Electronics 3finals
Electronics 3finals
Electronics 3finals
ECE13
Bachelor of Science in ECE
FINAL TERM
Electronics3
Colegio de San Juan de Letran
B A T A A N
COLLEGIATE DEPARTMENT
COURSE COURSE
ELECTRONICS 3 ECE13 UNITS 3.0Lec/ 1.0Lab
TITLE CODE
Bachelor of Science in
Program Faculty Engr. Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT
Electronics Engineering
A. Course Overview
This course teaches the theory and operating characteristics of electronic devices
and control circuits for industrial processes;
Industrial control applications; electronics instrumentation; transducers; and data
acquisition system, interfacing techniques and sensors.
Students are expected to come up with a documentation portfolio showcasing
everything they have learned in the course.
B. Course Objectives
After completing this subject, you should be able to:
6. Design and create simple electronic system that utilizes the devices introduced
in this course.
Week Topic
10 III.Photoelectronics
11 Optoelectronic Devices
Photodiodes
Photocells
12 Industrial Photoelectronic Devices
Optoisolators and Optointerrupters
Temperatue Sensor
Pressure Sensors
Mechanical Sensor
14 Level Sensors
Speed Sensors
Light Sensors
Position Sensors
15 V. Programmable Logic Controllers
18 FINAL EXAMINATION
• Maloney, Timothy J., Modern Industrial Electronics ,4th Edition, Prentice Hall, 2005
• Satori, Glenn, Industrial Electronics, Prentice Hall, 2006
E. Course Requirements
Academic Integrity. Students should not plagiarize text from papers or online resources
written by others.
Online Participation. This course will be conducted entirely online and will sometimes
require video conferencing and other activities that will be announced ahead of time.
Emergencies. Students who are affected by an emergency should contact the instructor
at the earliest possible time to make special arrangements.
Copyright. All course materials students receive or to which students have online access
are protected by copyright laws. The course materials attached should be exclusively
used for those who are officially enrolled in class in the Colegio.
H. Consultation Hours
TBA
6. An optoisolator contains .
a. An infrared LED
b. A photodetector
c. Both an infrared LED and a photodetector
d. None of these
11. Thermal flowmeters use to sense the temperature of the fluid flowing in the
pipe.
a. a thermocouple
b. a thermistor
c. an RTD
d. None of the above
Module 1
Photoelectronics
Prepared by
Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT
C O L L E G I A T E D E P A R T M E N T
LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 8
Module 1
Photoelectronics
Objectives
At the end of the discussion, the students will be able to:
1. Describe the operational theory of the three components that make up a
photoelectric sensor.
2. Familiarize with the operational theory, characteristics, and application
examples of different photoelectric methods of detection.
Introduction
Sensors come in a wide variety, and each type has strengths and weaknesses.
Sensing with light became popular in the 1950s. The early photoelectric systems
consisted of two elements: an incandescent lamp and a light-sensitive resistive
device called a photocell. The lamp was placed so that its light could be projected
across the sensing area to the photocell. These systems had three shortcomings.
First, the bulb lost its intensity and became ineffective as it aged. Second, the
filaments would break if exposed to temperature extremes or high vibration. Third,
in order for the photocell to differentiate between the beam of the lamp and ambient
light, both elements had to be carefully aligned and positioned within a limited
distance. All of these problems were eliminated by the development of the
semiconductor sensing devices presently used.
Lesson 1
Optoelectronic Devices
One of the fast-emerging technology fields that deal with applying electronic
devices to the sourcing, detection and control of light is Optoelectronics.
Telecommunication using fiber optics and X-ray machines in hospitals are a few
illustrations of this technology.
Optoelectronics are classified into different types such as photodiode, solar cells,
light emitting diodes (LEDs), optical fiber, and laser diodes.
Light-Emitting Diodes.
It is a P-N semiconductor diode in which the recombination of
electrons and holes yields a photon. When the diode is electrically
biased in the forward direction, it emits incoherent narrow spectrum
light. When a voltage is applied to the leads of the LED, the electrons
recombine with the holes within the device and release energy in the
form of photons. This effect is called as electroluminescence. It is the
conversion of electrical energy into light. The color of the light is
decided by the energy band gap of the material. The usage of LED
is advantageous as it consumes less power and produces less heat.
LEDs last longer than incandescent lamps.
Laser Diodes.
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser) is a
source of highly monochromatic, coherent and directional light. It
operates under stimulated emission condition. The function of a laser
diode is to convert electrical energy into light energy like infrared
diodes or LEDs. The beam of a typical laser has 4×0.6mm extending
at a distance of 15 meters.
Lesson 2
Application
Lesson 3
As the illumination on the device increases in intensity, the energy state of a larger
number of electrons in the structure will also increase because of the increased
availability of the photon packages of energy. The result is an increasing number
of relatively “free” electrons in the structure and a decrease in the terminal
resistance.
Application
One rather simple but interesting application of the device is on
voltage regulator. The purpose of the system is to maintain V o at a
fixed level even though Vi may fluctuate from its rated value. As
indicated in the figure, the photoconductive cell, bulb, and resistor all
form part of this voltage-regulator system. If Vi should drop in
magnitude for any of a number of reasons, the brightness of the bulb
would also decrease. The decrease in illumination would result in an
increase in the resistance (Rλ) of the photoconductive cell to maintain
Vo at its rated level as determined by the voltage-divider rule.
Lesson 4
PHOTOELECTRIC SENSORS
Photoelectric sensors use light to detect the absence or presence of an object.
Detection occurs if a light beam is interrupted or reflected by the object being
sensed. The advantages photosensors are: no physical contact with the target is
required, and the object can be detected at varying distances ranging from one
inch to several hundred feet. Photoelectronic sensors may be divided into three
components: the light source, the light sensor, and the sensor circuitry.
Light Source.
It supplies the light beam, which is transmitted to the light sensor.
The light source is also referred to as an emitter or transmitter. Light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) are used most frequently as light sources.
Semiconductors made of gallium arsenide produce infrared light,
which is invisible to the human eye. Infrared LEDs produce
approximately ten times as much light energy as visible red LEDs.
Table 1.6.1 shows spectrum range that indicates the wavelength of
each type of light generated by LEDs and the uses for the various
LEDs.
Both visible and infrared LEDS are used as the light source for
photoelectric transmitters. Visible LEDs can be monitored visually
during their operation, are easy to align, and are used in applications
where specific colors or contrasts must be detected. Infrared LEDs
produce a stronger light than visible LEDs. Also, photodiodes and
phototransistors used in the sensing component respond only to the
infrared wavelength and not to visible light waves. They are also
popular for security applications because infrared light is invisible.
Light Sensor.
The detector or the receiver detects the absence or presence of an
object. The most common types of light-sensitive components used
for detection are photodiodes and phototransistors. Photodiodes are
linear, operate at high frequencies, and detect reddish visible light
and infrared light waves, while phototransistors amplify, have greater
light sensitivity than photodiodes, operate at much lower speeds, are
Sensor Circuitry.
The block diagram of the emitter and detector for the photoelectric
sensor circuitry is shown in Figure 1.6.6 (a).
Detector Block.
The detector portion of the sensor in Figure 1.6.6(a) shows that a
phototransistor is used to detect the light. As the light wave strikes the
transistor base, the signal produced is applied to the input of a high-gain
amplifier tuned to the modulated frequency. The output of the amplifier is
demodulated by a filtered rectifier. The demodulation function reduces the
problem of critical alignment, and it allows the sensor to be used in areas
where ambient light levels are relatively high or when dirt, oil, or smoke
obscures the lens. A Schmitt trigger is used to increase the switching speed
for very high-speed applications, for hysteresis, for noise immunity, and for
logic level outputs. The receiving sensor unit is available with or without the
demodulator. A sensor without the demodulator has a gain that is limited
to the point at which the receiver recognizes ambient light. Therefore, it
requires critical alignment because of the long-focal-point lens it uses. In
contrast, a demodulated receiver ignores ambient light and responds only
to the modulated light source. As a result, the gain of the amplifier may be
turned up to a very high level. The high-gain operation reduces the problem
of critical alignment and enables the sensor to detect light effectively even
when its lens is obscured by dirt, oil, or smoke. Some non-demodulated
sensors are also referred to as ambient receivers. They are used to detect
objects that emit their own light, such as red hot metals, hot glass, or
anything that emits infrared light energy that is many times stronger than
ambient infrared light.
There are two modes used to detect an object with photoelectronic sensors.
The first mode, referred to as light-to-dark, uses a detector that sees energy
coming from an emitter until it is obstructed by the object it is detecting. The
second mode is referred to as dark-to-light. It uses a detector that looks for
an energy source and sees it either through reflection or when an
obstruction is removed. Most sensing applications rely on one of six
commonly used methods of detection: opposed sensing, retroreflective
sensing, diffuse sensing, convergent sensing, specular sensing, and color-
mark sensing.
Sensitivity.
It is a measure of the amount of change in light intensity that is
required by the optical sensor to produce a switching action at its
output. It is possible to vary the sensitivity of the sensor by making a
potentiometer adjustment to its sensitivity potentiometer (shown in
Figure 1.6.11(a)) that changes the gain of its electronic amplifier
circuitry. The sensitivity setting affects the ability of the sensor to
detect a target.
On-Delay Operation.
When a target is detected, a period of time passes before the output
turns on if the on-delay function of the sensor is activated. Figure
1.6.11(b) graphically shows the on-delay operation. The duration of
the delay is determined by placing the ON DIP switch to the S (short)
or L (long) position, and adjusting the Delay On potentiometer. The
span and the length of time are greater when the DIP switch is in the
L position. If no time delay is desired, the potentiometer should be
adjusted to the minimum setting. Preventing an alarm from turning
on unless a dangerous condition exists for a period of time is an
example of an on-delay operation.
Off-Delay Operation.
Figure 1.6.11(c) graphically shows the off-delay operation. When a
target is detected, the output immediately turns on. When the target
is lost, a period of time passes before the output of the sensor turns
off. The duration of the delay is determined by placing the OFF DIP
switch to the S (short) or L (long) position, and adjusting the Delay
Off potentiometer.
One-Shot Operation.
The function of a one-shot operation is to produce an output for a
duration that is either longer or shorter than the time at which the
target is detected, as graphically shown in Figure 1.6.11(d). The
output is activated when the sensor detects a target, and stays on
for a specific period of time before it automatically turns off. To
operate in the one-shot mode, the ONE SHT DIP switch is placed in
In some situations, the space is too confined, the size of the target is too
small, or the environment is too hostile even for remote sensors. For such
applications, fiber-optic conductors may be used. Fiber optics are
transparent strands of glass or plastic that transfer light to and from such
locations. Fiber-optic “light pipes” are capable of conducting light around
corners and operating when exposed to high temperatures or vibration.
They are immune to magnetic noise. Plastic fibers are used in applications
where there is repeated flexing, such as on a reciprocating machine.
However, their drawbacks are that they cannot be exposed to extreme
temperatures, and they can be damaged if exposed to chemicals. Glass
fibers can withstand high temperatures and exposure to chemicals, but they
break if bent too often or too sharply.
Operating Specifications
Data specifications are available for each type of optical sensor. This
information helps the user select the proper sensor by indicating how well it
will operate under certain conditions. The data sheets provide information
on sensitivity, excess gain, field-of-view, and sensor response.
Sensitivity.
It is a measure of the amount of change in light intensity that is
required by the sensor to cause a switching action at its output.
Sensitivity is the combined result of several design factors of the
sensing device, such as: 1.) the amount of amplification incorporated
in the electronic circuitry; 2.) the light power of the LED; and 3.) the
size, shape, and quality of the lens. Each of these variables affects
the operating distance at which the sensor detects a target.
Excess Gain.
It is a measurement of the amount of light energy that falls on the
receiver beyond the minimum amount of light required to operate the
sensor amplifier. In equation form, it is expressed as:
Two factors affect the light energy from the emitter that reaches the
detector: the distance and the environmental conditions between
them. Light intensity seen by the detector decreases as its distance
from the emitter increases. Light is attenuated by obstructions such
as dirt, smoke, and other contaminants.
Contrast.
All photoelectric sensing applications require differentiating between
two light levels received by the detector. These light levels pertain to
the maximum light that shines on the detector (called the light state)
and the minimum light that shines on the detector (called the dark
state). The comparison between the two light levels is referred to as
contrast. Also known as the light-to-dark ratio, it is represented by
the following formula:
Field-of-View.
It is the dispersion angle within which the sensor can effectively
sense light from the emitter. Some sensors are only capable of
detecting a narrow beam within 2 degrees of where the light is aimed.
Other types can sense light that is spread over a wide angle,
exceeding 60 degrees. The broader the field-of-view of a
photoelectric sensor, the easier it is to align. The narrower the field-
of-view, the greater the light intensity becomes, enabling the sensor
to increase its sensing range. Some narrow beam sensors detect
light up to several hundred feet.
The sensor selected for this application must have a switching speed
of at least 50 ms to operate effectively. There is a correlation
between sensor response time and excess gain. As the gain is
increased, its switching speed slows down.
INSTRUCTION: Post your answer in Google class stream page where this
question is posted. This is a group work.
Questions:
Activity 1
INSTRUCTIONS: Copy and answer the following items below. Write your answer
in a A4 bond paper and scan or take a photo of your output and save all images in
a single file in pdf format. This activity will be compiled together with the remaining
activities.
This activity is a collaborative learning exercises, thus the learners will work as a
group. Each group must consist of a maximum of five (5) students. The activity will
be graded according to its correctness of answer (70%) and presentation (30%).
5. To increase the distance that the LED emits light, the amount of current
must be ________.
11. The best source of light for color sensing is _______, because it
contains all colors.
15. The comparison between the light state and dark state is referred to as
_________.
17. What are the different methods of light detection that uses a disk that
looks like a bicycle reflector?
18. What method of light detection uses a series of sensors to form a light
curtain?
20. Suppose the diameter of a target is 2 inches, the light beam width is 1⁄2
inch, and the speed of the object is 5 inches per second. What is the
minimum response time required by the sensor?
OPTOISOLATORS
The opto-isolator is a device that incorporates many of the characteristics
described in the preceding section. It is simply a package that contains both an
infrared LED and a photodetector such as a silicon diode, transistor Darlington
pair, or SCR. The wavelength response of each device is tailored to be as identical
as possible to permit the highest measure of coupling possible. In Fig. 17.52 , two
possible chip configurations are provided, with a drawing of each. There is a
transparent insulating cap between each set of elements embedded in the
structure (not visible) to permit the passage of light. They are designed with
response times so small that they can be used to transmit data in the megahertz
range.
Note:
When using the optointerrupter, make sure that the object that interrupts the
beam can completely block an infrared beam.
Remember:
Questions will be uploaded to google classroom a day after the
discussion of module 1 or on the agreed schedule. You are given
time to answer the quiz after it’s uploaded to google classroom. This
is an individual assessment, therefore, individual submission of
answer to google classroom account where this is posted.
Instructions:
Write the problem and show the complete solutions and box your
final answer. Use two decimal places. Write your answer in A4 bond
paper. Use the format (Last Name, MI, First Name) in the upper left
most part of your paper. Scanned copy or take a picture of your
answer and submit it on or before the deadline of submission to our
google classroom account where this quiz is posted.
Module 2
Input Devices: Sensors
& Transducers
Prepared by
Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT
C O L L E G I A T E D E P A R T M E N T
Introduction
There are many variables which affect our everyday lives: speed of a car, velocity
of the wind, temperature of the oven, light level in the room. In most situations
these variables are continuously monitored. It is these variables that are the
feedback used to control the speed of a car, oven temperatures, and light levels.
The elements that sense these variables and convert them to a different output
energy are transducers.
On the other hand, sensors are devices that sense the presence or absence of
objects. The sensors gather information and convert it into a signal that can be
read and/or seen by an observer or a piece of equipment. Sensors are used in
everyday applications such as cars, machines, manufacturing and robotics, and
perform several functions. It can be thought of as an automatic switch. In a factory,
a sensor can be used to detect a problem on the production line and stop the
process automatically. No human intervention is necessary.
There are a large variety of sensors on the market and many types of load devices
to which they can be connected. Unfortunately, not all of the sensors or load
devices are compatible because they either do not use the same types of signals
or operate within different voltage or current ranges. If the voltage and current
requirements are not electrically matched, the sensor or load device either may be
damaged or will not operate properly.
TRANSDUCER
A transducer is any device that converts one form of energy into another.
Examples of common transducers include the following:
TEMPERATURE
Temperature Control
Due to kinetic energy, molecules of matter behave in continuous motion and
that molecular movement creates heat known as thermal energy. Thermal
energy is measured in temperature. Thermal equilibrium is attained when
the object’s temperature reaches the elevated temperature. Thermal
movement from hot to cold is called thermodynamics.
Thermodynamic Transfer
Conduction.
The process by which heat is transferred by a solid. The best solid-
material thermal conductors are metals. Some types of nonmetal
solids are insulators.
Convection.
The transfer of heat through fluids such as liquids and gases takes
place since most fluids are poor conductors of heat, thus fluids have
very little thermodynamic transfer through the process of conduction
Radiation.
Thermal energy can also be transferred through a vacuum. Bundles
of energy are radiated away from atoms in the heat source as
Industrial Furnaces.
The most common heat source for many manufacturing operations
is the furnace. It is usually made up of metal and brick because these
materials will withstand high temperatures. Industrial furnaces
provide high temperatures to harden metals by a process called heat
treating. These furnaces are also designed to melt materials, such
as iron in a foundry.
Combustion Furnace
The most common heat source in industry is the combustion furnace.
It usually combines fossil fuel and oxygen at a high temperature to
produce heat.
Electric Furnaces
Furnaces can also be heated by electricity. There are three types of
electrical heating systems commonly used in industry: arc,
resistance, and induction.
Arc Furnaces.
The arc furnace is used in the process of smelting steel in a foundry.
The voltage is applied by connecting one power supply terminal to
an electrode and the other terminal to a crucible made of a
conductive material such as graphite.
Resistance Furnaces.
Resistance furnaces use heating elements similar to those in a
kitchen oven. The element has large resistance, which produces
heat when current flows through. The elements are placed inside
an insulated chamber where all surfaces of the object or material
being heated are uniformly exposed to heat.
Induction Furnaces.
Induction furnaces are also used to melt metals. Again, insulated
chambers are used to hold the work to be heated. Coils of wire are
wrapped around the chamber and AC current is applied. A magnetic
field constantly expands and contracts around the coils. As the field
sweeps across the iron, an eddy current is induced, which causes
molecules to move around. As the molecules shift positions, an
intense heat results in a very short period of time.
Fahrenheit Scale.
The first temperature scale that was developed in the early 1700s by
Gabriel Fahrenheit.
Celsius Scale.
Developed was designed by Anders Celsius
Differential Temperature
The difference between two temperature measurements is used in
some applications. Comparing one temperature to another is called
differential temperature. The relative efficiency is calculated using
the formula:
ELECTRONIC SENSORS
2 Types of Electronic Sensors
i. Thermoresistive sensors
Thermistors and resistance temperature detectors - change
resistance as the ambient temperature varies.
Thermistor
The thermistor exhibits a large change in electrical resistance when
subjected to a relatively small change in temperature. Temperature
variations can be caused either by a change in the ambient
temperature external to the thermistor or, internally, by a change in
Temperature Measurement
To find out the temperature measurement of a thermistor,
temperature measuring voltage divider can be used. Figure 7-10
illustrates the circuit of a temperature measuring voltage divider.
Temperature Compensation
To offset the temperature-resistance changes, the negative
coefficient properties of a thermistor can be used. A thermistor can
be used to compensate for the resistance change of the coil as
shown in Figure 7-11. The resistance of the thermistor changes
significantly more than that of the coil over the same temperature
range. By placing a shunt resistor of the proper value across the
thermistor, the equivalent resistance of the parallel network provides
a negative coefficient nearly equal to the positive coefficient of the
copper.
RTD Applications
Overcurrent Protection.
The positive temperature coefficient characteristics of an RTD make
it an ideal overcurrent protection device. During normal operating
conditions, the RTD resistance is low. Therefore, its effect on current
flow is minimal. When a short circuit or an overcurrent condition
occurs, the RTD resistance goes high and limits the current to a low
level.
Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a transducer that converts heat into voltage. The
amount of voltage developed by a thermocouple junction is affected
by the amount of heat applied to it. The higher the temperature, the
greater the voltage produced. The voltage–temperature
characteristics of a thermocouple are nonlinear over its rated
temperature range. Equal changes of temperature at the low end of
its rated working temperature range produce different output
voltages than do equal changes of temperature at its high end.
Optical Pyrometers.
The optical pyrometer is shown in Figure 7-17(a). A viewfinder is
positioned to allow observance of the target and the filament of a light
bulb at the same time, as shown in Figure 7-17(b). The object being
measured is compared to the brightness of the filament. A current
adjustment is made by the operator until they are both the same
intensity, at which time the filament visually disappears into the
background. When the brightness of both objects is equal, their
temperatures are also the same.
Ratio Pyrometers.
At all temperatures, the target object radiates energy at different
frequencies. Most pyrometers measure the dominant waves with the
most energy. The ratio pyrometer differs from other pyrometers by
Lesson 2
Pressure Sensors
Pressure
Pressure is measured as force per unit area. In the English system, force is
measured in pounds, and unit area for pressure measurements is the square inch.
Therefore, pressure is commonly expressed in terms of pounds per square inch,
or psi. Pressure is defined mathematically by the following formula:
Properties of a Liquid
Viscosity.
The ability of a liquid to flow and take the shape of a container. The pressure
exerted by products or ingredients in liquid form must be closely monitored
and controlled. The amount of pressure is affected by several factors:
Height.
The term head is commonly used to describe the height of a liquid above
the measurement point. Head is given in inches, feet, or other units of
distance.
Weight.
Different liquids have different weights due to their density. Density is
defined as the weight of a certain volume of liquid, expressed in pounds
per unit volume.
Hydrostatic Pressure.
Specific Gravity.
If a liquid other than water is in the container, calculations may be made for
its specific gravity (SG). Specific gravity of a liquid indicates how much
lighter or heavier it is compared to water at 60 degrees Fahrenheit.
Temperature.
Increasing the temperature expands the liquid (i.e., its molecules move
farther apart) and reduces its density. However, the amount of pressure also
depends whether the liquid is in open or closed vessel.
Atmospheric Pressure.
Increasing the temperature expands the liquid (i.e., its molecules move
farther apart) and reduces its density. The higher the elevations, the lesser
the atmospheric pressure.
Properties of Gas
There are also several factors affecting the pressure of a gas. These are the
following:
Hydraulic Systems.
Many types of machinery used in the manufacturing industry are powered
by hydraulic pressure. Figure 7-4 shows an oil-based fluid which is used the
most among all types of hydraulic systems. The illustration shows a double-
acting hydraulic system that controls a punch press.
The figure shows a motor-driven rotary pump as the energy source of the
system. It converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. With each
revolution of the pump, a fixed amount of hydraulic fluid enters the inlet port
from the reservoir. The liquid is set into motion by being forced through the
outlet port into the system through transmission pipes or flexible tubing. This
outlet port is called the pressure line.
The directional control valve, or four-way valve, alters the directional flow
path of the fluid. It consists of a valve body with four internal passages and
a sliding spool that connects and disconnects the passages. The double-
acting cylinder is used to control a punch press and serves as the load
device of the system. It performs work by changing the mechanical energy
of hydraulic fluid into linear motion that moves the ram of the press. The
hand shutoff is a flow control valve. By turning the knob, the amount of fluid
flow in both directions can be adjusted between maximum flow and no flow.
When the valve is fully open, maximum fluid will flow; when fully closed, no
Pneumatic Systems
Figure 1.7.5 shows a pneumatic system that operates a hand tool. An air
compressor unit serves as the energy source of the system. It forces
surrounding air into a tank under pressure. The tank where the compressed
air is stored serves as a reservoir until it is eventually distributed into the
system when needed.
A feedline from the tank provides air for distribution throughout the plant.
Solid pipes, tubing, and flexible hoses can be used to transmit pressure in
the system. The air is not recirculated and returned to the tank. Instead, it
is released from the system back into the atmosphere. Before the air enters
the compressor, it must first be conditioned.
The filter and lubricator at the inlet of the compressor and a metal jar
exhaust collects moisture from oil vapors produced by the lubricator. The
pressure gauge monitors system pressure. The pressure relief valve vents
air into the atmosphere if the pressure in the system becomes excessive.
The check valve prevents high air pressure from returning to the
compressor from the tank due to backflow. The tank is a reservoir that holds
pressurized air for intermittent usage. The pressure regulator is a variable
pressure valve that operates by restricting and blocking flow to the working
portion of the circuit. The actuating speed of the load can be regulated to
different speeds by adjusting the flow control setting of the valve. The
pneumatic system operation is monitored by pressure indicators placed at
strategic locations. Their readings provide information on system operation
and troubleshooting.
In Figure 1.7.7, tubes that contain water are placed inside a sealed metal
chamber that is heated by a furnace unit. The tubes are exposed to high
temperatures by the surrounding air inside the chamber. As the water inside
the tubes is heated, it changes into pressurized steam, which is then forced
through pipes and tubes that serve as transmission lines. As the steam
Lesson 3
Mechanical Sensors
These devices detect some form of mechanical deformation and translate the
deformation into an electrical signal. The mechanical deformation can occur due
to a variety of stimuli. Mechanical sensors are one of the most commonly used
classes of sensors for biomechatronic applications.
Force Sensors.
Can be used to detect tensile, compressive, shear, torsional,
bending, or frictional forces.
Touch Sensors.
Are devices which measure the parameters of contact between the
sensor and an object. Touch sensors measure a contact force at a
defined point. Tactile sensors detect and measure the spatial
distribution of forces perpendicular to a predetermined sensory area
and interpret the spatial information.
Acoustic Sensors.
Rely on the detection of mechanical, or acoustic, waves. As an
acoustic wave propagates through or across the surface of a
material, the velocity and/or amplitude of the wave changes. It can
also be used to detect or potentially distinguish between different
sounds.
Inertial Sensors.
These sensors, such as accelerometers or gyroscopes, sense static,
and dynamic acceleration or angular acceleration, respectively.
Accelerometers.
Gyroscopes.
Help to monitor the orientation of an object in motion.
Piezoresistive Sensors.
Respond to changes in pressure, bending, or force.
Piezoresistive sensors rely on the changes in resistance that
occurs when a mechanical load is imposed on a conductor or
semiconductor. Mathematically, the relationship can be
expressed as
Lesson 4
Level Sensors
A level sensor is a device that is designed to monitor, maintain, and measure liquid
(and sometimes solid) levels. Once the liquid level is detected, the sensor converts
the perceived data into an electric signal. Level sensors are used primarily in the
manufacturing and automotive industries, but they can be found in many
household appliances as well, such as ice makers in refrigerators.
Methods of Measurement
Level is measured by locating the boundary between two media, called the
interface. The media can be liquid and gas, liquid and liquid, liquid and solid,
or solid and gas. Level can be measured directly or indirectly.
Direct Method.
• It includes measuring with a float or a dipstick.
• Direct measurement devices are also referred to as invasive
devices because the sensor is in direct contact with the material.
Indirect Method.
Electronic Sensors
Electronic level sensors are devices that use a change in level to change
an electrical property. The three main types of electronic level sensors are:
Conductive Probes
Conductive probe sensors are used in single- or multiple-point
measurement systems to detect the presence of a conductive liquid.
Capacitive Probes
Capacitive probes are used for continuous level measurement. The
principle of operation is based on the theory of capacitance which
states that the value of a capacitor can be changed by varying the
size of one or more plates or by changing the dielectric. The probe
and the metal wall of the tank form the two plates of a capacitor, and
the contents in the tank is the dielectric. When a nonmetallic tank is
used, a second electrode—referred to as a counterelectrode—is
used. Air has a dielectric constant of 1, which means that most other
materials will store a greater charge. As the dielectric constant value
increases, the capacitance also increases. As the material in the tank
Ultrasonic Sensors
The ultrasonic sensor is another type of continuous level detector.
Ultrasonic sound waves (above the frequency heard by humans) are
developed by an oscillator. They are emitted by a transmitter toward the top
surface of the medium and are reflected back to the ultrasonic signal
receiver. The time it takes the waves to travel from the transmitter to the
target surface and back to the receiver is measured. The time lapse
between transmission and detection is proportional to the distance. This
data is calculated electronically and converted into a liquid-level
measurement.
Voltage Sensor: 0 V
Current Sensor: 4 mA
The desired maximum distance at which the target is placed from the sensor
is called the span calibration setting. At this distance, the following types of
sensors will produce its maximum output value:
Voltage Sensor: 10 V
Current Sensor: 20 mA
Lesson 5
Speed Sensors
Speed is measured using different kinds of sensors operating on different
principles. The speed sensor, an essential component for the operation of several
on-board systems, allows the magnetic rotation speed to be measured in order to
provide a voltage corresponding to the rotation speed. Below are some of the
various kinds of principles employed in speed sensors.
When the target feature is moved close to the sensor, i.e. the air gap
between the sensor and the target is reduced, the flux increases. When the
target is moved further away, the flux reduces. Thus, the motion of the target
feature results in a time-varying flux that induces a proportional voltage in
the coil. The amplitude and frequency of the induced voltage is proportional
to the speed of the target feature.
This voltage signal is fed to the electronic circuitry that processes it to output
the signal in the desired format. Typical applications of these sensors
are the measurement of speed of gear tooth (in Crankshaft, Camshaft)
and sensing the turbine speed of a jet engine.
Advantages.
a. Variable reluctance sensors are passive sensors as they don’t require
external power supply.
b. As the wire and magnets used are pretty inexpensive, these sensors
are low cost sensors.
c. They are light weight, robust and can work in harsh(high temperature
and high vibration) environments
Disadvantages.
Advantages
a. Signal processing electronics is often integrated into the same package
as the transducer.
b. Most Hall Effect speed sensors directly provide a digital output signal
that is directly compatible with digital logic, microcontrollers, and PLC’sThis
reduces the amount of pickup from interference sources, and makes Hall
Effect speed sensors highly immune to Electromagnetic Interference
induced malfunctions and failures.
Applied alternating current fed to the coil induces a primary magnetic field.
Primary magnetic field induces eddy currents in the electrical conducting
material (in vicinity of the coil). Eddy currents, in turn, induce secondary
field. This secondary magnetic field has an effect on the coil impedance.
Presence or absence of the conducting material alters the secondary field
and in turn, the coil impedance. Change in the coil impedance can be
measured to detect the presence, absence and the rate of presence of the
conducting material/body.
Advantages
a. Near zero speed response
b. No magnetic drag
When the target is approaching, the Doppler shift will be more and when
target is moving away, Doppler shift increases. The phenomena are used
to measure the velocity of the target.
Pitot Tubes.
Pitot tubes are used by the aricrafts for measurement of their flying speeds.
Pitot based system functions as the speedometer of the aircraft.
Pitot tubes comprises of two tubes(ports); one in the direction of flow and
one in a direction perpendicular to flow direction. When the aircraft is
moving, the tube get filled with the fluid(air). As the moving fluid comes to
rest, the pressure exerted by the moving fluid is called stagnation pressure
or total pressure. This pressure is measured through the central tube which
is in the direction of flow. The static pressure is measured using the ports
perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow.
Pitometers.
If pitot tubes are used for aircrafts, pitometers on the other hand are used
for ships and submarines. Pitometers measure the speed of the ship with
respect to the water.
Lesson 6
Light Sensors
The light sensor is a passive devices that convert this “light energy” whether visible
or in the infra-red parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light
sensors are more commonly known as “Photoelectric Devices” or “Photo Sensors”
because the convert light energy (photons) into electricity (electrons).
Classification of Photoelectric Devices.
Photo-conductive Cells.
These photodevices vary their electrical resistance when subjected to light.
Photoconductivity results from light hitting a semiconductor material which
controls the current flow through it. Thus, more light increase the current for
a given applied voltage. The most common photoconductive material is
Cadmium Sulphide used in LDR photocells.
As with the previous circuit the output from the operational amplifier is used
to control a relay, which is protected by a free wheel diode, D1. When the
light level sensed by the LDR and its output voltage falls below the
reference voltage set at V2 the output from the op-amp changes state
activating the relay and switching the connected load.
Likewise as the light level increases the output will switch back turning
“OFF” the relay. The hysteresis of the two switching points is set by the
feedback resistor Rf can be chosen to give any suitable voltage gain of the
amplifier.
The operation of this type of light sensor circuit can also be reversed to
switch the relay “ON” when the light level exceeds the reference voltage
level and vice versa by reversing the positions of the light sensor LDR and
the potentiometer VR1. The potentiometer can be used to “pre-set” the
switching point of the differential amplifier to any particular light level
making it ideal as a simple light sensor project circuit.
Photo-voltaic Cells.
Photovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon PN junctions, the
same as photodiodes with a very large light sensitive region but are used
without the reverse bias. They have the same characteristics as a very large
photodiode when in the dark.
When illuminated the light energy causes electrons to flow through the PN
junction and an individual solar cell can generate an open circuit voltage of
about 0.58V (580mV).
Photo-junction Devices.
These photodevices are mainly true semiconductor devices such as the
photodiode or phototransistor which use light to control the flow of electrons
and holes across their PN-junction. Photojunction devices are specifically
designed for detector application and light penetration with their spectral
response tuned to the wavelength of incident light.
Photodiode.
The construction of the photodiode light sensor is similar to that of a
conventional PN-junction diode except that the diodes outer casing is either
transparent or has a clear lens to focus the light onto the PN junction for
increased sensitivity. The junction will respond to light particularly longer
wavelengths such as red and infra-red rather than visible light.
Phototransistors operate the same as the photodiode except that they can
provide current gain and are much more sensitive than the photodiode with
currents are 50 to 100 times greater than that of the standard photodiode
and any normal transistor can be easily converted into a phototransistor
light sensor by connecting a photodiode between the collector and base.
Hall-Effect Sensor.
A sensor that detects the presence of a magnetic field is a Hall-effect
device. This sensor is a flat rectangular piece of P-type semiconductor
(called a Hall generator) usually made of indium arsenide (InAs). It is a four-
terminal device where the two end terminals are power supply connections.
Figure 1.5.1 shows what happens when the semiconductor is subjected to
a perpendicular magnetic field from an electromagnet or permanent
magnet. The charged carriers are deflected to one side of the flat piece by
an effect called the Lorentz force. An EMF (called Hall voltage) develops
across the output terminals. The side to which the charged carriers move
becomes positive in respect to the other side. If the power supply or the
magnetic field direction is reversed, the output of the Hall-effect device will
be opposite in polarity.
There are three variables that determine the Hall voltage amplitude
produced by the Hall generator. First is the amount of current supplied by
the power source. Second, the physical size of the semiconductor material.
The voltage is directly proportional to the thickness and cross-sectional area
to which the flux lines intersect at a perpendicular angle. And last, the
magnetic field strength and orientation to which the Hall device is subjected.
The output voltage produced by the Hall generator is not great enough to
drive an output device to which it is connected. There are two methods
commonly used to boost the signal. One method employs pieces of iron or
other ferrous materials that are placed on either side of the Hall plate. These
pieces, called concentrators, bend the local flux patterns so that a greater
number of lines pass through the sensor. The greater concentration causes
the Hall generator to produce a greater output signal in response to the flux
lines. The other method of increasing the generator’s output is to use an
amplifier. There are two classifications of amplifiers used, one that produces
a linear output, and the other that generates a digital switching signal.
The Hall cell is exposed to increasing magnetic flux density as the magnetic
south pole approaches. The Hall generator and the op amp outputs
increase. At some point, the threshold input of the Schmitt trigger is
reached. Its output switches from low- to high-level voltage, which turns the
switching transistor on. The output (terminal 3) goes to zero. The level at
which the flux density’s strength causes the output to turn on is called the
operating point.
If the magnet is moved away from the Hall cell, the flux density decreases,
and the Hall generator and op amp voltages decrease. Because of the
Schmitt trigger hysteresis, the Hall output will not return to a low level unless
the magnetic flux density falls to a value far lower than the operating point.
When it does, the switching transistor turns off and the output voltage
equals the power supply. The value at which the flux density’s strength
causes the output to turn off is called the release point. The hysteresis
property ensures that even if mechanical vibration or electrical noise is
present, the switch output is fast, clean, and occurs only once per threshold
crossing. The switch speed of the Hall-effect device is 100 kHz.
Head-on Mode.
The magnetic pole moves along a perpendicular path straight toward or
away from the face of the Hall device. This method is primarily used by the
linear Hall-effect sensor.
Slide-by Mode.
A disk with magnets is attached to a rotating shaft. A stationary Hall device
is positioned so that it becomes activated by each lateral pass of a
magnetic south pole. This method is primarily used by the digital Hall-effect
sensor.
Stationary Mode.
A magnet and Hall sensor are mounted at stationary positions with a small
air gap between them. When the flux lines are uninterrupted, the Hall output
is held on by the activating magnet. As the shaft spins, the vane will pass
between the magnet and Hall-effect device. When it does, the Hall
generator turns off because the vane will form a magnetic shunt that
distorts the flux away from the sensor.
Ultrasonic Sensors
An ultrasonic sensor is a device that uses high-frequency sound waves to
detect objects. Sound waves produced by an oscillator are emitted toward
the target from the sensor head. If there is an object from which the
ultrasonic sound waves can be reflected, they will return to the signal
receiver that is located in the same housing as the oscillator. The frequency
of ultrasonic sound waves is above the range heard by humans.
At this distance, the following types of sensors will produce its minimum
output value:
Voltage Sensor: 0 V
Current Sensor: 4 mA
The desired maximum distance at which the target is placed from the sensor
is called the span calibration setting. At this distance, the following types of
sensors will produce its maximum output value:
Voltage Sensor: 10 V
Current Sensor: 20 mA
INSTRUCTION: Post your answer in Google class stream page where this
question is posted. This is a group work.
Questions:
Remember:
Questions will be uploaded to google classroom a day after the
discussion of module 2 or on the agreed schedule. You are given
time to answer the quiz after it’s uploaded to google classroom. This
is an individual assessment, therefore, individual submission of
answer to google classroom account where this is posted.
Instructions:
Write the problem and show the complete solutions and box your
final answer. Use two decimal places. Write your answer in A4 bond
paper. Use the format (Last Name, MI, First Name) in the upper left
most part of your paper. Scanned copy or take a picture of your
answer and submit it on or before the deadline of submission to our
google classroom account where this quiz is posted.
Module 3
Programmable Logic
Controllers
Prepared by
Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT
Module 1
C O LFLEXIBLE
LETRAN L E GLEARNING
I A T PROGRAM
E D E– ENGINEERING
P A R T M E
AREA N T 75
Module 3
Programmable Logic Controllers
Objectives
At the end of the discussion of the module the students will be able to:
1. Explain the concepts on Programmable Logic Controllers.
Introduction
Today, flexible automation is an approach which differ from standard dedicated
automation. This approach uses programs which are a sequence of coded
instructions stored in a memory chip and executed by microprocessor for the
system’s decision making. When there are modifications needed in the system,
only the coded instructions are changed. That’s why systems with such are
referred as programmable systems.
Lesson 1
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)
I/O CONFIGURATIONS
a. Fixed I/O
b. Modular I/O
d. Processor (CPU)
f. Programming Devices
Advantages.
a. Lower initial cost.
b. Less propriety hardware and software required.
c. Straightforward data exchange with other systems.
d. Speedy information processing.
e. Easy customization.
2.
3.
4.
INSTRUCTION: Post your answer in Google class stream page where this
question is posted. This is a group work.
Question:
Assessment
Assessment #03: Final Term
(Topics Covered: Module 3)
Remember:
Questions will be uploaded to google classroom a day after the
discussion of module 3 or on the agreed schedule. You are given
time to answer the quiz after it’s uploaded to google classroom. This
is an individual assessment, therefore, individual submission of
answer to google classroom account where this is posted.
Instructions:
Write the question and answer it in complete sentences. Write your
answer in A4 bond paper. Use the format (Last Name, MI, First
Name) in the upper left most part of your paper. Scanned copy or
take a picture of your answer and submit it on or before the deadline
of submission to our google classroom account where this quiz is
posted.
Module 4
Industrial Robots
Prepared by
Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT
C O L L E G I A T E D E P A R T M E N T
LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 95
Module 4
Industrial Robots
Objectives
At the end of the discussion of the module the students will be able to:
1. Familiarize themselves on the various kinds of DC motors typically used
in robotics.
2. Understand the six major types of industrial robots that are used in the
industry based on its configuration, advantages and disadvantages, as well
as on its application.
Introduction
Owing to rapid technological advancements in robotics and automation, the
manufacturing sector has witnessed an increased adoption of robotics engineering
and technology into its production processes.
Industrial robots are being used to perform tasks with high precision and
repeatability resulting in products of higher quality. The ability of industrial robots
to work continuously without taking a break is helping manufacturers in increasing
output. Moreover, robots can work in dangerous and harmful environments, thus
improving the working conditions and safety of the production plant. Therefore, the
several advantages of industrial robots are encouraging manufacturers to integrate
different types of industrial robots in its production line to increase plant efficiency
and profitability.
This module will focus on the major types of industrial robots based on
configuration, their advantages and disadvantages and the areas of application.
DC MOTORS
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical motors that converts direct current
electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the
forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some
internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change
the direction of current in part of the motor.
Types of DC Motors.
Brushed DC Motor.
Brushed DC motor, or simply a “DC motor” is a classical example of
electrical motor. As discussed before, a motor has a rotor and a stator with
one of them being a permanent magnet. In a brushed DC motor, the rotor
has permanent magnet and the stator has electromagnets. Since the motor
needs a way to detect the rotor’s orientation, it uses brushes as a
commutator which is a piece of rotor touching the shaft. When the rotor
rotates (in turn the brush rotates), it detects the change in orientation and
flips the current. DC motors are available in different sizes and at different
speeds. Although DC motors run at enough speeds, they are generally
useless in robots as they produce the slightest torque. DC motors have only
two wires running into them; one for ground and the other for power.
Brushless DC Motor.
In a brushless motor, the rotor is made of permanent magnet and the stator
is made of electromagnet. To detect a change in orientation, brushless
motors generally use Hall Effect sensors to detect the rotor’s magnetic field
and consecutively its orientation. Brushless motors are very useful in robots
as they are more capable; they provide enough torque, and greater speeds
than brushed motors. Brushless motors are expensive due to their design
complexity and need a controller to control their speed and rotation.
Servo Motors.
Generally known as RC servo motors, these are DC motors coupled with a
feedback control circuitry, a gear system to increase torque and a position
sensing device (usually a potentiometer). When a signal (pulse) is sent, it
moves the motor shaft to a desired position using the position feedback from
a potentiometer. Servos do not exhibit continuous rotation, but are limited
to a specific range (generally 200° back and forth) and requires us to modify
it for continuous rotation. Since servos expect a control signal, there is an
additional wire running into the servo which takes control pulses. Hence
they have three wires; Ground, Power and Control pulse.
Articulated Robots.
Articulated robot is one of the most comment types of industrial robots. It
resembles a human arm in its mechanical configuration. The arm is
connected to the base with a twisting joint. The number of rotary joints
connecting the links in the arm can range from two joints to ten joints and
each joint provides an additional degree of freedom. The joints can be
parallel or orthogonal to each other. Articulated robots having six degrees
of freedom are the most commonly used industrial robots as the design
offers maximum flexibility.
Advantages
• High speed
• Large work envelope for least floor space
• Easier to align to multiple planes
Disadvantages
Application
• Food packaging
• Arc welding
• Spot welding
• Material handling
• Machine tending
• Automotive assembly
Cartesian Robots.
Cartesian robots are also called rectilinear or gantry robots and have a
rectangular configuration. These types of industrial robots have three
prismatic joints to deliver linear motion by sliding on its three perpendicular
axes (X, Y and Z). They might also have an attached wrist to allow rotational
movement. Cartesian robots are used in majority of industrial applications
as they offer flexibility in their configuration which make them suitable for
specific application needs.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Application
SCARA Robots.
SCARA (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm) robots have a donut
shaped work envelope and consists of two parallel joints that provide
compliance in one selected plane. The rotary shafts are positioned
vertically, and the end effector attached to the arm moves horizontally.
SCARA robots specialize in lateral movements and are mostly used for
assembly applications. The SCARA robots can move faster and have easier
integration than cylindrical and cartesian robots.
• High speed
• Excellent repeatability
• Large workspace
Disadvantages
Application
• Assembly applications
• Semiconductor wafers handling
• Biomed applications
• Packaging
• Palletizing
• Machine loading
Delta Robots.
Delta robots are also called parallel link robots as it consists of parallel joint
linkages connected with a common base. Owing to direct control of each
joint over the end effector, the positioning of the end effector can be
controlled easily with its arms resulting in high speed operation. Delta robots
have a dome shaped work envelope. These robots are generally used for
fast pick-and-place or product transfer applications.
Advantages
Disadvantages
• Complicated operation
• Requires dedicated robot controller
Application
• Food industry
• Pharmaceutical industry
• Electronic industry
• Flight simulators
• Automobile simulators
• Optical fiber alignment
Advantages
Disadvantages
Application
• Glass handling
• Stacking and unstacking
• Injection molding
• Forging
• Welding
• Material handling
Cylindrical Robots.
Cylindrical robots have at least one rotary joint at the base and at least one
prismatic joint connecting the links. These robots have a cylindrical
workspace with a pivoting shaft and an extendable arm which moves
vertically and by sliding. Thus, robots with cylindrical configuration offers
vertical and horizontal linear movement along with rotary movement about
the vertical axis. The compact design of the end of the arm allows the robot
to reach tight work envelopes without any loss of speed and repeatability. It
is mostly used in simple applications where materials are picked up, rotated
and placed.
Disadvantages
Application
Assessment
Assessment #04: Final Term
(Topics Covered: Module 4)
Remember:
Questions will be uploaded to google classroom a day after the
discussion of module 4 or on the agreed schedule. You are given
time to answer the quiz after it’s uploaded to google classroom. This
is an individual assessment, therefore, individual submission of
answer to google classroom account where this is posted.
Instructions:
Write the problem and show the complete solutions and box your
final answer. Use two decimal places. Write your answer in A4 bond
paper. Use the format (Last Name, MI, First Name) in the upper left
most part of your paper. Scanned copy or take a picture of your
answer and submit it on or before the deadline of submission to our
google classroom account where this quiz is posted.
Module 5
Fire and Life Safety
Controls
Prepared by
Jorizce C. Rivera, ECE, ECT
C O L L E G I A T E D E P A R T M E N T
LETRAN FLEXIBLE LEARNING PROGRAM – ENGINEERING AREA 103
Module 5
Fire and Life Safety Controls
Objectives
At the end of the discussion of the module the students will be able to:
1. Understand the importance of fire safety controls.
2. Familiarize themselves with regards to the various fire safety work
practices in workplaces.
Introduction
Fire Protection
These three elements typically are referred to as the “fire triangle.” Fire is the result
of the reaction between the fuel and oxygen in the air. Scientists developed the
concept of a fire triangle to aid in understanding of the cause of fires and how they
can be prevented and extinguished. Heat, fuel and oxygen must combine in a
precise way for a fire to start and continue to burn. If one element of the fire triangle
is not present or removed, fire will not start or, if already burning, will extinguish.
Ignition sources can include any material, equipment or operation that emits a
spark or flame—including obvious items, such as torches, as well as less obvious
items, such as static electricity and grinding operations. Equipment
or components that radiate heat, such as kettles, catalytic converters
and mufflers, also can be ignition sources.
Oxygen in the fire triangle comes from the air in the atmosphere. Air contains
approximately 79 percent nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen. OSHA describes a
hazardous atmosphere as one which is oxygen-deficient because it has less than
19.5 percent oxygen, or oxygen enriched because it has greater than 23.5 percent
oxygen. Either instance is regarded by OSHA as an atmosphere immediately
dangerous to life and health (IDLH) for reasons unrelated to the presence of fire.
Depending on the type of fuel involved, fires can occur with much lower volume
of oxygen present than needed to support human respiration.
Every roofing project has all three of the fire triangle elements present
in abundance. The key to preventing fires is to keep heat and ignition
sources away from materials, equipment and structures that could act as fuel
to complete the fire triangle.
Class B—fires involving flammable gases or liquids, such as propane, oil and
gasoline
Class D—fires involving metal. A rule of thumb is if the name of the metal ends
with the letters “um,” it is a Class D fire. Examples of this are aluminum,
magnesium, beryllium and sodium. Class D fires rarely occur in the roofing
industry.
Fire Extinguishers.
There are different types of fire extinguishers designed to put out
the different classes of fire. Selecting the appropriate fire extinguisher is
an important consideration for a roofing contractor. The wrong
extinguisher actually may make a fire emergency worse. For example,
failing to use a C rated extinguisher on energized electrical components may
endanger workers by causing the extinguishing material to be electrified by
the energized components that are on fire. C-rated fire extinguishers put out
the fire by using a chemical that does not conduct electricity.
Fire prevention requires segregating the three elements of the fire triangle. In
practice, a method to achieve that goal is to post—and enforce—no smoking signs
around flammable liquids and gases and have fire watches on all work involving
torch-applied materials of a minimum of two hours after the last torch is turned
off.
Flammable liquids that are extremely viscous, or difficult to pour, like single ply
adhesive, can be left in their original shipping containers. Similarly, OSHA allows
the use of original containers of flammable liquids that are in quantities of one
gallon or less.
Safety cabinets allow for greater quantities of flammable and combustible liquids
to be stored safely inside buildings. Up to 60 gallons of a flammable liquid or as
LP gas collects in low-lying areas because its vapor density is heavier than air.
Employees should be warned that if they suspect a leak in a cylinder, they must
not use fire to attempt to find the hole. Instead, they are to use soapy water and
look for bubbles.
A roofing contractor’s emergency action plan for the job site must include:
∙ Emergency escape procedures
∙ Equipment operation procedures prior to evacuation
∙ Procedures to account for all employees
∙ Rescue and medical duties for those employees responsible for such duties
∙ Preferred means of reporting emergencies
∙ Names and titles of employees with duties under the plan
Employee Training.
OSHA requires that all employees be trained to use fire extinguishers. Training is
required upon employment and at least annually thereafter. It is recommended
the training session cover how to determine when a fire is too big to handle; what
type of extinguisher to use; and the PASS system of early-stage firefighting. It also
is recommended that live fire training be conducted periodically (this level of
training is not needed each year). Live training exposes employees to the
pressure released from a fire extinguisher when the handle is squeezed and
provides hands-on practice extinguishing a fire. Some local fire departments and
most fire extinguisher suppliers offer this type of training.
The company will take all necessary steps to prevent fires. Inspections during
various operations will be made to ensure fire-prevention objectives are being
met. The steps are listed below.
Fire Extinguishers.
∙ In buildings, all fire extinguishers will be mounted on a wall and properly marked.
∙ All vehicles will carry at least one ABC-rated extinguisher.
∙ When at a job site, all employees will know the location of each fire extinguisher.
∙ Before using an extinguisher, all employees will be trained and familiar with the PASS
method of firefighting.
∙ Each fire extinguisher will be inspected monthly to make sure it is in its designated
location and has not been tampered with or actuated.
∙ Each fire extinguisher will be clearly visible with nothing obstructing or obscuring it from
view.
INSTRUCTION: Post your answer in Google class stream page where this
question is posted. This is a group work.
Question:
Assessment
Assessment #05: Final Term
(Topics Covered: Module 5)
Remember:
Questions will be uploaded to google classroom a day after the
discussion of module 5 or on the agreed schedule. You are given
time to answer the quiz after it’s uploaded to google classroom. This
is an individual assessment, therefore, individual submission of
answer to google classroom account where this is posted.
Instructions:
Write the question and answer it in complete sentences. Write your
answer in A4 bond paper. Use the format (Last Name, MI, First
Name) in the upper left most part of your paper. Scanned copy or
take a picture of your answer and submit it on or before the deadline
of submission to our google classroom account where this quiz is
posted.
6. An optoisolator contains .
a. An infrared LED
b. A photodetector
c. Both an infrared LED and a photodetector
d. None of these
11. Thermal flowmeters use to sense the temperature of the fluid flowing in the
pipe.
a. a thermocouple
b. a thermistor
c. an RTD
d. None of the above