyrometers.
The optical pyrometer is shown in Figure 7-17(a). A viewfinder is
positioned to allow observance of the target and the filament of a light
bulb at the same time, as shown in Figure 7-17(b). The object being
measured is compared to the brightness of the filament. A current
adjustment is made by the operator until they are both the same
intensity, at which time the filament visually disappears into the
background. When the brightness of both objects is equal, their
temperatures are also the same.

Ratio Pyrometers.
At all temperatures, the target object radiates energy at different
frequencies. Most pyrometers measure the dominant waves with the
most energy. The ratio pyrometer differs from other pyrometers by

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taking measurements of two different frequencies emitted by an
object. First, the radiant energy of a blue wavelength is passed
through a blue filter and its power strength is measured. Then the
radiant energy of a red wavelength is passed through a red filter and
measured. These measured values, along with the actual lengths of
blue and red magnetic waves, are used in the following formula to
determine a ratio quantity:
Red Wavelength = 1.0
Blue Wavelength = 0.8
RP = Power Reading of Red Wavelength
BP = Power Reading of Blue Wavelength

Lesson 2
Pressure Sensors

Pressure
Pressure is measured as force per unit area. In the English system, force is
measured in pounds, and unit area for pressure measurements is the square inch.
Therefore, pressure is commonly expressed in terms of pounds per square inch,
or psi. Pressure is defined mathematically by the following formula:

Properties of a Liquid

Viscosity.
The ability of a liquid to flow and take the shape of a container. The pressure
exerted by products or ingredients in liquid form must be closely monitored
and controlled. The amount of pressure is affected by several factors:

Height.
The term head is commonly used to describe the height of a liquid above
the measurement point. Head is given in inches, feet, or other units of
distance.

Weight.
Different liquids have different weights due to their density. Density is
defined as the weight of a certain volume of liquid, expressed in pounds
per unit volume.

Hydrostatic Pressure.

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The pressure exerted by a material in a vessel is directly proportional to its
height times its weight. This pressure is created from the weight of the
material itself. The force that is produced by the material is called
hydrostatic pressure, or head pressure. The formula for hydraulic pressure
is:

Specific Gravity.
If a liquid other than water is in the container, calculations may be made for
its specific gravity (SG). Specific gravity of a liquid indicates how much
lighter or heavier it is compared to water at 60 degrees Fahrenheit.

Temperature.
Increasing the temperature expands the liquid (i.e., its molecules move
farther apart) and reduces its density. However, the amount of pressure also
depends whether the liquid is in open or closed vessel.

Atmospheric Pressure.
Increasing the temperature expands the liquid (i.e., its molecules move
farther apart) and reduces its density. The higher the elevations, the lesser
the atmospheric pressure.

Properties of Gas
There are also several factors affecting the pressure of a gas. These are the
following:

Temperature of the Gas.


As the temperature of the gas increases, its molecules move more rapidly
and collide more frequently in a given span of time. The result is that the
pressure increases proportionately with the rise in temperature.

Volume of the Gas Container.


By decreasing the space between the molecules, a proportionately greater
number of collisions will occur in a given span of time, resulting in a higher
pressure.

Gas Removal from a Container.


If any gas is removed from a sealed container, its pressure will become less
than the atmospheric pressure surrounding the vessel.

Pressure Measurement Scales

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There are four basic scales, each distinguished by the reference pressure used.
Instruments that measure pressure use one of these scales:

Gage Pressure Scale.


Instruments with the gage pressure scale use atmospheric pressure as the
reference point. If the sensing element is exposed to the atmosphere, the
measurement scale records zero. The units of measurement are recorded
in psig (pounds per square inch, gage).

Absolute Pressure Scale.


Instruments that use the absolute pressure scale are referenced to absolute
zero, or the complete absence of pressure. Since it is not possible to have
a pressure less than a vacuum, absolute pressure readings are only positive
values. If the sensing element is exposed to the atmosphere at sea level,
the measurement scale will read 14.7 pounds per square inch. The units of
measurement are recorded in psia (pounds per square inch, absolute).

Differential Pressure Scale.


Pressure readings are also measured in units of differential pressure, given
in psid (pounds per square inch, differential), or ΔP. Differential pressure is
used to express the difference in pressure between two measured
pressures.

Vacuum Pressure Scale.


Instruments that measure a vacuum use a scale that begins at atmospheric
pressure, just as gage pressure, but works its way down to a vacuum. In
the United States, the most common vacuum scale is listed in units of
inches of mercury (in Hg).

Electronic Pressure Sensors

Semiconductor Strain Gauges.


The strain gauge is used to detect the strain on a body caused by force.
This device is typically constructed with a Wheatstone bridge arrangement.
Figure 7-1 shows both the schematic and exploded views of strain gauge.
The four resistive elements that make up the bridge network are made of
piezoelectric semiconductors. The elements are bonded to a pressure-
sensitive diaphragm. A pressure change causes the elements to expand. A
compressive strain on the diaphragm will cause the element to contract.
The distortion of the elements produces a differential resistance change,
which is measured by applying a constant excitation voltage to the bridge.
The diaphragm deflection is an analog output voltage up to 250 millivolts
proportional to pressure. Without pressure, the bridge output is 0 volts
because the four elements are balanced.

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Transverse Voltage Strain Gauge.
The transverse voltage strain gauge is a configuration developed by
Motorola. Figure 7-2 shows the top view of the sensor element. Current
passes through a semiconductor piezo resistor from pins 1 to 3. Pressure
that stresses the diaphragm is applied at a right angle to current flow. The
deflection of the diaphragm causes the resistor element to bend. As it does,
a transverse electric field is developed that is sensed as voltages at pins 2
and 4, which are located at the midpoint of the resistor. The advantage of
this type of strain gauge is that it uses only one element. A single element
eliminates the need to closely match the four stress and temperature-
sensitive resistors of a Wheatstone bridge design. It also simplifies the
additional circuitry necessary to accomplish calibration and temperature
compensation.

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Variable Capacitor Pressure Detector.
The variable capacitor pressure detector uses two conductive plates
oriented adjacent to each other and separated by air. Figure 7-3 shows that
one plate is fixed and the other plate is positioned by an elastic element,
such as a bellows. It works on the principle that the capacitor’s value is
changed by changing the distance between the plates. As the measured
pressure varies, it changes the shape of the element and causes the plate
to move either closer to or farther away from the fixed plate. The change in
capacitance is translated electronically into a control signal that represents
the measured pressure.

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Pressure Control Systems

Hydraulic Systems.
Many types of machinery used in the manufacturing industry are powered
by hydraulic pressure. Figure 7-4 shows an oil-based fluid which is used the
most among all types of hydraulic systems. The illustration shows a double-
acting hydraulic system that controls a punch press.

The figure shows a motor-driven rotary pump as the energy source of the
system. It converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. With each
revolution of the pump, a fixed amount of hydraulic fluid enters the inlet port
from the reservoir. The liquid is set into motion by being forced through the
outlet port into the system through transmission pipes or flexible tubing. This
outlet port is called the pressure line.

As fluid flows through the system, it encounters resistance due to friction


from surface areas of the transmission lines and from various components.
The pressure is developed as fluid is forced against the surface areas.
Indicator instruments such as pressure gauges and flowmeters are placed
throughout the system to show different operating conditions, or to monitor
the components in order to show they are functioning properly.

The directional control valve, or four-way valve, alters the directional flow
path of the fluid. It consists of a valve body with four internal passages and
a sliding spool that connects and disconnects the passages. The double-
acting cylinder is used to control a punch press and serves as the load
device of the system. It performs work by changing the mechanical energy
of hydraulic fluid into linear motion that moves the ram of the press. The
hand shutoff is a flow control valve. By turning the knob, the amount of fluid
flow in both directions can be adjusted between maximum flow and no flow.
When the valve is fully open, maximum fluid will flow; when fully closed, no

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fluid will flow. A pressure relief valve is connected between the pump output
port and the reservoir. It consists of a valve body and a spool that is biased
by a spring. When the pressure at the pump end of the spool opposite the
spring is high enough, the spool is pushed open. A path is created for flow
between the pump and the tank.

Pneumatic Systems
Figure 1.7.5 shows a pneumatic system that operates a hand tool. An air
compressor unit serves as the energy source of the system. It forces
surrounding air into a tank under pressure. The tank where the compressed
air is stored serves as a reservoir until it is eventually distributed into the
system when needed.

A feedline from the tank provides air for distribution throughout the plant.
Solid pipes, tubing, and flexible hoses can be used to transmit pressure in
the system. The air is not recirculated and returned to the tank. Instead, it
is released from the system back into the atmosphere. Before the air enters
the compressor, it must first be conditioned.

The filter and lubricator at the inlet of the compressor and a metal jar
exhaust collects moisture from oil vapors produced by the lubricator. The
pressure gauge monitors system pressure. The pressure relief valve vents
air into the atmosphere if the pressure in the system becomes excessive.
The check valve prevents high air pressure from returning to the
compressor from the tank due to backflow. The tank is a reservoir that holds
pressurized air for intermittent usage. The pressure regulator is a variable
pressure valve that operates by restricting and blocking flow to the working
portion of the circuit. The actuating speed of the load can be regulated to
different speeds by adjusting the flow control setting of the valve. The
pneumatic system operation is monitored by pressure indicators placed at
strategic locations. Their readings provide information on system operation
and troubleshooting.

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Vacuum Systems
Any enclosed space containing air or other gas at a pressure lower than
atmospheric pressure is defined as a vacuum. Figure 7-6 illustrates a
diagram of an On/Off cycling vacuum system such that all of the
components and pipes are enclosed and isolated from the outside
atmosphere. A vacuum pump removes air from the system. A storage tank
is used to accumulate vacuum for on-demand power needs. The vacuum
pressure in the tank is monitored by a measuring sensor. If the vacuum
pressure that is measured is not great enough, the sensor develops a signal
that turns the pump on. The vacuum pressure lowers when actuator devices
pull air into the system as they perform work, or from any leaks that may
develop in the system. When the sensor detects that the vacuum pressure
has reached a preset level, its output signal changes and turns off the pump.

A vacuum relief valve provides protection from an excessive vacuum


condition. The check valve installed between the vacuum pump and the
tank allows airflow out of the tank. This one-directional component prevents
the backflow of air into the tank. An intake filter is used to prevent foreign
particles such as dust or sand from entering the pump mechanism.

The vacuum system performs work by creating a pressure differential


between the airtight surfaces of the equipment. As controlled actuators
open vents, the outside air creates a mechanical force as it is sucked into
the system. This force is able to produce different types of work operations.
The actuator in this system is an injector device that fills a bottle with liquid.
The filling operation is much faster because the liquid is literally forced into
the bottle, rather than filling because of gravity.

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Static Pressure Systems
Static pressure systems are also referred to as hydrostatic. They are used
for industrial applications where fluids are distributed during the
manufacturing process. The pressure developed is the result of the fluid
source elevated above the working section of the system. The fluid is
usually held in a storage tank where it is stored until it is needed. The depth
and density of the fluid develop a force at the bottom of the tank called static
head. When the fluid is released, this pressure is required for the distribution
of fluids to locations throughout the system.

Steam Pressure Systems


Steam Pressure Systems is used as a heat source for food processing,
chemical processing, refining, or simply for warming the plant facility. Steam
pressure is developed by applying heat to water. Water is transformed into
a vapor, which creates a pressure as it expands throughout the system.

In Figure 1.7.7, tubes that contain water are placed inside a sealed metal
chamber that is heated by a furnace unit. The tubes are exposed to high
temperatures by the surrounding air inside the chamber. As the water inside
the tubes is heated, it changes into pressurized steam, which is then forced
through pipes and tubes that serve as transmission lines. As the steam

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flows throughout the system during the production process, its pressure and
flow are controlled by directional and flow control valves. Pressure gauges
monitor the steam at strategic locations and may provide proportional
electrical signals as input data to control equipment for automation
purposes. The pressure in a steam system can be described as head
pressure.

Lesson 3
Mechanical Sensors

Mechanical sensors form a class of sensors that are sensitive to changes in


mechanical properties. These sensors are used to measure variables such as
position, velocity, acceleration, force, pressure, levels (such as a liquid in a tank),
and flow.

These devices detect some form of mechanical deformation and translate the
deformation into an electrical signal. The mechanical deformation can occur due
to a variety of stimuli. Mechanical sensors are one of the most commonly used
classes of sensors for biomechatronic applications.

Force Sensors.
Can be used to detect tensile, compressive, shear, torsional,
bending, or frictional forces.

Touch Sensors.
Are devices which measure the parameters of contact between the
sensor and an object. Touch sensors measure a contact force at a
defined point. Tactile sensors detect and measure the spatial
distribution of forces perpendicular to a predetermined sensory area
and interpret the spatial information.

Acoustic Sensors.
Rely on the detection of mechanical, or acoustic, waves. As an
acoustic wave propagates through or across the surface of a
material, the velocity and/or amplitude of the wave changes. It can
also be used to detect or potentially distinguish between different
sounds.

Inertial Sensors.
These sensors, such as accelerometers or gyroscopes, sense static,
and dynamic acceleration or angular acceleration, respectively.

Accelerometers.

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It measure the vibration or acceleration of motion of an object. An
accelerometer contains a piezoelectric material which, when
compressed, produces an electrical charge that is proportional to
the applied force.

Gyroscopes.
Help to monitor the orientation of an object in motion.

Piezoresistive Sensors.
Respond to changes in pressure, bending, or force.
Piezoresistive sensors rely on the changes in resistance that
occurs when a mechanical load is imposed on a conductor or
semiconductor. Mathematically, the relationship can be
expressed as

where Δ R is the change in resistance, R0 is the unstressed


resistance, and α is the piezoresistive coefficient (m2/N).
Piezoresistive sensors are commonly used for pressure
detection or as strain sensors. Strain sensors detect how
much a component changes in length under a load.

Lesson 4
Level Sensors

A level sensor is a device that is designed to monitor, maintain, and measure liquid
(and sometimes solid) levels. Once the liquid level is detected, the sensor converts
the perceived data into an electric signal. Level sensors are used primarily in the
manufacturing and automotive industries, but they can be found in many
household appliances as well, such as ice makers in refrigerators.

Methods of Measurement
Level is measured by locating the boundary between two media, called the
interface. The media can be liquid and gas, liquid and liquid, liquid and solid,
or solid and gas. Level can be measured directly or indirectly.

Direct Method.
• It includes measuring with a float or a dipstick.
• Direct measurement devices are also referred to as invasive
devices because the sensor is in direct contact with the material.

Indirect Method.

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• The indirect method, also known as inferred measurement which
means that a variable other than level is measured and used to infer,
or indicate, a level measurement through any conversion method.
• Indirect measurement devices are also referred to as noninvasive
devices because no part of the sensor comes in contact with the
material.

Point Level Measurements


Point level measurements detect if the interface is at a predetermined point.
Generally, this type of detection is used to signal either a low-level limit
when a vessel needs to be refilled or a high-level limit beyond which a
vessel will overflow. The output of point level measurement devices typically
produces On-Off or 1- or 0-state digital signals.

Continuous Level Measurements


Continuous level measurement locates the interface point within a range of
all possible levels at all times. The output of continuous level-measurement
devices typically produces an analog signal between 4 and 20 mA, which is
both proportional and linear to the level. The electrical signal can be
converted into information that represents various quantitative values used
to indicate levels. They include:

Height: In units of feet or meters


Percentages: Percent full or percent of measured span
Volume: In gallons, cubic feet, or liters
Weight: In pounds, tons, or kilograms

Electronic Sensors
Electronic level sensors are devices that use a change in level to change
an electrical property. The three main types of electronic level sensors are:

Conductive Probes
Conductive probe sensors are used in single- or multiple-point
measurement systems to detect the presence of a conductive liquid.

Figure 1.8.12 illustrates the terminal housing of a conducting probe,


which contains the controller and two projecting electrodes. A low AC
voltage is applied to the electrodes as they are immersed in the
liquid. The conductive liquid completes the electrical circuit of the
control, which activates a semiconductor switch. When the level
drops below the shortest electrode, the circuit opens, and the current
flow stops.

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On the other hand, Figure 1.8.13 shows a conductive probe with 5
probes. It shows that by adding more probes, signals can be sent to
a controller that automatically supplies liquid to the container. These
signals will activate an alarm if the level becomes too high or too low.

Capacitive Probes
Capacitive probes are used for continuous level measurement. The
principle of operation is based on the theory of capacitance which
states that the value of a capacitor can be changed by varying the
size of one or more plates or by changing the dielectric. The probe
and the metal wall of the tank form the two plates of a capacitor, and
the contents in the tank is the dielectric. When a nonmetallic tank is
used, a second electrode—referred to as a counterelectrode—is
used. Air has a dielectric constant of 1, which means that most other
materials will store a greater charge. As the dielectric constant value
increases, the capacitance also increases. As the material in the tank

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rises, the higher the capacitance that develops. The capacitance is
directly proportional to the level of the measured contents.

Ultrasonic Sensors
The ultrasonic sensor is another type of continuous level detector.
Ultrasonic sound waves (above the frequency heard by humans) are
developed by an oscillator. They are emitted by a transmitter toward the top
surface of the medium and are reflected back to the ultrasonic signal
receiver. The time it takes the waves to travel from the transmitter to the
target surface and back to the receiver is measured. The time lapse
between transmission and detection is proportional to the distance. This
data is calculated electronically and converted into a liquid-level
measurement.

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Most analog sensors have the capability of varying the range by performing
a calibration procedure. The desired minimal distance at which the target is
placed from the sensor is called the zero calibration setting. At this distance,
the following types of sensors will produce its minimum output value:

Voltage Sensor: 0 V
Current Sensor: 4 mA

The desired maximum distance at which the target is placed from the sensor
is called the span calibration setting. At this distance, the following types of
sensors will produce its maximum output value:

Voltage Sensor: 10 V
Current Sensor: 20 mA

Lesson 5
Speed Sensors
Speed is measured using different kinds of sensors operating on different
principles. The speed sensor, an essential component for the operation of several
on-board systems, allows the magnetic rotation speed to be measured in order to
provide a voltage corresponding to the rotation speed. Below are some of the
various kinds of principles employed in speed sensors.

Variable Reluctance Speed Sensors.


Variable Reluctance (VR) sensors convert mechanical motion to electric
energy without direct contact when positioned near a gear, shaft, rotor, or
other regularly moving device. The output signal can be fed electronic
circuit. The sensor provides a uncomplicated, accurate, reliable,
inexpensive transducer for highly sophisticated control systems.

Variable Reluctance sensor consists of a coil of wire wound around a


cylindrical magnetic material, typically a ferrous material and is referred to
as a pole piece. A magnet is attached behind the pole piece, creating a
magnetic field through the pole piece and winding. This magnetic field
projects out from the pole piece front, also known as the sensor tip.

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As the ferromagnetic material, e.g., gear teeth, flywheel or other target
features, pass by the sensor tip, the magnetic field is disrupted. The amount
of magnetic flux passing through the magnet, and consequently the coil, to
varies. Due to the time varying flux, a voltage is induced in the coil.

When the target feature is moved close to the sensor, i.e. the air gap
between the sensor and the target is reduced, the flux increases. When the
target is moved further away, the flux reduces. Thus, the motion of the target
feature results in a time-varying flux that induces a proportional voltage in
the coil. The amplitude and frequency of the induced voltage is proportional
to the speed of the target feature.

This voltage signal is fed to the electronic circuitry that processes it to output
the signal in the desired format. Typical applications of these sensors
are the measurement of speed of gear tooth (in Crankshaft, Camshaft)
and sensing the turbine speed of a jet engine.

Advantages.
a. Variable reluctance sensors are passive sensors as they don’t require
external power supply.

b. As the wire and magnets used are pretty inexpensive, these sensors
are low cost sensors.

c. They are light weight, robust and can work in harsh(high temperature
and high vibration) environments

Disadvantages.

a. Target material must be ferrous only.

b. As the magnitude of the induced voltage in these sensors is proportional


to target speed, it becomes difficult to design circuitry appropriate for very
low speed signals. Thus Variable Reluctance sensors have a definite lower
limit on the speed of the target.

c. Though sensors themselves are cheap, the cost advantage is offset by


the additional electronic circuitry required to process the low amplitude
induced voltages.

Hall Effect Speed Sensors.


Hall Effect speed sensor uses a Hall Effect transducer element between the
magnet and the target. As in VR sensors, the induced flux due to movement
of the target is detected. But, a Hall transducer is sensitive only to the
magnitude of flux; it does not sense its rate of change.
Hall Effect speed sensors overcome the limitation of VR sensors of lower
speed limit. Hall Effect speed sensors can detect targets moving at

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arbitrarily slow speeds, or even the presence or absence of non-moving
targets. It supports zero speed sensing. The target material can be either
ferrous or magnetic.

Advantages
a. Signal processing electronics is often integrated into the same package
as the transducer.

b. Most Hall Effect speed sensors directly provide a digital output signal
that is directly compatible with digital logic, microcontrollers, and PLC’sThis
reduces the amount of pickup from interference sources, and makes Hall
Effect speed sensors highly immune to Electromagnetic Interference
induced malfunctions and failures.

c. Available sensors support operating temperature ranges of –40°C to


+150°C.

Eddy Current Speed Sensors.


Eddy Currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes
perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the coil’s
winding and the flow is limited to the area of the inducing magnetic field.
The principle of operation of eddy current sensors is as follows:

Applied alternating current fed to the coil induces a primary magnetic field.
Primary magnetic field induces eddy currents in the electrical conducting
material (in vicinity of the coil). Eddy currents, in turn, induce secondary
field. This secondary magnetic field has an effect on the coil impedance.
Presence or absence of the conducting material alters the secondary field
and in turn, the coil impedance. Change in the coil impedance can be
measured to detect the presence, absence and the rate of presence of the
conducting material/body.

Eddy Current principle is utilized in speed sensors the same way as


Variable reluctance or Hall Effect. However, they need a preamplifier or a
signal conditioner to operate. When a target is present, eddy currents are

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formed causing decrease in signal amplitude. The preamplifier
demodulates the signal, detects the changes in voltage and produces an
output whose frequency is directly proportional to the target speed, e.g,
number of blades, teeth, etc.

Eddy Current Sensors have been in use in speedometers of cars


/motorcycles since long. While in motion, a speedometer cable (with a small
magnet) turns. Magnetic field of the magnets is influenced by an aluminium
cup coupled with the analogue speedometer pointer. As the wheel moves,
cable turns, magnetic field interaction takes place eddy currents are
generated, primary and secondary magnetic field exerts a torque on the cup
coupled with the pointer.

Advantages
a. Near zero speed response

b. No magnetic drag

c. Relatively large air gaps

d. Ability to sense non-ferrous metals as well as ferrous metals.

Radar Doppler Speed Sensors.


Echo of a radar signal sent toward a moving target will have its frequency
shifted and the shift in the frequency is related to the velocity of the moving
target. This occurs due to Doppler Effect.

When the target is approaching, the Doppler shift will be more and when
target is moving away, Doppler shift increases. The phenomena are used
to measure the velocity of the target.

An example of Doppler radar is speed gauges (also called Radar Speed


Gun) used by the police. These are unmodulated CW radar in which the
transmitted signal is constant in amplitude and frequency. They measure
speed by using the Doppler-effect.

Lidar Speed Traps.


LIDARs use the standard pulsed time of flight measurement technique
using a micro-controller that processes the measured data to estimate
theposition and speed of the target. Velocity estimates are made using a
tracking filter or by measuring the change in range as determined by the
varying time of flight between successive pulses.
Accelerometers.
A very common method for measuring velocities in situations where
magnetic field based sensors are not practical is to use accelerometers.

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Acceleration is rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Hence
integration of the acceleration profile of a body gives the velocity profile of
the moving body.

Variety of sensing principles has been used in the accelerometers.


However, underlying concept is the same. As per Newton’s 2nd law (F =
ma) a sensor may be made to sense acceleration by simply measuring the
force on a mass. Therefore, it is sufficient to provide a component which
can move relative to the sensor’s housing and a means of sensing this
movement.
Nowadays, commercially available accelerations are using MEMS
technology. Additional circuitry needs to be used to integrate the
accelerometer output to obtain the velocity of the moving object.

Pitot Tubes and Pitometers.

Pitot Tubes.
Pitot tubes are used by the aricrafts for measurement of their flying speeds.
Pitot based system functions as the speedometer of the aircraft.

Pitot tubes comprises of two tubes(ports); one in the direction of flow and
one in a direction perpendicular to flow direction. When the aircraft is
moving, the tube get filled with the fluid(air). As the moving fluid comes to
rest, the pressure exerted by the moving fluid is called stagnation pressure
or total pressure. This pressure is measured through the central tube which
is in the direction of flow. The static pressure is measured using the ports
perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow.

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With the knowledge of total pressure and static pressure and using the
following relationship,

Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure

Dynamic pressure can be computed. Dynamic pressure is proportional to


the velocity of the aircraft and therefore, velocity can be derived from the
dynamic pressure. For measurement of pressure, differential pressure
sensors can be used. Pitot tubes are integral part of airspeed indicators.

Pitometers.
If pitot tubes are used for aircrafts, pitometers on the other hand are used
for ships and submarines. Pitometers measure the speed of the ship with
respect to the water.

Principle of operation of pitometers is similar to that of pitot tubes. Pitometer


also have two ports; one facing the direction of seawater and one
perpendicular to the direction of seawater. Port facing seawater measures
total pressure and the port in perpendicular direction to seawater measures
static pressure. Dynamic pressure being the difference of the two can be
measured using differential pressure sensors. Also, as dynamic pressure is
proportional to the velocity of the body.

Lesson 6
Light Sensors

A light sensor generates an output signal indicating the intensity of light by


measuring the radiant energy that exists in a very narrow range of frequencies
basically called “light”, and which ranges in frequency from “Infra-red” to “Visible”
up to “Ultraviolet” light spectrum.

The light sensor is a passive devices that convert this “light energy” whether visible
or in the infra-red parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light
sensors are more commonly known as “Photoelectric Devices” or “Photo Sensors”
because the convert light energy (photons) into electricity (electrons).
Classification of Photoelectric Devices.

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Photo-emissive Cells.
These are photodevices which release free electrons from a light sensitive
material such as caesium when struck by a photon of sufficient energy. The
amount of energy the photons have depends on the frequency of the light
and the higher the frequency, the more energy the photons have converting
light energy into electrical energy.

Photo-conductive Cells.
These photodevices vary their electrical resistance when subjected to light.
Photoconductivity results from light hitting a semiconductor material which
controls the current flow through it. Thus, more light increase the current for
a given applied voltage. The most common photoconductive material is
Cadmium Sulphide used in LDR photocells.

A Photoconductive light sensors do not produce electricity but simply


changes its physical properties when subjected to light energy. The most
common type of photoconductive device is the Photoresistor which
changes its electrical resistance in response to changes in the light
intensity.
Photoresistors are Semiconductor devices that use light energy to control
the flow of electrons, and hence the current flowing through them. The
commonly used Photoconductive Cell is called the Light Dependent
Resistor or LDR.

Light Dependent Resistor.


As its name implies, the Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made from a
piece of exposed semiconductor material such as cadmium sulphide that
changes its electrical resistance from several thousand Ohms in the dark
to only a few hundred Ohms when light falls upon it by creating hole-
electron pairs in the material.
The net effect is an improvement in its conductivity with a decrease in
resistance for an increase in illumination.

Light Level Sensing Circuit.

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In this basic dark sensing circuit, the light dependent resistor LDR1 and the
potentiometer VR1 form one adjustable arm of a simple resistance bridge
network, also known commonly as a Wheatstone bridge, while the two
fixed resistors R1 and R2 form the other arm. Both sides of the bridge form
potential divider networks across the supply voltage whose
outputs V1 and V2 are connected to the non-inverting and inverting voltage
inputs respectively of the operational amplifier.

The operational amplifier is configured as a Differential Amplifier also


known as a voltage comparator with feedback whose output voltage
condition is determined by the difference between the two input signals or
voltages, V1 and V2. The resistor combination R1 and R2 form a fixed
voltage reference at input V2, set by the ratio of the two resistors. The LDR
– VR1 combination provides a variable voltage input V1 proportional to the
light level being detected by the photoresistor.

As with the previous circuit the output from the operational amplifier is used
to control a relay, which is protected by a free wheel diode, D1. When the
light level sensed by the LDR and its output voltage falls below the
reference voltage set at V2 the output from the op-amp changes state
activating the relay and switching the connected load.

Likewise as the light level increases the output will switch back turning
“OFF” the relay. The hysteresis of the two switching points is set by the
feedback resistor Rf can be chosen to give any suitable voltage gain of the
amplifier.

The operation of this type of light sensor circuit can also be reversed to
switch the relay “ON” when the light level exceeds the reference voltage
level and vice versa by reversing the positions of the light sensor LDR and
the potentiometer VR1. The potentiometer can be used to “pre-set” the
switching point of the differential amplifier to any particular light level
making it ideal as a simple light sensor project circuit.

Photo-voltaic Cells.

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These photodevices generate an emf in proportion to the radiant light
energy received and is similar in effect to photoconductivity. The most
common photovoltaic material is Selenium used in solar cells.

Photovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon PN junctions, the
same as photodiodes with a very large light sensitive region but are used
without the reverse bias. They have the same characteristics as a very large
photodiode when in the dark.

When illuminated the light energy causes electrons to flow through the PN
junction and an individual solar cell can generate an open circuit voltage of
about 0.58V (580mV).

Photo-junction Devices.
These photodevices are mainly true semiconductor devices such as the
photodiode or phototransistor which use light to control the flow of electrons
and holes across their PN-junction. Photojunction devices are specifically
designed for detector application and light penetration with their spectral
response tuned to the wavelength of incident light.

Photojunction devices are basically PN-Junction light sensors or detectors


made from silicon semiconductor PN-junctions which are sensitive to light
and which can detect both visible light and infra-red light levels. Photo-
junction devices are specifically made for sensing light and this class of
photoelectric light sensors include the Photodiode and the Phototransistor.

Photodiode.
The construction of the photodiode light sensor is similar to that of a
conventional PN-junction diode except that the diodes outer casing is either
transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the PN junction for
increased sensitivity. The junction will respond to light particularly longer
wavelengths such as red and infra-red rather than visible light.

When used as a light sensor, a photodiodes dark current (0 lux) is about


10uA for geranium and 1uA for silicon type diodes. When light falls upon
the junction more hole/electron pairs are formed and the leakage current
increases. This leakage current increases as the illumination of the junction
increases.

Thus, the photodiodes current is directly proportional to light intensity falling


onto the PN-junction. One main advantage of photodiodes when used as
light sensors is their fast response to changes in the light levels, but one
disadvantage of this type of photodevice is the relatively small current flow
even when fully lit.

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Phototransistor.
An alternative photo-junction device to the photodiode is
the phototransistor which is basically a photodiode with amplification. The
Phototransistor light sensor has its collector-base PN-junction reverse
biased exposing it to the radiant light source.

Phototransistors operate the same as the photodiode except that they can
provide current gain and are much more sensitive than the photodiode with
currents are 50 to 100 times greater than that of the standard photodiode
and any normal transistor can be easily converted into a phototransistor
light sensor by connecting a photodiode between the collector and base.

Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar NPN Transistor with its large


base region electrically unconnected, although some phototransistors
allow a base connection to control the sensitivity, and which uses photons
of light to generate a base current which in turn causes a collector to emitter
current to flow. Most phototransistors are NPN types whose outer casing is
either transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the base
junction for increased sensitivity.

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Lesson 7
Position Sensors

A position sensor is a sensor that facilitates measurement of mechanical position.


A position sensor may indicate absolute position (location) or relative position
(displacement), in terms of linear travel, rotational angle, or three-dimensional
space. Some of the common types of position sensors are the Hall Effect Sensor,
Ultrasonic Sensor and Proximity Sensor.

Hall-Effect Sensor.
A sensor that detects the presence of a magnetic field is a Hall-effect
device. This sensor is a flat rectangular piece of P-type semiconductor
(called a Hall generator) usually made of indium arsenide (InAs). It is a four-
terminal device where the two end terminals are power supply connections.
Figure 1.5.1 shows what happens when the semiconductor is subjected to
a perpendicular magnetic field from an electromagnet or permanent
magnet. The charged carriers are deflected to one side of the flat piece by
an effect called the Lorentz force. An EMF (called Hall voltage) develops
across the output terminals. The side to which the charged carriers move
becomes positive in respect to the other side. If the power supply or the
magnetic field direction is reversed, the output of the Hall-effect device will
be opposite in polarity.

There are three variables that determine the Hall voltage amplitude
produced by the Hall generator. First is the amount of current supplied by
the power source. Second, the physical size of the semiconductor material.
The voltage is directly proportional to the thickness and cross-sectional area
to which the flux lines intersect at a perpendicular angle. And last, the
magnetic field strength and orientation to which the Hall device is subjected.

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As the distance from a pole increases, the flux density decreases and the
Hall voltage increases proportionally. This is known as the Hall Effect,
discovered by Edward H. Hall in 1879. Another factor that influences the
voltage amplitude is the angle at which the flux lines pass through the Hall
device. Maximum output voltage is achieved when the lines are
perpendicular to the sensor. At other angles, the output follows a cosine
function.

The output voltage produced by the Hall generator is not great enough to
drive an output device to which it is connected. There are two methods
commonly used to boost the signal. One method employs pieces of iron or
other ferrous materials that are placed on either side of the Hall plate. These
pieces, called concentrators, bend the local flux patterns so that a greater
number of lines pass through the sensor. The greater concentration causes
the Hall generator to produce a greater output signal in response to the flux
lines. The other method of increasing the generator’s output is to use an
amplifier. There are two classifications of amplifiers used, one that produces
a linear output, and the other that generates a digital switching signal.

Linear Hall-Effect Sensors.


The diagram of a linear Hall-effect device is shown in Figure 1.5.2(a). It
consists of a Hall generator, linear amplifier, and emitter-follower output
transistor. All three sections are fabricated onto an integrated circuit chip.

A power supply with good voltage regulation supplies a constant current


flow. When flux lines intersect the semiconductor material, it produces an
analog voltage that is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field. A differential op amp is used to boost the Hall generator voltage above
the millivolt level. Its output controls the input bias to the output transistor.
Note that emitter followers have no voltage gain. They are used to produce
a current gain sufficient to drive an output indicator.

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Figure 1.5.2(b) shows the package style of a Hall-effect sensor. Typically,
three leads are used because the negative leads of the power supply and
output are connected. One face of the package is the Hall sensor’s active
area. To operate, the magnetic flux lines for a prescribed pole must be
perpendicular to the face of the package. If the polarity of the magnet is
reversed, the output voltage of the sensor will be opposite.

Digital Hall-Effect Sensor


The linear Hall-effect sensor can be modified to make it compatible with
digital circuitry. Figure 1.5.3 shows the output of the differential op amp. It
is connected to a Schmitt trigger, which feeds a signal into an open-collector
NPN output-switching transistor.

The Hall cell is exposed to increasing magnetic flux density as the magnetic
south pole approaches. The Hall generator and the op amp outputs
increase. At some point, the threshold input of the Schmitt trigger is
reached. Its output switches from low- to high-level voltage, which turns the
switching transistor on. The output (terminal 3) goes to zero. The level at
which the flux density’s strength causes the output to turn on is called the
operating point.

If the magnet is moved away from the Hall cell, the flux density decreases,
and the Hall generator and op amp voltages decrease. Because of the
Schmitt trigger hysteresis, the Hall output will not return to a low level unless
the magnetic flux density falls to a value far lower than the operating point.
When it does, the switching transistor turns off and the output voltage
equals the power supply. The value at which the flux density’s strength
causes the output to turn off is called the release point. The hysteresis
property ensures that even if mechanical vibration or electrical noise is
present, the switch output is fast, clean, and occurs only once per threshold
crossing. The switch speed of the Hall-effect device is 100 kHz.

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There are three modes of operation to move the magnet within the sensing
range of the Hall effect generator:

Head-on Mode.
The magnetic pole moves along a perpendicular path straight toward or
away from the face of the Hall device. This method is primarily used by the
linear Hall-effect sensor.

Slide-by Mode.
A disk with magnets is attached to a rotating shaft. A stationary Hall device
is positioned so that it becomes activated by each lateral pass of a
magnetic south pole. This method is primarily used by the digital Hall-effect
sensor.

Stationary Mode.
A magnet and Hall sensor are mounted at stationary positions with a small
air gap between them. When the flux lines are uninterrupted, the Hall output
is held on by the activating magnet. As the shaft spins, the vane will pass
between the magnet and Hall-effect device. When it does, the Hall
generator turns off because the vane will form a magnetic shunt that
distorts the flux away from the sensor.

Hall-effect sensors are well suited for harsh environmental conditions.


Because they are immune to dirt, they can be more effective than capacitive
switches, optoelectronic sensors, and electromechanical limit switches.
They are also capable of switching at higher frequencies than inductive or
capacitive detectors because the response time of the Lorentz force-effect
is shorter than the time it takes the oscillator to build or dampen the
magnetic field. A frequent application of Hall-effect sensors is to generate a
digital output indicating the velocity, displacement, or position of a rotating
shaft.

Ultrasonic Sensors
An ultrasonic sensor is a device that uses high-frequency sound waves to
detect objects. Sound waves produced by an oscillator are emitted toward
the target from the sensor head. If there is an object from which the
ultrasonic sound waves can be reflected, they will return to the signal
receiver that is located in the same housing as the oscillator. The frequency
of ultrasonic sound waves is above the range heard by humans.

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There are two categories of ultrasonic sensors: proximity switches and
analog sensors. The difference between them is the type of output signal
they produce.

The proximity switching ultrasonic sensor is used to detect the absence or


presence of a target. When an object is present within its sensing range,
the sensor output is switched on. The analog ultrasonic sensor produces a
variable output voltage or current. The magnitude of the output is
proportional to the distance between the sensor and the target. The sensor
can detect the object within a given range. Most analog sensors have the
capability of varying the range by performing a calibration procedure. The
desired minimal distance at which the target is placed from the sensor is
called the zero calibration setting.

At this distance, the following types of sensors will produce its minimum
output value:
Voltage Sensor: 0 V
Current Sensor: 4 mA

The desired maximum distance at which the target is placed from the sensor
is called the span calibration setting. At this distance, the following types of
sensors will produce its maximum output value:
Voltage Sensor: 10 V
Current Sensor: 20 mA

Module Discussion Forum

INSTRUCTION: Post your answer in Google class stream page where this
question is posted. This is a group work.

Questions:

1. Differentiate linear and digital hall-effect sensors.


2. Describe how ultrasonic sensor operates.
3. Explain why it is important to select a specific sensor for a particular
application.

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Assessment
Assessment #02: Final Term
(Topics Covered: Module 2)

Remember:
Questions will be uploaded to google classroom a day after the
discussion of module 2 or on the agreed schedule. You are given
time to answer the quiz after it’s uploaded to google classroom. This
is an individual assessment, therefore, individual submission of
answer to google classroom account where this is posted.

Instructions:
Write the problem and show the complete solutions and box your
final answer. Use two decimal places. Write your answer in A4 bond
paper. Use the format (Last Name, MI, First Name) in the upper left
most part of your paper. Scanned copy or take a picture of your
answer and submit it on or before the deadline of submission to our
google classroom account where this quiz is posted.

LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 74


ELECTRONICS 3

Module 3
Programmable Logic
Controllers

Prepared by
Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT

Module 1
C O LFLEXIBLE
LETRAN L E GLEARNING
I A T PROGRAM
E D E– ENGINEERING
P A R T M E
AREA N T 75
Module 3
Programmable Logic Controllers
Objectives
At the end of the discussion of the module the students will be able to:
1. Explain the concepts on Programmable Logic Controllers.

Introduction
Today, flexible automation is an approach which differ from standard dedicated
automation. This approach uses programs which are a sequence of coded
instructions stored in a memory chip and executed by microprocessor for the
system’s decision making. When there are modifications needed in the system,
only the coded instructions are changed. That’s why systems with such are
referred as programmable systems.

A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is an industrial


digital computer which has been ruggedized and adapted for the control of
manufacturing processes, such as assembly lines, or robotic devices, or any
activity that requires high reliability control and ease of programming and process
fault diagnosis.

Lesson 1
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

THE NEED FOR PLCs

a. Hardwired panels were very time consuming to wire, debug and


change.
b. GM identified the following requirements for computer controllers to
replace hardwired panels.
– Solid-state not mechanical
– Easy to modify input and output devices – Easily
programmed and maintained by plant electricians
– Be able to function in an industrial environment

THE FIRST PROGRAMMABLE CONTROLLER

a. Introduced in the late 1960’s


b. Developed to offer the same functionality as the existing relay logic
systems.
c. Programmable, reusable and reliable

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– Could withstand a harsh industrial environment
– They had no hard drive, they had battery backup
– Could start in seconds
– Used Ladder Logic for programming

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)


A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a specialized computer used
to control machines and process.

It uses a programmable memory to store instructions and specific


functions that include On/Off control, timing, counting, sequencing,
arithmetic, and data handling.

ADVANTAGES OF PLC SYSTEMS

a. Flexible f. Handles much more complicated systems


b. Faster response time g. Sophisticated instruction sets available
c. Less and simpler wiring h. Easy to troubleshoot”
d. Solid-state - no moving parts i. Less expensive
e. Modular design - easy to repair and expand

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PLC ARCHITECTURE

An open architecture design allows the system to be


connected easily to devices and programs made by other
manufacturers.

A closed architecture or proprietary system, is one whose


design makes it more difficult to connect devices and
programs made by other manufacturers.

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NOTE: When working with PLC systems that are proprietary in
nature you must be sure that any generic hardware or
software you use is compatible with your particular PLC.

I/O CONFIGURATIONS
a. Fixed I/O

b. Modular I/O

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c. Power Supply

d. Processor (CPU)

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e. I/O Section

e.1. Input Module

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e.2. Output Module

f. Programming Devices

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PLC MIXER PROCESS CONTROL PROBLEM

Process Control Relay Ladder Diagram

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PLC Input Module Connections

PLC Output Module Connections

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PLC Ladder Logic Program

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Entering and Running the PLC Program

PLC Operating Cycle

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Modifying a PLC Program

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PLCs vs PERSONAL COMPUTERS

PLCs PERSONAL COMPUTERS

- Operates in the industrial - Capable of executing several


environment. programs simultaneously, any
order.
- Is programmed in relay ladder - Some manufacturers have
logic software and interface cards
available so that a PC can do the
work of a PLC.
- Has no keyboard, CD drive,
monitor, or disk drive.
- Has communications ports and
terminals for input and output
devices.

PC Based Control Systems

Advantages.
a. Lower initial cost.
b. Less propriety hardware and software required.
c. Straightforward data exchange with other systems.
d. Speedy information processing.
e. Easy customization.

PLC Size Classification

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1.

2.

3.

4.

PLC Instruction Set


The instruction set for a particular PLC type lists the different types of instructions
supported.

An instruction is a command that will cause a PLC to perform a certain


predetermined operation.

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TYPICAL PLC INSTRUCTIONS
Shown below are some of the typically used PLC instructions that will enable the
device to perform specific operations.

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Module Discussion Forum

INSTRUCTION: Post your answer in Google class stream page where this
question is posted. This is a group work.

Question:

Define the purpose of programmable logic controller.

Assessment
Assessment #03: Final Term
(Topics Covered: Module 3)

Remember:
Questions will be uploaded to google classroom a day after the
discussion of module 3 or on the agreed schedule. You are given
time to answer the quiz after it’s uploaded to google classroom. This
is an individual assessment, therefore, individual submission of
answer to google classroom account where this is posted.

Instructions:
Write the question and answer it in complete sentences. Write your
answer in A4 bond paper. Use the format (Last Name, MI, First
Name) in the upper left most part of your paper. Scanned copy or
take a picture of your answer and submit it on or before the deadline
of submission to our google classroom account where this quiz is
posted.

LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 94


ELECTRONICS 3

Module 4
Industrial Robots

Prepared by
Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT

C O L L E G I A T E D E P A R T M E N T
LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 95
Module 4
Industrial Robots
Objectives
At the end of the discussion of the module the students will be able to:
1. Familiarize themselves on the various kinds of DC motors typically used
in robotics.
2. Understand the six major types of industrial robots that are used in the
industry based on its configuration, advantages and disadvantages, as well
as on its application.

Introduction
Owing to rapid technological advancements in robotics and automation, the
manufacturing sector has witnessed an increased adoption of robotics engineering
and technology into its production processes.

Industrial robots are being used to perform tasks with high precision and
repeatability resulting in products of higher quality. The ability of industrial robots
to work continuously without taking a break is helping manufacturers in increasing
output. Moreover, robots can work in dangerous and harmful environments, thus
improving the working conditions and safety of the production plant. Therefore, the
several advantages of industrial robots are encouraging manufacturers to integrate
different types of industrial robots in its production line to increase plant efficiency
and profitability.

Based on mechanical configuration, industrial robots can be classified into six


major types namely: articulated robots, cartesian robots, SCARA robots, delta
robots, polar robots and cylindrical robots. Apart from mechanical configuration,
industrial robots can also be categorized based on motion control, power supply
control and physical characteristics.

This module will focus on the major types of industrial robots based on
configuration, their advantages and disadvantages and the areas of application.

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Lesson 1
Industrial Robots

DC MOTORS
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical motors that converts direct current
electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the
forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some
internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change
the direction of current in part of the motor.

Types of DC Motors.

Brushed DC Motor.
Brushed DC motor, or simply a “DC motor” is a classical example of
electrical motor. As discussed before, a motor has a rotor and a stator with
one of them being a permanent magnet. In a brushed DC motor, the rotor
has permanent magnet and the stator has electromagnets. Since the motor
needs a way to detect the rotor’s orientation, it uses brushes as a
commutator which is a piece of rotor touching the shaft. When the rotor
rotates (in turn the brush rotates), it detects the change in orientation and
flips the current. DC motors are available in different sizes and at different
speeds. Although DC motors run at enough speeds, they are generally
useless in robots as they produce the slightest torque. DC motors have only
two wires running into them; one for ground and the other for power.

Brushless DC Motor.
In a brushless motor, the rotor is made of permanent magnet and the stator
is made of electromagnet. To detect a change in orientation, brushless
motors generally use Hall Effect sensors to detect the rotor’s magnetic field
and consecutively its orientation. Brushless motors are very useful in robots
as they are more capable; they provide enough torque, and greater speeds
than brushed motors. Brushless motors are expensive due to their design
complexity and need a controller to control their speed and rotation.

Servo Motors.
Generally known as RC servo motors, these are DC motors coupled with a
feedback control circuitry, a gear system to increase torque and a position
sensing device (usually a potentiometer). When a signal (pulse) is sent, it
moves the motor shaft to a desired position using the position feedback from
a potentiometer. Servos do not exhibit continuous rotation, but are limited
to a specific range (generally 200° back and forth) and requires us to modify
it for continuous rotation. Since servos expect a control signal, there is an
additional wire running into the servo which takes control pulses. Hence
they have three wires; Ground, Power and Control pulse.

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Stepper Motors.
Stepper motors are brushless motors which divides the rotor’s rotation into
discrete number of steps when electrical pulses are applied in an expected
sequence. In other words, a brushless motor rotates continuously when
voltage is applied across, but a stepper motor breaks it into steps per
revolution and jumps each step for a certain pulse. Unlike a servo motor,
stepper motor does not require any complex position feedback mechanism;
on the torque side, stepper motors are similar to brushed DC motors with
less torque. Based on the arrangement of windings inside a stepper motor,
it can be classified as Unipolar or Bipolar step motor.

TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS.

Articulated Robots.
Articulated robot is one of the most comment types of industrial robots. It
resembles a human arm in its mechanical configuration. The arm is
connected to the base with a twisting joint. The number of rotary joints
connecting the links in the arm can range from two joints to ten joints and
each joint provides an additional degree of freedom. The joints can be
parallel or orthogonal to each other. Articulated robots having six degrees
of freedom are the most commonly used industrial robots as the design
offers maximum flexibility.

Advantages

• High speed
• Large work envelope for least floor space
• Easier to align to multiple planes

Disadvantages

• Requires dedicated robot controller


• Complicated programming
• Complicated kinematics

Application

• Food packaging
• Arc welding
• Spot welding
• Material handling
• Machine tending
• Automotive assembly

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• Steel bridge manufacturing
• Steel cutting
• Glass handling
• Foundry and forging application

Cartesian Robots.
Cartesian robots are also called rectilinear or gantry robots and have a
rectangular configuration. These types of industrial robots have three
prismatic joints to deliver linear motion by sliding on its three perpendicular
axes (X, Y and Z). They might also have an attached wrist to allow rotational
movement. Cartesian robots are used in majority of industrial applications
as they offer flexibility in their configuration which make them suitable for
specific application needs.
Advantages

• Provides high positional accuracy


• Simple operation
• Easy to program offline
• Highly customizable
• Can handle heavy loads
• Less cost

Disadvantages

• Requires large operational and installation area


• Complex assembly
• Movement limited to only one direction at a time

Application

• Pick and place operations


• Loading and unloading
• Material handling
• Assembly and sub-assembly
• Nuclear material handling
• Adhesive applications

SCARA Robots.
SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) robots have a donut
shaped work envelope and consists of two parallel joints that provide
compliance in one selected plane. The rotary shafts are positioned
vertically, and the end effector attached to the arm moves horizontally.
SCARA robots specialize in lateral movements and are mostly used for
assembly applications. The SCARA robots can move faster and have easier
integration than cylindrical and cartesian robots.

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Advantages

• High speed
• Excellent repeatability
• Large workspace

Disadvantages

• Requires dedicated robot controller


• Limited to planar surfaces
• Hard to program offline

Application

• Assembly applications
• Semiconductor wafers handling
• Biomed applications
• Packaging
• Palletizing
• Machine loading

Delta Robots.
Delta robots are also called parallel link robots as it consists of parallel joint
linkages connected with a common base. Owing to direct control of each
joint over the end effector, the positioning of the end effector can be
controlled easily with its arms resulting in high speed operation. Delta robots
have a dome shaped work envelope. These robots are generally used for
fast pick-and-place or product transfer applications.

Advantages

• Very high speed


• High operational accuracy

Disadvantages

• Complicated operation
• Requires dedicated robot controller

Application

• Food industry
• Pharmaceutical industry
• Electronic industry
• Flight simulators
• Automobile simulators
• Optical fiber alignment

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Polar Robots.
Polar robots have a twisting joint connecting the arm with the base and a
combination of two rotary joints and one linear joint connecting the links.
These are also called as spherical robots, since it has a spherical work
envelope and the axes form a polar co-ordinate system. These robots have
a centrally pivoting shaft and an extendable rotating arm. The gun turret
configuration of polar robots sweeps a large volume of space, but the
access of the arm is restricted within its workspace.

Advantages

• Can reach all around


• Can reach above or below obstacles
• Large work volume
• Requires less floor space

Disadvantages

• Cannot reach above itself


• Short vertical reach
• Low accuracy and repeatability in direction of rotary motion
• Requires sophisticated control system
• Fallen out of favor and not common in new designs

Application

• Glass handling
• Stacking and unstacking
• Injection molding
• Forging
• Welding
• Material handling

Cylindrical Robots.
Cylindrical robots have at least one rotary joint at the base and at least one
prismatic joint connecting the links. These robots have a cylindrical
workspace with a pivoting shaft and an extendable arm which moves
vertically and by sliding. Thus, robots with cylindrical configuration offers
vertical and horizontal linear movement along with rotary movement about
the vertical axis. The compact design of the end of the arm allows the robot
to reach tight work envelopes without any loss of speed and repeatability. It
is mostly used in simple applications where materials are picked up, rotated
and placed.

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Advantages

• Simple operation and installation


• Minimal assembly
• Can reach all around itself
• Requires less floor space
• Can carry large payloads

Disadvantages

• Cannot reach around obstacles


• Low accuracy in direction of rotary motion
• Fallen out of favor and not common in new designs

Application

• Transport of LCD panels


• Assembly applications
• Coating applications
• Die casting
• Foundry and forging application
• Machine loading and unloading

Assessment
Assessment #04: Final Term
(Topics Covered: Module 4)

Remember:
Questions will be uploaded to google classroom a day after the
discussion of module 4 or on the agreed schedule. You are given
time to answer the quiz after it’s uploaded to google classroom. This
is an individual assessment, therefore, individual submission of
answer to google classroom account where this is posted.

Instructions:
Write the problem and show the complete solutions and box your
final answer. Use two decimal places. Write your answer in A4 bond
paper. Use the format (Last Name, MI, First Name) in the upper left
most part of your paper. Scanned copy or take a picture of your
answer and submit it on or before the deadline of submission to our
google classroom account where this quiz is posted.

LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 102


ELECTRONICS 3

Module 5
Fire and Life Safety
Controls

Prepared by
Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT

C O L L E G I A T E D E P A R T M E N T
LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 103
Module 5
Fire and Life Safety Controls
Objectives
At the end of the discussion of the module the students will be able to:
1. Understand the importance of fire safety controls.
2. Familiarize themselves with regards to the various fire safety work
practices in workplaces.

Introduction

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires employers


to implement fire protection and prevention programs in the workplace. The
regulations that apply to fire protection and prevention can be found mainly in
Subpart F of the construction standards, though the requirement for a fire
prevention program is first set out in Subpart C. The following sections of the
construction standards contain requirements for fire protection that are of
significance to roofing contractors:

1926.24 Subpart C, Fire protection and prevention programs


1926.150 Fire protection
1926.151 Fire prevention
1926.152 Flammable and combustible liquids
1926.153 Liquefied petroleum gas (LP-Gas)
1926.154 Temporary heating devices
1926.155 Definitions
1926.550 Subpart N, Cranes and derricks

Following this module, there is a list of fire safety work practices


addressing many fire hazards found in the roofing workplace, including field
operations and shop activities. Contractors should review the elements of the list
most applicable to their companies’ operations and consider including them
in their companies’ health and safety program.

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Lesson 1
Fire and Life Safety Controls

Fire Protection

Fire is a chemical reaction that requires three elements to be present for


the reaction to take place and continue. The three elements are:

∙ Heat, or an ignition source


∙ Fuel
∙ Oxygen

These three elements typically are referred to as the “fire triangle.” Fire is the result
of the reaction between the fuel and oxygen in the air. Scientists developed the
concept of a fire triangle to aid in understanding of the cause of fires and how they
can be prevented and extinguished. Heat, fuel and oxygen must combine in a
precise way for a fire to start and continue to burn. If one element of the fire triangle
is not present or removed, fire will not start or, if already burning, will extinguish.

Ignition sources can include any material, equipment or operation that emits a
spark or flame—including obvious items, such as torches, as well as less obvious
items, such as static electricity and grinding operations. Equipment
or components that radiate heat, such as kettles, catalytic converters
and mufflers, also can be ignition sources.

Fuel sources include combustible materials, such as wood, paper, trash


and clothing; flammable liquids, such as gasoline or solvents; and
flammable gases, such as propane or natural gas.

Oxygen in the fire triangle comes from the air in the atmosphere. Air contains
approximately 79 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen. OSHA describes a
hazardous atmosphere as one which is oxygen-deficient because it has less than
19.5 percent oxygen, or oxygen enriched because it has greater than 23.5 percent
oxygen. Either instance is regarded by OSHA as an atmosphere immediately
dangerous to life and health (IDLH) for reasons unrelated to the presence of fire.
Depending on the type of fuel involved, fires can occur with much lower volume
of oxygen present than needed to support human respiration.

Every roofing project has all three of the fire triangle elements present
in abundance. The key to preventing fires is to keep heat and ignition
sources away from materials, equipment and structures that could act as fuel
to complete the fire triangle.

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Fire Classifications.
Fires are classified as A, B, C, D or K based on the type of substance that is the
fuel for the fire, as follows:

Class A—fires involving ordinary combustibles, such as paper,


trash, some plastics, wood and cloth. A rule of thumb is if it leaves an
ash behind, it is a Class A fire.

Class B—fires involving flammable gases or liquids, such as propane, oil and
gasoline

Class C—fires involving energized electrical components

Class D—fires involving metal. A rule of thumb is if the name of the metal ends
with the letters “um,” it is a Class D fire. Examples of this are aluminum,
magnesium, beryllium and sodium. Class D fires rarely occur in the roofing
industry.

Class K—fires involving vegetable or animal cooking oils or fats; common in


commercial cooking operations using deep fat fryers

Fire Extinguishers.
There are different types of fire extinguishers designed to put out
the different classes of fire. Selecting the appropriate fire extinguisher is
an important consideration for a roofing contractor. The wrong
extinguisher actually may make a fire emergency worse. For example,
failing to use a C rated extinguisher on energized electrical components may
endanger workers by causing the extinguishing material to be electrified by
the energized components that are on fire. C-rated fire extinguishers put out
the fire by using a chemical that does not conduct electricity.

The following table illustrates the types of extinguishers, fire classes


for which each is used and the limitations of each extinguisher.

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Roofing contractors typically purchase dry-chemical fire
extinguishers because they can extinguish three fire classes (A, B and
C). OSHA requires a minimum-rated 10B fire extinguisher be provided
within 50 feet of the point of job site use of more than 5 gallons of
flammable or combustible liquids or 5 pounds of flammable gas. Examples
of flammable and combustible liquids include gasoline, kerosene, acetone,
MEK, single ply adhesives, splice cleaners and asphalt cutback products.
Fire extinguishers must be rated by a nationally recognized testing
laboratory.

Extinguishers also must be inspected on a regular basis and maintained


fully charged.

Using Fire Extinguishers.


When using fire extinguishers, employees should employ the “PASS” system of
early-stage firefighting.

P—Pull the pin on the extinguisher


A—Aim at the base of the fire
S—Squeeze the handle
S—-Sweep at the fire, moving from side to side

Employees should be instructed that if a fire cannot be extinguished using one


full extinguisher, they should evacuate the site and let the fire department
handle the situation.

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Fire Prevention

Fire prevention requires segregating the three elements of the fire triangle. In
practice, a method to achieve that goal is to post—and enforce—no smoking signs
around flammable liquids and gases and have fire watches on all work involving
torch-applied materials of a minimum of two hours after the last torch is turned
off.

Flammable and Combustible Liquids.


Proper storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids will
help prevent fires from occurring; only approved, closed containers for storage
of flammable or combustible liquids may be used under OSHA rules.
Such containers include safety cans or containers approved by the
U.S. Department of Transportation. A safety can is a container that has a self
closing lid, internal-pressure relief and flame arrestor with a capacity of not more
than 5 gallons. Inexpensive, plastic cans without those features previously
mentioned, such as those typically bought at hardware stores or gas stations,
are not approved for use in roofing operations. However, manufacturers do sell
plastic containers that meet the OSHA requirements for safety cans.

Flammable liquids that are extremely viscous, or difficult to pour, like single ply
adhesive, can be left in their original shipping containers. Similarly, OSHA allows
the use of original containers of flammable liquids that are in quantities of one
gallon or less.

Static electricity may be generated when transferring liquids, gases or


solids through pipes or hoses. It is important to dissipate this electric charge
when handling flammable and combustible materials. When transferring
flammable or combustible liquids from one container to another, the two
containers must be “bonded” together. The bonding process involves attaching a
wire with alligator clips on each end to both containers. The clips must
penetrate the container coating and touch metal. You may need to score the paint
with the alligator clips. To dissipate static, the container receiving the liquid
must be in contact with the ground and not insulated from contact with the
ground. For example, plastic or composite pickup truck bed liners prevent the flow
of static electricity to ground because the liner does not conduct electricity.
The receptacle container must have a clear path to ground, by direct contact
or use of a grounding strap or wire, to effectively eliminate static.

Service or fueling areas at job sites must have a 20BC-rated


fire extinguisher within 75 feet of each pump.

Safety cabinets allow for greater quantities of flammable and combustible liquids
to be stored safely inside buildings. Up to 60 gallons of a flammable liquid or as

LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 108


much as 120 gallons of a combustible liquid may be stored indoors in a safety
cabinet. Each cabinet must be labeled “Flammable— Keep Fire Away.” Up to
three cabinets may be stored in one room. Without a safety cabinet, only 25
gallons of either flammable or combustible liquids are allowed to be stored
inside a building.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas.


Liquefied petroleum gas (LP gas) is used widely in the roofing industry to heat
kettles and torches. Because LP gas is a compressed gas, fairly large quantities
can be stored in relatively small containers. As a point of reference, LP gas
expands at a ratio of 270-to-1. This means that one liquid drop of LP gas would
expand to a gas state 270 times greater in volume.

LP gas collects in low-lying areas because its vapor density is heavier than air.
Employees should be warned that if they suspect a leak in a cylinder, they must
not use fire to attempt to find the hole. Instead, they are to use soapy water and
look for bubbles.

Employees should not attempt to extinguish fires involving LP gas. If an LP gas


fire breaks out, employees should evacuate the area immediately and call the
fire department. Fighting an LP gas fire requires specialized training that only the
fire department can provide. Employee attempts to extinguish the fire could
create larger hazards.

Torch-applied Roofing Materials.


Torch-applied roofing materials pose a serious fire hazard to roofing contractors
and building owners. Sometimes the hazards are obvious―such as torching to
a combustible deck or near flammable liquids, while other concerns are less
obvious―such as torching around drains or penetrations where flames can be
drawn into a building.

Roofing contractors must instruct employees that they must:


∙ Never torch directly to combustible decks or materials
∙ Never torch to areas that cannot be seen fully
∙ Not use torches near vents or air intakes
∙ Never use a torch to heat a propane tank that begins to frost on the outside
∙ Have appropriate fire extinguishers within easy reach at all times

Whenever working with torch-applied roofing materials, fire-watch inspections


must be conducted for at least two hours after the work has been completed and
the last torch has been turned off.

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Fire Alarm Devices.
OSHA requires an alarm system be established by an employer to alert workers
on the job site and local fire departments of fire emergencies. Job site
telephones and employee entrances must have alarm codes and reporting
instructions at employee entrances.

A roofing contractor’s emergency action plan for the job site must include:
∙ Emergency escape procedures
∙ Equipment operation procedures prior to evacuation
∙ Procedures to account for all employees
∙ Rescue and medical duties for those employees responsible for such duties
∙ Preferred means of reporting emergencies
∙ Names and titles of employees with duties under the plan

Employee Training.
OSHA requires that all employees be trained to use fire extinguishers. Training is
required upon employment and at least annually thereafter. It is recommended
the training session cover how to determine when a fire is too big to handle; what
type of extinguisher to use; and the PASS system of early-stage firefighting. It also
is recommended that live fire training be conducted periodically (this level of
training is not needed each year). Live training exposes employees to the
pressure released from a fire extinguisher when the handle is squeezed and
provides hands-on practice extinguishing a fire. Some local fire departments and
most fire extinguisher suppliers offer this type of training.

All company fire-prevention training sessions should be documented. If


an outside organization conducts the training, it would be a good idea to
obtain training certificates for the attendees.

List of Safe Work Practices


Fire Protection and Prevention Safe Work Practices

The company will take all necessary steps to prevent fires. Inspections during
various operations will be made to ensure fire-prevention objectives are being
met. The steps are listed below.

Reporting and Extinguishing a Fire.


∙ The fire department and area supervisor will be notified when a fire is spotted.
∙ All workers will be alerted and evacuated as needed.
∙ The PASS method will be used to extinguish the fire by those employees who
have been properly trained.
∙ The area will be evacuated immediately if the fire is large.

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Fire Protection.
∙ Before each project begins, the project manager or designee will contact the
local fire department and determine whether any variations from the
company’s standard fire-prevention procedures are required.
∙ No-smoking signs will be posted in all regulated areas.
∙ Only approved containers will be used to store flammable or combustible
materials.
∙ All containers will be bonded together and grounded when transferring
flammable or combustible liquids.
∙ All work areas will be kept free of debris and other combustible materials.
∙ Inside company-owned or leased buildings, fire extinguishers will be spaced no
more than 100 feet apart and will have no less than a 2A rating for every 3,000
feet of protected building.
∙ All employees will be trained on the use of fire extinguishers initially upon hire
and annually thereafter.
∙ No employee will be permitted to use an extinguisher without having been fully
trained.
∙ Fire extinguishers will be stored at a distance no greater than 10 feet from torch
users.
∙ A fire extinguisher, rated not less than 10B, will be provided within 50 feet of the
location where more than 5 gallons of flammable or combustible liquids or 5
pounds of a flammable gas are used on a job site.
∙ Mops will be “spun out” and placed on a noncombustible surface at the end of
each day on projects involving hot bitumen.
∙ A fire watch will be posted for two hours after work has concluded for torch-
applied roof systems.

Flammable and Combustible Liquid Storage.


∙ No more than 25 gallons of flammable and combustible liquids will be stored
outside approved safety cabinets in indoor locations.
∙ No more than 60 gallons of flammable liquids will be stored inside an approved
safety cabinet in indoor locations.
∙ Combustible liquids will not exceed 120-gallon capacity inside approved safety
cabinets.
∙ The number of approved safety cabinets in one room will not exceed three.
∙ Gasoline will not be used as a solvent for cleaning.
∙ All containers will be labeled in accordance with OSHA’s
Hazard Communication Standard.
∙ Buildings or structures containing flammable liquids or gases must
be constructed of fire-resistant material.
∙ Flammable liquids or gases will be kept away from heat and ignition sources
including welding work or any other operation involving flames or sparks.

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Handling Flammable Gases.
∙ LPG cylinders will be placed on a firm foundation and secured in an upright position.
∙ All LPG cylinders will be equipped with valve-protection devices. ∙ LPG cylinders will
not be stored closer than 10 feet to the kettle. ∙ LPG cylinders will be placed away from
vehicular traffic. ∙ LPG cylinders will not be stored inside buildings.
∙ Acetylene bottles will be stored in the upright position and secured.
∙ When in transport or not in use, acetylene bottles will have caps in place.
∙ Oxygen cylinders must be stored at least 20 feet from acetylene cylinders.

Handling Flammable and Combustible Liquids.


∙ During refueling operations, all engines and motors will be turned off and allowed to
cool.
∙ Open flames or other ignition sources must be kept at least 50 feet away from
flammable or combustible liquids.
∙ No smoking will be permitted during the fueling process.
∙ Containers being filled will be placed directly on the ground or a grounding strap
attached to form a connection to ground.
∙ No flammable liquid or gas will be used unless it has been positively identified
beforehand.
∙ Health and physical hazards will be communicated to employees in accordance with
OSHA’s Hazard Communication Standard before the product is used.
∙ When flammable liquids and gases are being transported, all Department of
Transportation rules will be followed.

Fire Extinguishers.
∙ In buildings, all fire extinguishers will be mounted on a wall and properly marked.
∙ All vehicles will carry at least one ABC-rated extinguisher.
∙ When at a job site, all employees will know the location of each fire extinguisher.
∙ Before using an extinguisher, all employees will be trained and familiar with the PASS
method of firefighting.
∙ Each fire extinguisher will be inspected monthly to make sure it is in its designated
location and has not been tampered with or actuated.
∙ Each fire extinguisher will be clearly visible with nothing obstructing or obscuring it from
view.

All fire extinguishers will be examined at least yearly and/or recharged


or repaired to ensure operability and safety. A tag must be attached to show the
maintenance or recharge date and the signature or initials of the
person performing the service.

LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 112


Module Discussion Forum

INSTRUCTION: Post your answer in Google class stream page where this
question is posted. This is a group work.

Question:

Define the purpose and importance of fire and life safety


controls.

Assessment
Assessment #05: Final Term
(Topics Covered: Module 5)

Remember:
Questions will be uploaded to google classroom a day after the
discussion of module 5 or on the agreed schedule. You are given
time to answer the quiz after it’s uploaded to google classroom. This
is an individual assessment, therefore, individual submission of
answer to google classroom account where this is posted.

Instructions:
Write the question and answer it in complete sentences. Write your
answer in A4 bond paper. Use the format (Last Name, MI, First
Name) in the upper left most part of your paper. Scanned copy or
take a picture of your answer and submit it on or before the deadline
of submission to our google classroom account where this quiz is
posted.

LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 113


Post-Assessment
Instruction: Select the best answer. Write the complete answer (do not include the
letter) of the chosen answer in a separate sheet of paper. Scanned copy or take a
picture of your answer sheet and submit it to our google classroom account. Don’t
forget to write your name at the upper left most part of your answer sheet. Use A4
bond paper.

1. The specially designed semiconductor diode used as fast counters in


electronic circuits is .
a. Light Emitting Diode
b. Photodiode
c. Photovoltaic Cell
d. Solar Cell

2. Basic heat sensor.


a. Thermostat
b. Radiator
c. Thermistor
d. Terminator

3. What is the effect of light in a photodiode?


a. Reverse current
b. Limits the flow of current
c. Forwards current
d. Renders unstable current

4. In a forward-biased photodiode with increase light intensity, the diode current:


a. Increases
b. Remains constant
c. Decreases
d. None of these

5. It is used for position measurements.


a. Ultrasonic Sensors
b. Photogates
c. Proximity Sensor
d. Magnetic Sensor

6. An optoisolator contains .
a. An infrared LED
b. A photodetector
c. Both an infrared LED and a photodetector
d. None of these

LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 114


7. Converts pressure changes into electrical form.
a. Piezoelectric Crystal
b. Microphone
c. Speaker
d. Tactile Transducer

8. The are two of the most common mechanical configuration of industrial


robots.
a. Spherical and pneumatic
b. Articulated and cylindrical
c. Spherical and hydraulic
d. Jointed-arm and electric

9. One advantage of hydraulic actuator in industrial robots include .


a. Great force capability handling heavy loads.
b. Lower operating cost than the other type.
c. Low initial cost than the other type.
d. Clean no oil leaks.

10. A programmable, multifunction manipulator designed to move materials,


parts, tools or specific devices.
a. Industrial Robot
b. Android
c. Actuator
d. End Effector

11. Thermal flowmeters use to sense the temperature of the fluid flowing in the
pipe.
a. a thermocouple
b. a thermistor
c. an RTD
d. None of the above

12. The pulses transmitted upstream in an ultrasonic flowmeter are waves.


a. Electromagnetic
b. Light
c. Sound
d. Infrared

13. A conductive probe is capable of making ____-type measurements.


a. point
b. continuous
c. both a and b
d. neither a nor b

LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 115


14. It is any device that converts one form of energy into another.
a. thyristors
b. transducers
c. sensors
d. optoelectronic devices

15. A thermistor has a _____ temperature coefficient.


a. Positive
b. Negative
c. Zero
d. Absolute

*** Nothing Follows***

LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 116

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