Introduction To the PCB design flow, materials and cad

tools

What is PCB?
• A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically
connects electrical or electronic components using conductive tracks, pads
and other features etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated
onto and/or between sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate.

• Components are generally soldered onto the PCB to both electrically

connect and mechanically fasten them to it.

• PCBs are rugged, inexpensive, and can be highly reliable.

• Flexible PCB are also available

• Mass manufacturing

• Professional

PCBA (printed circuit BOARD assembly):

A circuit board prior to assembly of electronic components is known as
PCB. Once electronic components are soldered, the board is called Printed Circuit
Types of PCB:
• Single Sided PCB or Single Layer PCB
• Double Sided PCB or Double Layer PCB
• Multilayer PCB
• Rigid PCB
• Flex PCB or Flexible PCB
• Rigid-Flex PCB or Rigid-Flexible PCB

Single Sided or Single Layer Types of PCB:

• Single Sided PCB is the simplest low cost PCB or printed circuit board.
• These types of PCB has only one single layer of the base substrate (Fiberglass)
and one single conductive (copper) layer.
• Holes for electronic components are generally not plated through.
• Layout for the electronic components is on one side and the conductive circuit is
on the other side.
• Since, there is only conductive layer forming the circuit, it is called single sided
PCB or One Layer PCB or Single Layer PCB
Double Sided PCB or Double Layer PCB:
• These types of PCB have one single layer of the base substrate but conductive
(copper) layer on both sides of the substrate.
• Solder mask is applied on both sides of the board.
• Holes for electronic components have to be plated through for conductivity on
both the circuits.
• Conductive holes in the PCB allow circuits on one side to attach to circuits on the
other side.
• Electronic components are soldered on both sides.
• Both through-hole electronic components and Surface Mount Components
(SMD) can be soldered on either side of this type of PCB. SMD components can
be soldered with Surface Mount Technology. Since, there are two or double
conductive layer forming the circuit; it is called Double Sided PCB or Two Layer
PCB

Multilayer PCB:
• Multilayer PCB is a Printed Circuit Board with more than 2 layers. These types of
PCB must have a minimum of 3 conductive layers of conductive material or
copper layer.
 • All the layers are interconnected with copper plated holes. The layers can be 4, 6,
8…upto 40 layers.
• All the active and passive electronic components are assembled on top and
bottom layers. All the inner stacked layers are meant for routing. Both through-
hole electronic components and Surface Mount Components (SMD) can be
soldered on either side of this type of PCB. SMD components can be soldered
with Surface Mount Technology and other PCBA Tools

What is Prepeg:
• Prepreg is a dielectric material that is sandwiched between two cores or between a
core and a copper foil in a PCB, to provide the required insulation. You can call it
a binding material as well. It either binds two cores or a core and a copper foil.
Rigid Printed Circuit Board:
• Rigid Circuit Board is a PCB that we cannot bend or force out of shape. It is not
flexible. A Rigid PWB can be Single Sided, Double Sided or Multilayer. Once a
Rigid Circuit Board is manufactured they cannot be modified or folded into any
other shape.

Flexible Printed Circuit Board:

• As the name suggests, these Flex PCB are flexible and can be folded and are not
hard as Rigid PCB
• A Flex PCB can be single sided PCB, double-sided PCB or multilayer PCB.
• The substrate of a flexible board is made of flexible plastic

Rigid Flex Printed Circuit Board:

• Rigid flex PCB is a hybrid combination of a Rigid PCB and a Flex PCB. Most
simple form of a rigid-flex printed circuit board consists of a rigid circuit board
joint to a flexible circuit board.
 • Rigid flex printed circuit board consist of both rigid and flexible substrates that
are laminated together to form a single circuit board

Terms related to PCB

Substrate (FR4):
• The base material, or substrate, is usually fiberglass. Historically, the most
common designator for this fiberglass is "FR4". This solid core gives the PCB
its rigidity and thickness.
• It is the most commonly used PCB material.
Copper foil:
• The next layer is a thin copper foil, which is laminated to the board with heat and
adhesive.

Solder Mask:
• It’s the layer on Copper.
• It gives PCB its Colour.
• RED / GREEN / Blue / Black.
• Protects Copper part of PCB.
• Everywhere except pads and holes foe soldering.

Silk Screen:
• White Ink over solder mask.
• Identification of component names.
• Symbols.
• Manufacturer data.
• Pin no / names.
Via (Vertical Interconnect Access):
• A hole in a board used to pass a signal from one layer to another.
• Tented vias are covered by solder mask to protect them from being soldered to

Copper Track:
• A track is conductive path that is used to connect 2 points in the PCB. For
example, for connecting 2 pads or for connecting a pad and a via, or between
vias.
• In PCB design, a footprint is a pattern for an electronic component that will
eventually be soldered there.
Foot Print:
• In PCB design, a footprint is a pattern for an electronic component that
will eventually be soldered there.
PCB Design Flow:

• Step 1 - Part Research & Selection

• Step 2 - Schematic Capture
• Step 3 - Simulation
• Step 4 - Board Layout
• Step 5 - PCB Routing
• Step 6 – Design Verification
• Step 7- Design rule check
• Step 8-CAM file generation

Step 1 - Part Research & Selection:

• Before even designing, the engineer needs to be able to select components that
will make a circuit function.
• There are a number of semiconductor manufacturers including Analog Devices,
National Semiconductor, NXP, Rohm, Linear Tech, On Semi and Texas
Instruments, that create devices that meet varying specifications
• There are a number of ways for engineers to research parts including Datasheets
on semiconductor performance

Step 2- Schematic Capture:

• Schematic capture involves taking symbolic representations of components

(resistors, capacitors, amplifiers, comparators etc…) and wiring them together
into a visual diagram which can be easily viewed to understand the functionality
of the circuit

• The purpose of the schematic is to view the building blocks of the circuit from a
theoretical perspective.
Step 3 – Simulation:
• Simulation can be used to evaluate the behaviour of real world components in a
virtual environment, thereby allowing you to do advanced analysis of a design
earlier in the design flow.
• By visualizing the behaviour of the circuit at the earliest stage of prototyping,
one can reduce errors and improve performance
Step 4 - Board Layout
• A schematic when completed is transferred to board layout.
• Each symbol in a schematic is associated with a land pattern.
• A land pattern visually represents the physical dimensions of an IC or
semiconductor package.
• The land pattern translates the symbol of a component (such as an Operational
Amplifier) to an 8 pin rectangular package.
• During the board layout stage the design is defined as it will eventually look
when prototyped. This means defining the board outline, placing parts, creating
connections between parts in copper, and then finally exporting for fabrication.
Step 5 - PCB Routing:
• The next step is to determine the route and paths that your interconnections
will be taking to get from one pin to another or from one component to another

Step 6-Design rule check:

• With the increasing component and routing densities of today's high-speed
designs, you must manage a large number of rules and design constraints
• The design rule check allows you to detect any discrepancies early on and correct
any errors that may potentially cause you trouble in the PCB manufacturing phase
Step 7-Design Verification:
• Before you send your design out for manufacture, you need to check the accuracy
of the final design
• Checks includes trace widths, component body spacing and numerous other
verification checks.
Step 8-CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) Documents:
• At the end of process, you will most likely have Gerber files, a standard format
for files pertaining to PCBs, containing the visual information and the visual plots
for your circuit.
• File extension is .gbr
.
PCB Materials:
• The primary material used to fabricate PCBs (Printed Circuit Boards) is of
immense importance.
• The performance and level of integration of the PCB is completely dependent on
the material used to fabricate the PCB.
• It is essential to consider the performance of the material in terms of temperature
resistance, adhesion, tensile strength, flexibility, dielectric strength, dielectric
constant, and many other physical, electrical, and thermal factors.
• PCB generally consists of four layers, which are heat laminated together into a
single layer. The material used in PCB from top to bottom includes
• The material is chosen according to the application, the result needed,
environmental factors
Types of substrate materials:
• There are three major types of materials used for fabrication of PCBs:
• FR-4
• PTFE (Teflon)
• Metal
FR 4 (fire retardant):
• This is the most commonly used material in PCBs.

• It is a glass reinforced epoxy laminate sheet.

• The epoxy used is flame retardant and water resistant.

• It provides good strength to weight ratios.

• The tensile strength offered by this material is very high.

PTFE (Teflon):
• PTFE is a kind of plastic material that does not provide any resistance, thus is
used for high speed, high frequency applications.
• PTFE is extremely flexible, making it invaluable in applications with tight tolerances.
• It is also extremely lightweight, allowing it to be used across various industries.
• It is also flame resistant, exhibits high physical strength, provides temperature
stability, and is versatile in application.

Metal:
• The traditional materials of copper, aluminium, iron, etc. are still used in PCBs.
• These materials allow the use of Surface Mount Technology (SMT) for the
integration of components.
• They also provide mechanical durability. Thus, the product life of metal base
PCBs is much longer.

Other Substrate Materials:

• FR-1 and FR-2
• CEM-1
• CEM-3
• Polyimide
• Prepreg
1. Go to all programs in Start menu, open “Dip Trace”, click on “Dip Trace Launcher”.

2. Click on the “Schematic Capture”.

3. Below figure shows the “Schematic capture” window.

4. Go to top toolbar, click on “Object” tab and select the “Find Components”
5. In “Search Area”, choose the “All Libraries”
6. In “Name”, we can Search the required Components Name, like Diode, Res
(Resistor), Cap (Capacitor)
7. Left side window shows the searched components, in below figure shows in the
red circle and also shows the component symbol and foot print of the component.

8. Required components place on screen, as shown in figure.

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9. Click on Save Button, to save the project.

10. Save the Project with name.

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11. Go to “File” tab, click on the “Convert to PCB” tab. Then the Circuit will
be converted into PCB Layout.

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12. Select the “Route Manual” tool, we can draw the copper tracks on the PCB,
one point to another point.
13. In “Segment Layer”, Choose the “Bottom (2)” and track copper width set to “0.05”
inch

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14. Select the “Place Board Outline” tool, we can the draw the height and width of
the PCB Board.

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15. Now Draw the outline of the PCB Board as shown in figure.
16. Click on “3D” tool icon, we can see PCB in 3D view

17. Click on “Ok”

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18. Below figure shows top view of the PCB Board.

19. Below figure shows bottom view of the PCB Board.

20. The below figure shows finalized Printed Circuit Board (PCB) of the given circuit
diagram.
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Result: I have studies & Understood the Working with CAD Tools (Dip Trace Launcher).
 Developing Schematic Diagram

Aim: To Develop the schematic diagram for a given circuit.

Apparatus: Desktop Computer with Dip Trace PCB Design Tool.
Components: 1k (RES), Battery (HDR1x2), Diode.
Circuit Diagram:
PN Junction Forward Bias:

Procedure:
1. Go to all programs in Start menu, open “DipTrace”, click on “Dip Trace Launcher”.
2. Click on the “Schematic Capture”.
3. Below figure shows the “Schematic capture” window.

4. Go to top toolbar, click on “Object” tab and select the “Find Components”
5. In “Search Area”, choose the “All Libraries”
6. In “Name”, we can Search the required Components Name, like Diode, Res
(Resistor), Cap (Capacitor)
7. Left side window shows the searched components, in below figure shows in the
red circle and also shows the component symbol and foot print of the component.
8. Required components place on screen, as shown in figure.

9. Circuit connections as shown in the figure.

10. Click on Save Button, to save the project.

11. Save the Project with name.

By using above steps we can develop the given circuit diagram into Schematic diagram.

Result: I have drawn the schematic diagram for a given circuit.

 2.Power Supply Circuits
Aim: To draw the schematic diagram & PCB layout for a given power supply circuits.
Apparatus: Desktop Computer with Dip Trace PCB Design Tool.
Components: Center tap Transformer (10A009), Diode, 7805 Regulator (HDR1x3),
Output (HDR1x2), Capacitor-1000µF (CAP250RP), Capacitor-1µF (CAP), Bridge
Rectifier (DBL201G).
Circuit Diagram:
5 Volts Power Supply Using Full wave Rectifier:

5 Volts Power Supply Using Bridge Rectifier:

Procedure:
1. Open the Dip trace Launcher Software.
2. Click on the Schematic Capture tab.
3. Place the required components on screen.
4. Connect the components as per circuit diagram.
5. Save the project file.
6. Check if any errors connections in the circuit.
7. After circuit connections, circuit will be converted into PCB layout.
8. In PCB layout, draw the height and width of the PCB by using place Board outline.
 9. By using Route Manual tool, copper tracks will be draw to one pad to another
pad as per circuit diagram.
10. After route manual completion, project will be export into Gerber file and file
save as Zip Archive file.

THEORY –
What is a Half Wave Rectifier?
A half wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows one half-cycle of an
AC voltage waveform to pass, blocking the other half-cycle. Half-wave rectifiers are used to
convert AC voltage to DC voltage, and only require a single diode to construct.
A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). It is done by
using a diode or a group of diodes. Half wave rectifiers use one diode, while a full wave rectifier
uses multiple diodes.
The working of a half wave rectifier takes advantage of the fact that diodes only allow current to
flow in one direction.
Half Wave Rectifier Theory
A half wave rectifier is the simplest form of rectifier available. We will look at a complete half
wave rectifier circuit later – but let’s first understand exactly what this type of rectifier is doing.

The diagram below illustrates the basic principle of a half-wave rectifier. When a standard AC
waveform is passed through a half-wave rectifier, only half of the AC waveform remains. Half-
wave rectifiers only allow one half-cycle (positive or negative half-cycle) of the AC voltage
through and will block the other half-cycle on the DC side, as seen below.

Only one diode is required to construct a half-wave rectifier. In essence, this is all that the half-
wave rectifier is doing.

Since DC systems are designed to have current flowing in a single direction (and constant voltage
– which we’ll describe later), putting an AC waveform with positive and negative cycles through a
DC device can have destructive (and dangerous) consequences. So we use half-wave rectifiers to
convert the AC input power into DC output power.

But the diode is only part of it – a complete half-wave rectifier circuit consists of 3 main parts:

1. A transformer
2. A resistive load
3. A diode
A half wave rectifier circuit diagram looks like this:

We’ll now go through the process of how a half-wave rectifier converts an AC voltage to a DC
output.

First, a high AC voltage is applied to the to the primary side of the step-down transformer and we
will get a low voltage at the secondary winding which will be applied to the diode.

During the positive half cycle of the AC voltage, the diode will be forward biased and the current
flows through the diode. During the negative half cycle of the AC voltage, the diode will be reverse
biased and the flow of current will be blocked.

Here’s what the half wave rectifier waveform looks like on the input side (Vin), and what it looks
like on the output side (Vout) after rectification (i.e. conversion from AC to DC):
The graph above actually shows a positive half wave rectifier. This is a half-wave rectifier which
only allows the positive half-cycles through the diode, and blocks the negative half-cycle.

The voltage waveform before and after a positive half wave rectifier is shown in figure 4 below.

Conversely, a negative half-wave rectifier will only allow negative half-cycles through the diode
and will block the positive half-cycle. The only difference between a posive and negative half
wave rectifier is the direction of the diode.

As you can see in figure 5 below, the diode is now in the opposite direction. Hence the diode will
now be forward biased only when the AC waveform is in its negative half cycle.
Half Wave Rectifier Capacitor Filter
The output waveform we have obtained from the theory above is a pulsating DC waveform. This is
what is obtained when using a half wave rectifier without a filter.

Filters are components used to convert (smoothen) pulsating DC waveforms into constant DC
waveforms. They achieve this by suppressing the DC ripples in the waveform.

Although half-wave rectifiers without filters are theoretically possible, they can’t be used for any
practical applications. As DC equipment requires a constant waveform, we need to ‘smooth out’
this pulsating waveform for it to be any use in the real world.

Half Wave Rectifier Formula

We will now derive the various formulas for a half wave rectifier based on the preceding theory
and graphs above.

Ripple Factor of Half Wave Rectifier

‘Ripple’ is the unwanted AC component remaining when converting the AC voltage waveform into
a DC waveform. Even though we try out best to remove all AC components, there is still some
small amount left on the output side which pulsates the DC waveform. This undesirable AC
component is called ‘ripple’.

To quantify how well the half-wave rectifier can convert the AC voltage into DC voltage, we use
what is known as the ripple factor (represented by γ or r). The ripple factor is the ratio between the
RMS value of the AC voltage (on the input side) and the DC voltage (on the output side) of the
rectifier.
The formula for ripple factor is:

Which can also be rearranged to equal:

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier
The main advantage of half-wave rectifiers is in their simplicity. As they don’t require as many
components, they are simpler and cheaper to setup and construct.

As such, the main advantages of half-wave rectifiers are:

 Simple (lower number of components)

 Cheaper up front cost (as their is less equipment. Although there is a higher cost
over time due to increased power losses)

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

The disadvantages of half-wave rectifiers are:

 They only allow a half-cycle through per sinewave, and the other half-cycle is
wasted. This leads to power loss.

 They produces a low output voltage.

 The output current we obtain is not purely DC, and it still contains a lot of ripple
(i.e. it has a high ripple factor)

Schematic Diagram: Full wave Rectifier Power Supply

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Outputs:
PCB Layout: Fullwave Rectifier Power Supply

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 Top Layer of the PCB: Fullwave Rectifier Power Supply

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Bottom layer of the PCB: Fullwave Rectifier Power Supply

THEORY –
A full wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that converts both halves of each cycle of an
alternating wave (AC signal) into a pulsating DC signal. Full-wave rectifiers are used to convert
AC voltage to DC voltage, requiring multiple diodes to construct. Full wave rectification is the
process of converting an AC signal to a DC signal.

Circuits that convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) are known as rectifiers. If
such rectifiers rectify both the positive and negative half cycles of an input alternating waveform,
the rectifiers are full-wave rectifiers.

Full-wave rectifiers achieve this by using a group of diodes. A diode permits current in one
direction only and blocks the current in the other direction. We use this principle to construct
various rectifiers.

We can classify rectifiers into two types:

1. Half Wave Rectifier

2. Full Wave Rectifier

When we use a half-wave rectifier, a significant amount of power gets wasted as only one half of
each cycle passes through, and the other cycle gets blocked.

Moreover, the half-wave rectifier is not efficient (40.6%), and we can not use it for applications
that need a smooth and steady DC output. For a more efficient and steady DC output, a full wave
rectifier is used.

We can further classify full wave rectifiers into:

 Centre-tapped Full Wave Rectifier

 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Centre-tapped Full Wave Rectifier
Construction of Centre-tapped Full Wave Rectifier
A centre-tapped full-wave rectifier system consists of:

1. Centre-tapped Transformer
2. Two Diodes
3. Resistive Load
Centre-tapped Transformer: – It is a normal transformer with one slight modification. It has an
additional wire connected to the exact centre of the secondary winding.
This type of construction divides the AC voltage into two equal and opposite voltages, namely +Ve
voltage (Va) and -Ve voltage (Vb).
Working of Centre-tapped Full Wave Rectifier
We apply an AC voltage to the input transformer. During the positive half-cycle of the AC voltage,
terminal 1 will be positive, centre-tap will be at zero potential, and terminal 2 will be negative
potential.
This will lead to forwarding bias in diode D1 and cause current to flow through it. During this time,
diode D2 is in reverse bias and will block current through it.

During the negative half-cycle of the input AC voltage, terminal 2 will become positive relative to
terminal 2 and centre-tap. This will lead to forwarding bias in diode D2 and cause current to flow
through it. During this time, diode D1 is in reverse bias and will block current through it.
During the positive cycle, diode D1 conducts, and during the negative cycle, diode D2 conducts and
during the positive cycle.
As a result, both half-cycles are allowed to pass through. The average output DC voltage here is
almost twice the DC output voltage of a half-wave rectifier.
Output Waveforms

Filter Circuit
We get a pulsating DC voltage with many ripples as the output of the centre-tapped full wave
rectifier. We cannot use this pulsating for practical applications.

So, to convert the pulsating DC voltage to pure DC voltage, we use a filter circuit as shown above.
Here we place a capacitor across the load.
The working of the capacitive filter circuit is to short the ripples and block the DC component so
that it flows through another path and is available across the load.

During the positive half-wave, the diode D1 starts conducting. The capacitor is uncharged.
When we apply an input AC voltage that happens to be more than the capacitor voltage, it charges
the capacitor immediately to the maximum value of the input voltage. At this point, the supply
voltage is equal to capacitor voltage.

When the applied AC voltage starts decreasing and less than the capacitor, the capacitor starts
discharging slowly, but this is slower when compared to the charging of the capacitor, and it does
not get enough time to discharge entirely, and the charging starts again.
So around half of the charge present in the capacitor gets discharged. During the negative cycle,
the diode D2 starts conducting, and the above process happens again.
This will cause the current to flow in the same direction across the load.
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Construction of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
A full wave bridge rectifier is a rectifier that will use four diodes or more than that in a bridge
formation. A full wave bridge rectifier system consists of

1. Four Diodes
 2. Resistive Load
We use the diodes, namely A, B, C and D, which form a bridge circuit. The circuit diagram is as
follows.

Principle of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

We apply an AC across the bridge. During the positive half-cycle, terminal 1 becomes positive,
and terminal 2 becomes negative.
This will cause the diodes A and C to become forward-biased, and the current will flow through it.
Meanwhile, diodes B and D will become reverse-biased and block current through them. The
current will flow from 1 to 4 to 3 to 2.

During the negative half-cycle, terminal 1 will become negative, and terminal 2 will become
positive.
This will cause the diodes B and D to become forward-biased and will allow current through them.
At the same time, diodes A and C will be reverse-biased and will block the current through them.
The current will flow from 2 to 4 to 3 to 1.

Filter Circuit
We get a pulsating DC voltage with many ripples as the output of the full wave bridge rectifier. We
can not use this voltage for practical applications.
So, to convert the pulsating DC voltage to pure DC voltage, we use a filter circuit as shown above.
Here we place a capacitor across the load. The working of the capacitive filter circuit is to short the
ripples and block the DC component so that it flows through another path, and that is through the
load.

During the half-wave, the diodes A and C conduct. It charges the capacitor immediately to the
maximum value of the input voltage. When the rectified pulsating voltage starts decreasing and
less than the capacitor voltage, the capacitor starts discharging and supplies current to the load.

This discharging is slower when compared to the charging of the capacitor, and it does not get
enough time to discharge entirely, and the charging starts again in the next pulse of the rectified
voltage waveform.

So around half of the charge present in the capacitor gets discharged. During the negative cycle,
the diodes B and D start conducting, and the above process happens again. This causes the current
to continue to flow through the same direction across the load.

Full Wave Rectifier Formula

We will now derive the various formulas for a full wave rectifier based on the preceding theory and
graphs above.

Ripple Factor of a Full Wave Rectifier (γ)

‘Ripple’ is the unwanted AC component remaining when converting the AC voltage waveform into
a DC waveform.

Even though we try out best to remove all AC components, there is still some small amount left on
the output side which pulsates the DC waveform. This undesirable AC component is called
‘ripple’.
To quantify how well the half-wave rectifier can convert the AC voltage into DC voltage, we use
what is known as the ripple factor (represented by γ or r).

The ripple factor is the ratio between the RMS value of the AC voltage (on the input side) and the
DC voltage (on the output side) of the rectifier.
The formula for ripple factor is:

Where Vrms is the RMS value of the AC component, and Vdc is the DC component in the rectifier.
The ripple factor of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier is equal to 0.48 (i.e. γ = 0.48).

Note: To construct a good rectifier, we need to keep the ripple factor as minimum as possible. We
can use capacitors or inductors to reduce the ripples in the circuit.
Efficiency of a Full Wave Rectifier (η)
Rectifier efficiency (η) is the ratio between the output DC power and the input AC power. The
formula for the efficiency is equal to:

The efficiency of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier is equal to 81.2% (i.e. η max = 81.2%).
Form Factor of a Full Wave Rectifier (F.F)
The form factor is the ratio between RMS value and average value.
The formula for form factor is given below:

The form factor of a centre-tapped full wave rectifier is equal to 1.11 (i.e. FF = 1.11).

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifiers

The advantages of full wave rectifiers include:

 Full wave rectifiers have higher rectifying efficiency than half-wave rectifiers. This
means that they convert AC to DC more efficiently.
 They have low power loss because no voltage signal is wasted in the rectification
process.
 The output voltage of a centre-tapped full wave rectifier has lower ripples than a
halfwave rectifiers.
Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifiers
The disadvantages of full wave rectifiers include:

 The centre-tapped rectifier is more expensive than a half-wave rectifier and tends to
occupy a lot of space.

Schematic Diagram: Bridge Rectifier Power Supply

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 Outputs:
PCB Layout: Bridge Rectifier Power Supply

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Top Layer of the PCB: Bridge Rectifier Power Supply

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Bottom layer of the PCB: Fullwave Rectifier Power Supply

Result:
By using above steps we can develop the given schematic diagram & PCB layout for a
given power supply circuits.
 4 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

Aim: To draw the schematic diagram & PCB layout for a

given half wave rectifier circuits.

Apparatus: Desktop Computer with Dip Trace PCB Design Tool.

Components: Center tap Transformer (10A009), Diode, Capacitor-1000µF (CAP250RP),

Bridge Rectifier (DBL201G), 1k (RES),
Procedure:
1. Open the Dip trace Launcher Software.

2. Click on the Schematic Capture tab.

3. Place the required components on screen.

4. Connect the components as per circuit diagram.

5. Save the project file.

6. Check if any errors connections in the circuit

7. After circuit connections, circuit will be converted into PCB layout.

8. In PCB layout, draw the height and width of the PCB by using place Board outline.
 9. By using Route Manual tool, copper tracks will be draw to one pad to another
pad as per circuit diagram.
10. After route manual completion, project will be export into Gerber file and file
save as Zip Archive file.

THEORY –
What is a Half Wave Rectifier?
A half wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows one half-cycle of an
AC voltage waveform to pass, blocking the other half-cycle. Half-wave rectifiers are used to
convert AC voltage to DC voltage, and only require a single diode to construct.
A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). It is done by
using a diode or a group of diodes. Half wave rectifiers use one diode, while a full wave rectifier
uses multiple diodes.
The working of a half wave rectifier takes advantage of the fact that diodes only allow current to
flow in one direction.
Half Wave Rectifier Theory
A half wave rectifier is the simplest form of rectifier available. We will look at a complete half
wave rectifier circuit later – but let’s first understand exactly what this type of rectifier is doing.

The diagram below illustrates the basic principle of a half-wave rectifier. When a standard AC
waveform is passed through a half-wave rectifier, only half of the AC waveform remains. Half-
wave rectifiers only allow one half-cycle (positive or negative half-cycle) of the AC voltage
through and will block the other half-cycle on the DC side, as seen below.

Only one diode is required to construct a half-wave rectifier. In essence, this is all that the half-
wave rectifier is doing.

Since DC systems are designed to have current flowing in a single direction (and constant voltage
– which we’ll describe later), putting an AC waveform with positive and negative cycles through a
DC device can have destructive (and dangerous) consequences. So we use half-wave rectifiers to
convert the AC input power into DC output power.

But the diode is only part of it – a complete half-wave rectifier circuit consists of 3 main parts:

1. A transformer
2. A resistive load
3. A diode
A half wave rectifier circuit diagram looks like this:

We’ll now go through the process of how a half-wave rectifier converts an AC voltage to a DC
output.

First, a high AC voltage is applied to the to the primary side of the step-down transformer and we
will get a low voltage at the secondary winding which will be applied to the diode.
During the positive half cycle of the AC voltage, the diode will be forward biased and the current
flows through the diode. During the negative half cycle of the AC voltage, the diode will be reverse
biased and the flow of current will be blocked. The final output voltage waveform on the secondary
side (DC) is shown in figure 3 above.

This can be confusing on first glance – so let’s dig into the theory of this a bit more.

We’ll focus on the secondary side of the circuit. If we replace the secondary transformer coils with
a source voltage, we can simplify the circuit diagram of the half-wave rectifier as:

Now we don’t have the transformer part of the circuit distracting us.

For the positive half cycle of the AC source voltage, the equivalent circuit effectively becomes:

This is because the diode is forward biased, and is hence allowing current to pass through. So we
have a closed circuit.

But for the negative half cycle of the AC source voltage, the equivalent circuit becomes:

Because the diode is now in reverse bias mode, no current is able to pass through it. As such, we
now have an open circuit. Since current can not flow through to the load during this time, the
output voltage is equal to zero.
This all happens very quickly – since an AC waveform will oscillate between positive and negative
many times each second (depending on the frequency).

Here’s what the half wave rectifier waveform looks like on the input side (Vin), and what it looks
like on the output side (Vout) after rectification (i.e. conversion from AC to DC):

The graph above actually shows a positive half wave rectifier. This is a half-wave rectifier which
only allows the positive half-cycles through the diode, and blocks the negative half-cycle.

The voltage waveform before and after a positive half wave rectifier is shown in figure 4 below.

Conversely, a negative half-wave rectifier will only allow negative half-cycles through the diode
and will block the positive half-cycle. The only difference between a posive and negative half
wave rectifier is the direction of the diode.

As you can see in figure 5 below, the diode is now in the opposite direction. Hence the diode will
now be forward biased only when the AC waveform is in its negative half cycle.
Half Wave Rectifier Capacitor Filter
The output waveform we have obtained from the theory above is a pulsating DC waveform. This is
what is obtained when using a half wave rectifier without a filter.

Filters are components used to convert (smoothen) pulsating DC waveforms into constant DC
waveforms. They achieve this by suppressing the DC ripples in the waveform.

Although half-wave rectifiers without filters are theoretically possible, they can’t be used for any
practical applications.

As DC equipment requires a constant waveform, we need to ‘smooth out’ this pulsating waveform
for it to be any use in the real worl

This is why in reality we use half wave rectifiers with a filter. A capacitor or an inductor can be
used as a filter – but half wave rectifier with capacitor filter is most commonly used.

The circuit diagram below shows how a capacitive filter is can be used to smoothen out a pulsating
DC waveform into a constant DC waveform.

Half Wave Rectifier Formula

We will now derive the various formulas for a half wave rectifier based on the preceding theory
and graphs above.

Ripple Factor of Half Wave Rectifier

‘Ripple’ is the unwanted AC component remaining when converting the AC voltage waveform into
a DC waveform. Even though we try out best to remove all AC components, there is still some
small amount left on the output side which pulsates the DC waveform. This undesirable AC
component is called ‘ripple’.

Schematic Diagram: Half wave rectifier circuit.

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Outputs:
PCB Layout: Half wave rectifier circuit.

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Top Layer of the PCB: Half wave rectifier circuit.

 2
2
1
L
A
0
5
0
0
5

Bottom Layer of the PCB: Half wave rectifier circuit.

 1. Schematic Diagram: Half wave rectifier circuit with filter.

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Outputs:
PCB Layout: Half wave rectifier circuit with filter.

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Top Layer of the PCB: Half wave rectifier circuit with filter.
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Bottom Layer of the PCB: Half wave rectifier circuit with filter.

Result: I have drawn schematic diagram & PCB layout for a given half wave rectifier
circuits.
 5.FULLWAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

Aim: To draw the schematic diagram & PCB layout for a

given full wave rectifier circuits.

Apparatus: Desktop Computer with Dip Trace PCB Design Tool.

Components: Center tap Transformer (10A009), Diode, Capacitor-1000µF (CAP250RP),

Bridge Rectifier (DBL201G), 1k (RES),
Procedure:

11. Open the Dip trace Launcher Software.

12. Click on the Schematic Capture tab.

13. Place the required components on screen.

14. Connect the components as per circuit diagram.

15. Save the project file.

16. Check if any errors connections in the circuit.

17. After circuit connections, circuit will be converted into PCB layout.

18. In PCB layout, draw the height and width of the PCB by using place Board outline.
 19. By using Route Manual tool, copper tracks will be draw to one pad to another
pad as per circuit diagram.
20. After route manual completion, project will be export into Gerber file and file
save as Zip Archive file.
THEORY -
The diode works only when it is in forward bias, only the current flows through p-n junction diode
and output current across the load is found.

If two diodes are connected in such a way that one diode conducts during one half of the input
voltage and the other one conducts during the next half of the cycle, in a unidirectional can flow
through the load during the full cycle of the impact voltage.
This is known as full wave rectifier.
Want To Learn

Schematic Diagram: Full wave rectifier circuit.

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Outputs:
PCB Layout: Full wave rectifier circuit.

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Top Layer of the PCB: Full wave rectifier circuit.

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: Full wave rectifier circuit.

2. Schematic Diagram: Full wave rectifier circuit with filter.
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Outputs:
PCB Layout: Full wave rectifier circuit with filter.

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Top Layer of the PCB: Full wave rectifier circuit with filter.

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: Full wave rectifier circuit with filter.

Result: I have drawn schematic diagram & PCB layout for a given full wave rectifier
circuits.
 6. clippers circuit
Aim: To draw the schematic diagram & PCB layout for a
given clippers and clampers
Apparatus: Desktop Computer with Dip Trace PCB
Design Tool.
Components: 1kW (RES), Battery (HDR1x2), Diode.
Procedure:
• Open the Dip trace Launcher Software.
• Click on the Schematic Capture tab.
• Place the required components on screen.
• Connect the components as per circuit diagram.
• Save the project file.
• Check if any errors connections in the circuit.
• After circuit connections, circuit will be converted
into PCB layout.
• In PCB layout, draw the height and width of the
PCB by using place Board outline.
• By using Route Manual tool, copper tracks will
be draw to one pad to another pad as per circuit
diagram.
• After route manual completion, project will be
export into Gerber file and file save as Zip
Archive file.
THRORY-
It is in fact a wave shaping circuit, which can control the shape of the output waveform by
eliminating or clipping a part of applied wave. This is done without distorting the other (remaining)
part of waveform.
The clipping circuit does not have energy storage elements (capacitors) but it includes both linear
(Resistors) and nonlinear elements (transistors or junction diodes). This circuit is normally used for
the selection in the transmission purpose. In transmission, a portion of a signal wave form occupied
below or above a particular reference voltage level is selected. Other than the name – Clipping
circuits; Slicers, Clippers, Limiters or Amplitude selectors are also often used.
Classification of Clipping Circuit
 According to non linear devices used –
1. Diode Clippers.
 2. Transistor Clippers.
 According to biasing –
1. Unbiased Clippers.
2. Biased Clippers.
 According to configuration used –
1. Series diode clippers.
2. Shunt or Parallel diode clippers.
3. A series combination of reference supply, resistor and diode.
4. Multi-diode clippers comprises of a number of diodes, resistors and
reference voltage.
5. Two emitter-coupled transistors functioning as an over driven difference
amplifier.
 According to level of clipping –
1. Positive clippers.
2. Biased clippers.
3. Negative clippers.
4. Combination clippers.
Diode Clippers
At least two components – an ideal diode and resistor are employed for the formation of these
clippers. In some cases; for fixing the clipping level, a DC battery is also used (Figure 1). When the
circuit is forward biased, the ideal diode used operates as a closed switch. When the circuit is
reversed biased, the ideal diode used operates as an open switch. Here; by altering the voltage of
the battery and by exchanging the position of the various elements, the input waveform can be
clipped.

Positive and Negative Clippers

Positive clippers:
It actually removes the positive half cycles of the input voltage. Here in positive series clipper,
when the input is positive then the diode is in reverse biased condition (output is zero) and when
the input is negative, then the diode is in forward biased condition (figure 2).

In positive shunt clipper, when the input is negative, the whole input voltage appears across the
resistor RL or diode

Biased Clippers
In some cases, we need to eliminate a tiny portion of positive or negative half cycles of the input
signal voltage. In that case we use biased clippers.
While during the negative half cycle of input signal in biased negative clipper circuit, it removes
the input signal voltage when it is greater than the battery voltage. When the battery and diode is
reversed, the clipping can be changed to biased positive clipper (Figure 7).

Combination Clipper
For removing a portion of both positive and negative half cycle of input signal, we use this
combination clipper (figure below).
Zener Diode as a Peak Clipper
Zener diodes can be employed for removing (clipping off) the portion of input waveform in the
wave shaping circuit (see figure below).

Application of Clipper
 TV Transmitters and Receivers.

 Noise Limiters.

 Protection of different circuits.

 Different wave generation.

Schematic Diagram: simple parallel clippers circuit

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PCB Layout: simple parallel clippers circuit

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Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clippers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clippers

circuit

Schematic Diagram: simple parallel clippers circuit

 221LA05005

Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clippers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clippers

circuit
Result: By using above steps we can develop the
schematic diagram & PCB layout for a given clippers

Apparatus: Desktop Computer with Dip Trace PCB

Design Tool.
Components: 1kW (RES), Battery (HDR1x2), Diode.
Procedure:
• Open the Dip trace Launcher Software.
• Click on the Schematic Capture tab.
• Place the required components on screen.
• Connect the components as per circuit diagram.
• Save the project file.
• Check if any errors connections in the circuit.
• After circuit connections, circuit will be converted
into PCB layout.
• In PCB layout, draw the height and width of the
 PCB by using place Board outline.
• By using Route Manual tool, copper tracks will
be draw to one pad to another pad as per circuit
diagram.
• After route manual completion, project will be
export into Gerber file and file save as Zip
Archive file.

Schematic Diagram: simple parallel clippers circuit

PCB Layout: simple parallel clippers circuit

221LA05005
211FA05169

Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clippers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clippers

circuit
Schematic Diagram: simple parallel clippers circuit

Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clippers circuit

 221LA05005

Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clippers

circuit

Result: By using above steps we can develop the

schematic diagram & PCB layout for a given clippers
 7. clampers circuit
Aim: To draw the schematic diagram & PCB layout for a
given clampers circuit.
Apparatus: Desktop Computer with Dip Trace PCB
Design Tool.
Components: 1kW (RES), Battery (HDR1x2), Diode.
Procedure:
• Open the Dip trace Launcher Software.
• Click on the Schematic Capture tab.
• Place the required components on screen.
• Connect the components as per circuit diagram.
• Save the project file.
• Check if any errors connections in the circuit.
• After circuit connections, circuit will be converted
into PCB layout.
• In PCB layout, draw the height and width of the
PCB by using place Board outline.
• By using Route Manual tool, copper tracks will
be draw to one pad to another pad as per circuit
diagram.
• After route manual completion, project will be
export into Gerber file and file save as Zip
Archive file.
THRORY-

A clamper circuit (also known as a clamping circuit or clamper) is an electronic circuit that fixes
either the positive or the negative peak values of a signal to a defined value by shifting the signal’s
DC value. Clamper circuits do not restrict the peak-to-peak values of the signal. Instead, it moves
the entire signal up or down to place the peaks at the desired reference level.
Clamper circuits can also be referred to as Baseline Stabilizers, DC Reinserts, Level Shifter, or D.C
Restorers (these names describe the function of the circuit a bit more clearly than just “clamper”).

Clamper circuits will add the DC element, positive or negative, to the AC input signal. It pushes
the signal towards the positive or the negative side (as shown in the figures below).
Here, when it shifts the signal to the upward or positive sides, both the negative peak and the zero
levels will meet, which is called the positive clamper circuit (top part of the above figure).

When it shifts the signal to the downside or negative side, both the positive peak and the zero
levels will meet, which we refer to as the negative clamper circuit (bottom part of the above
figure).

The minimum number of components of a clamping circuit is three—a capacitor, a resistor, and a
diode. In some cases, a DC supply is also needed to give an additional shift.
The nature of the waveform remains the same, but the difference is in the shifted level (up or
down). The peak to the peak value of the waveform will never change.

The peak value and average value of the input waveform and the clamped output will be different.
The time constant of the circuit (RC) must have to be ten times the time period of the entering
(input) AC voltage for the better clamping action.

Throughout the positive half cycle of input, the D diode will conduct, and the output voltage will
be the same as the barrier potential of the diode (V0).
At that time, the capacitor will get charged to (V – V0). Throughout the negative half cycle of
input, the diode will become negative biased, and it has no role on capacitor voltage. The capacitor
cannot discharge a lot because of the high value of R.
Therefore, the output voltage will be – (2V- V0). The peak-to-peak voltage will be 2V. The output
waveform that we get will be the original signal shifted in the downward direction.
Next, let’s look at a positive diode clamper shown in figure 3 below. The only distinction from the
previous circuit is that diode is in reverse polarity. So the output will be the shifted original signal
in the upward direction.
Its underlying function is the same as the negative clamper circuit above the clamper circuit.

This time though, the diode is pointing in the upward direction, not downwards. This means that
the current is now flowing in the opposite direction.

Thus we can conclude that we obtain the positive clamper if the diode in the circuit points in the
upward direction, and we get a negative camper when the diode points in the downward direction.

How Does a Clamping Circuit Work?

In general, the clamper circuit depends on a variation in the capacitor time constant.
The time constant should be sufficient that the capacitor voltage does not discharge considerably
throughout the non-conducting diode period.

One should select the values of capacitance and resistance so that the circuit keeps the time
constant high. For preventing quick discharge of the capacitor, the resistance value should be high.
All through the diode conducting period, the capacitor charging should be high-speed. For this, we
select a small value of capacitance.
The C in the positive clamper charges quickly throughout the first negative phase of AC input
voltage. When Vin becomes +ve, the C serves as a voltage doubler, and when Vin is –ve, the C
operates as a battery with voltage Vin.
Schematic Diagram: simple parallel clampers circuit

PCB Layout: simple parallel clampers circuit

Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers

circuit
Schematic Diagram: simple parallel clampers circuit
PCB Layout: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers

circuit

Schematic Diagram: simple parallel clampers circuit

PCB Layout: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers

circuit

Schematic Diagram: simple parallel clampers circuit

PCB Layout: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers

circuit

Schematic Diagram: simple parallel clampers circuit

PCB Layout: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers

circuit

Schematic Diagram: simple parallel clampers circuit

PCB Layout: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers

circuit

Result: By using above steps we can develop the

schematic diagram & PCB layout for a given clampers.
 Experiment -8
RLC Resonance
circuit.
Aim: To draw the schematic diagram & PCB layout for a
given RLC Resonance circuit.
Apparatus: Desktop Computer with Dip Trace PCB
Design Tool.
Components: 1kW (RES), Battery (HDR1x2), Diode,
Capacitor-1µF (CAP).
Procedure:
• Open the Dip trace Launcher Software.
• Click on the Schematic Capture tab.
• Place the required components on screen.
• Connect the components as per circuit diagram.
• Save the project file.
• Check if any errors connections in the circuit.
• After circuit connections, circuit will be converted
into PCB layout.
• In PCB layout, draw the height and width of the
PCB by using place Board outline.
• By using Route Manual tool, copper tracks will
be draw to one pad to another pad as per circuit
diagram.
• After route manual completion, project will be
export into Gerber file and file save as Zip
Archive file.

THRORY-
Consider a RLC circuit in which resistor, inductor and capacitor are
connected in series across a voltage supply. This series RLC circuit
has a distinguishing property of resonating at a specific frequency
called resonant frequency.
In this circuit containing inductor and capacitor, the energy is stored
in two different ways.

1. When a current flows in an inductor, energy gets stored

in magnetic field.
2. When a capacitor is charged, energy gets stored in static
electric field.
The magnetic field in the inductor is built by the current, which is
provided by the discharging capacitor. Similarly, the capacitor is
charged by the current produced by collapsing magnetic field of
inductor and this process continues on and on, causing electrical
energy to oscillate between the magnetic field and the electric field.
In some cases, at certain frequency called resonant frequency, the
inductive reactance of the circuit becomes equal to capacitive
reactance which causes the electrical energy to oscillate between the
electric field of the capacitor and magnetic field of the inductor. This
forms a harmonic oscillator for current. In RLC circuit, the presence
of resistor causes these oscillation to die out over period of time and
is called damping effect of resistor.
Variation in Inductive Reactance and Capacitive
Reactance with Frequency
Variation of Inductive Reactance Vs Frequency

We know that inductive reactance XL = 2πfL means inductive

reactance is directly proportional to frequency (XL and prop ƒ). When
the frequency is zero or in case of DC, inductive reactance is also
zero, the circuit acts as a short circuit; but when frequency
increases; inductive reactance also increases. At infinite frequency,
inductive reactance becomes infinity and circuit behaves as open
circuit. It means that, when frequency increases inductive reactance
also increases and when frequency decreases, inductive reactance
also decreases. So, if we plot a graph between inductive reactance
and frequency, it is a straight line linear curve passing through
origin as shown in the figure above.
Variation of Capacitive Reactance Vs Frequency

It is clear from the formula of capacitive reactance XC = 1 / 2πfC that,

frequency and capacitive reactance are inversely proportional to
each other. In case of DC or when frequency is zero, capacitive
reactance becomes infinity and circuit behaves as open circuit and
when frequency increases and becomes infinite, capacitive reactance
decreases and becomes zero at infinite frequency, at that point the
circuit acts as short circuit, so the capacitive reactance

Schematic Diagram: RLC Resonance circuit one.

PCB Layout: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers

circuit
Schematic Diagram: RLC Resonance circuit two.

PCB Layout: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers

circuit
Schematic Diagram: RLC Resonance circuit three.
PCB Layout: simple parallel clampers circuit
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Top Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers circuit

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Bottom Layer of the PCB: simple parallel clampers

circuit
Result: By using above steps we can develop the
schematic diagram & PCB layout for a RLC Resonance
circuit.