Gravity and Cosmology

Problem 2.1 : (3 points) Show that the equation of motion of a test particle in a grav-
itational field given by the gravitostatic scalar potential Φ(~x)  c2 is given by the same
equation that defines a geodesic in space-time in the Newtonian metric I presented in class:
2Φ 2 2Φ
ds2 = c2 (1 + 2
)dt − (1 − 2 )(dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ) (1)
c c

The equation of motion of a test particle in a gravitational field is

d2~x
mI 2 = F~ (~x, t) = −mG ∇Φ(~
~ x) (2)
dt
, but since mI = mG we have
d2~x ~ x)
= −∇Φ(~ (3)
dt2
We will end up to the same equation by finding the geodesic in a space-time whose metric
is given by (1). The length of path between two events in the Newtonian metric is
Z Z r
2Φ(~x) 2Φ(~x) 2
I = ds = dt c2 (1 + 2
) − (1 − )~v (4)
c c2
The geodesic is the path with the minimal length. To find it we need to solve the Euler-
Lagrange equation
d ∂L ∂L
= (5)
dt ∂~v ∂~x
, where r
2Φ(~x) 2Φ(~x) 2
L = c2 (1 + ) − (1 − )~v (6)
c2 c2
Let’s take the derivatives
∂L 1 − 2Φ(~x)/c2
=− 2~v (7)
∂~v 2L
Using the facts that Φ(~x)  c2 , ~v  c we get L ≈ c and (7) becomes
∂L ~v
≈− (8)
∂~v c
The other derivative is
∂L 2∇Φ(~x) + 2∇Φ(~x)~v 2 /c2 ∇Φ(~x)
= ≈ (9)
∂~x 2L c
Substituting to (5) we get

d ~v ∇Φ(~x) d2~x ~ x)
(− ) = ⇒ 2 = −∇Φ(~ (10)
dt c c dt
, which is identical to (3).

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Problem 2.2 : (4 points) The Coriolis force
(a) Write the transformation that relates a static inertial observer S to an observer S 0 that
rotates with angular velocity ω
~.
(b) Write the equation of motion of a free body in the S reference system.
(c) Write the equation of motion of the same body in the S 0 system. You should verify that
the body now has non-zero acceleration that interpreted to be due to a force, known as the
Coriolis force.
(d) Write the general equation of motion in S 0 of a body that is acted upon a force F~ in the
S system.

a)For simplicity we can assume that the two observers share the same z axis. Also, the
rotation is about the z axis. Then the transformation that relates the two observers can be
written as
x0µ = Rνµ xν (11)
, where R is the rotation matrix
 
cosθ sinθ 0
R = −sinθ cosθ 0 (12)
0 0 1

b) The equation of motion of a free body for S is

d2 xµ
=0 (13)
dt2
c) For S 0 the same equation becomes

d2 x0µ
=0 (14)
dt2
Then we have to substitute (11) and take the derivative. However, the calculations involved
here can be quite challenging. To avoid this we will use the relation between the derivative
~ in the S reference frame and the one in the S 0 reference frame
of a vector A
~
dA ~
dA
|S = |S 0 + ω ~
~ ×A (15)
dt dt
We can get a feel for why (15) is correct from Figure 1, where we can see a vector ~e that is
rotated around an axis by a small angle ∆φ. The resulting vector is e~0 . The angle between
the axis and ~e is θ. Then, the change in ~e is: |∆~e| = ∆φR = ∆φAsinθ. This is the expression
for the cross product and thus ∆~e = ∆φ ~ × ~e. Dividing by ∆t we get ~e˙ = ω
~ × ~e. Let us write
A~ in a system with unit vectors eˆ1 , eˆ2 , eˆ3 that rotate with angular velocity ω~
~ = A1 eˆ1 + A2 eˆ2 + A3 eˆ3
A (16)

~ is
Then the derivative of A
~
dA dA1 dA2 dA3
= eˆ1 + eˆ2 + ~ × eˆ1 + A2 ω
eˆ3 + A1 ω ~ × eˆ2 + A3 ω
~ × eˆ3 ⇒ (17)
dt dt dt dt
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 Figure 1: The change of a vector due to a small rotation

~
dA dA ~
= |S 0 + ω ~
~ ×A (18)
dt dt
~ ~ as S 0 perceives it since for them the unit vectors are
where ddtA |S 0 is the rate of change of A
constant. Now we can move on with the solution.
~ = ~r in (15) we get
If we take A

d~r d~r
|S = |S 0 + ω
~ × ~r (19)
dt dt
Then we can find the relation between the acceleration as measured in S and as measured is
S0
d2 r d d~r
~a|s = 2 |S = ( |S 0 + ω ~ ×)( |S 0 + ω ~ × ~r) ⇒ (20)
dt dt dt
d d~r
~a|s = ~a|s0 + |S 0 (~ω × ~r) + ω ~ × |S 0 + ω ~ × (~ω × ~r) ⇒ (21)
dt dt
d~r
~a|s = ~a|s0 + ω~˙ × ~r + 2~ω × |S 0 + ω ~ × (~ω × ~r) (22)
dt
, where we used the fact that d~ ω
dt S
| 0 = d~ ω
dt S
| =ω ~˙ . By solving (19) for acceleration in the S 0
reference frame we can get the equation of motion of a free body in S 0 , keeping in mind that
~a|S = 0 for a free body

d~r
~˙ × ~r − 2m~ω × |S 0 − m~ω × (~ω × ~r)
m~a|S 0 = −mω (23)
dt

The term −mω ~˙ × ~r exists only when the angular velocity changes and its called the Euler
term.−2m~ω × d~ r
| 0 is the Coriolis force and −m~ω × (~ω × ~r) is the centrifugal force. It is now
dt S
clear that a free body experiences a lot of forces in S 0 .
d) When there is a force in the S system the equation of motion becomes

d~r
~˙ × ~r − 2m~ω × |S 0 − m~ω × (~ω × ~r)
m~a|S 0 = F~ − mω (24)
dt

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, where F~ = m~a|S

Problem 2.3 :(2 points) Radiation of wavelength λe is emitted from the surface of a neutron
star of mass M and radius R. What is the wavelength of this radiation if it is observed on
earth.
The change of the frequency due to the neutron star’s and the earth’s gravitational potentials
is
ωr − ωe Φr − Φe
=− (25)
ωe c2
, where ωr is the frequency of the light that reaches earth, Φe is the potential on the surface
of the neutron start and Φr the potential on the surface of the earth
GM GMearth
Φe = − , Φr = − (26)
R Rearth
Substituting gives us
ωr − ωe G Mearth M
= 2( − ) (27)
ωe c Rearth R
Since the mass of a neutron star greatly exceeds the mass of the earth and its radius is
significantly smaller that the earth’s we can approximate (13)
ωr − ωe GM
≈− 2 (28)
ωe Rc
Using the expression ω = 2πc/λ we can find the wavelength of the radiation that reaches
earth
λe − λr GM λe
= − 2 ⇒ λr = (29)
λr Rc 1 − GM/Rc2
We can tell that λr > λe which is the result we expected, since the large potential of the
neutron start ”stretches” the wavelength of the radiation.

Problem 2.4 : (2 points) A space traveler is on a satellite that circumnavigates the earth at
a height of 100 km. With what velocity he must be moving so that the time on his satellite
runs as fast as for an observed on earth.
Due to time dilation, the relation between the time, tdil , that an observer on earth and the
time, t0 , that the space traveler measure is
t0
tdil = q (30)
v2
1− c2

, where v is the speed of the space traveler. (16) tells us that clocks on earth tick faster than
the clock of the space traveler. However, time is also affected by the gravitational potential.
In the regions with stronger potential clocks tick slower. This is described by
Φ − Φ0
tgrav = t0 (1 + ) (31)
c2
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We want the speed of the space traveler to cancel out the effect gravity has on time. This
means that the mean of tdil and tgrav should equal t0

tdil + tgrav 1 Φ − Φ0
= t0 ⇒ q + (1 + )=2⇒
2 1− v2 c2
c2
s
1
v =c 1−( Φ−Φ0
)2 (32)
1− c2

For the potentials we have

GM 0 GM
Φ=− ,Φ = − (33)
R R+h
and thus
1 1 GM h
Φ − Φ0 = GM ( − )≈− 2 (34)
R+h R R
Substituting to (18) we get s
1
v =c 1−( GM h
)2 (35)
1+ c2 R 2

This can be further approximated using (1 + x)a ≈ 1 + ax because GM h/c2 R2 is very small.
We end up with √
2GM h
v= (36)
R
For G = 6.67 × 10−11 m3 kg −1 s−2 , M = 5.94 × 1024 kg, R = 6371km and h = 100km we get

v = 1397m/sec (37)

Problem 2.5 : : (2 points) The tenant of a ground floor apartment of a building has lived
for 100 years. If he lived on the 7th floor, at a height of 20 m from the ground, he would
have lived less or more, and by how much.
The relation between the time measured by a tenant on the the ground floor and the time
measured by one on the 7th floor is
Φground − Φ7th
tground = t7th (1 + ) (38)
c2
We have that
GM GM
Φground = − , Φ7th = − (39)
R R+h
, where h is the height from the ground. Combining (24) and (25) we get
h GM 1 1 i GM h
tground = t7th 1 + 2 ( − ) ≈ t7th (1 − 2 2 ) ⇒
c R+h R cR
tground GM h
t7th = GM h
⇒ t7th ≈ tground (1 + 2 2 ) (40)
1 − c2 R2 cR

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Figure 2: Balloon in a train. In the first panel the train is at rest in a gravity field with
acceleration ~g . In the second panel the train is accelerating to the left in a gravity field with
acceleration ~g . In the third panel the train is at rest in a gravity field with acceleration ~g +~g 0

This means that a tenant living on the 7th floor would have lived more by an amount of
GM h
t7th − tground = ( )tground = 7µsec (41)
c2 R 2

Problem 2.6 : (2 points) On the floor of a train we fix the end of a string that at its other
end has a Hydrogen-filled balloon. At a given time, the train accelerates. Use the strong
equivalence principle to explain why the string of the ballon will stress in the same direction
as the acceleration.
When the train is not accelerating the string of the balloon is perpendicular to the train’s
floor as shown in the first panel of Figure 1. Because the density of the balloon is smaller than
the density of the surrounding air there is a buoyant force A ~ larger than the force of gravity
acting on the balloon. This is why the balloon can float. When the train is accelerating
the string of the balloon will stress in the same direction as the acceleration. An observer
sitting outside of the train can explain this by saying that the balloon, as everything else that
accelerates with the train, will experience a force m~a, where m is the mass of the balloon and
~a the acceleration of train, as shown in the second panel. Based on the strong equivalence
principle the acceleration of the train can be substituted with an acceleration due to gravity
that points in the opposite direction of ~a. This acceleration is depicted as ~g 0 in the third
panel. Now we can see that there are two buoyant forces acting on the balloon. One on the
vertical direction as before A ~ and one in the horizontal direction A ~ 0 that is responsible for
the stress of the string.