TECHNO INDIA GROUP PUBLIC SCHOOL, BOLPUR

SESSION :- 2024-2025

PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

On

LIGHT DEPENDED RESISTANCE(LDR)

SUBMITED TO 
SUBMITED BY  SUPRATIM SINHA
CLASS  XII
ROLL NUMBER 
STREAM  SCIENCE
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ____________________________________________________

bearing Roll Number __________________________ is the student of Class XII . He

has successfully completed his project titled_________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

as a part of A.I.S.S.C.E. 2024 - 2025 under the guidance of his teacher

________________________________ .

It is further certified that this project is the individual and bona fide work of the
candidate.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Principal

TIGPS–Bolpur

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me immense pleasure to present the Project on titled

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

I would like to express my gratitude towards my teacher,

Ms/Mrs./Mr. under whose guidance and constant supervision the project has been
completed. The instructions and suggestions given by her/him has been a major
contribution towards the completion of the project.

I would also like to thank my parents for their encouragement and support towards
completion of this project work. I also thank my friends for their help and sharing
necessary information (and web links) which helped in preparing the project.

____________________________________ Signature of the student

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INDEX
S.NO TOPICS PAGE NUMBER TEACHERS
SIGNATURE

1. TO STUDY VARIATION IN CURRENT IN LDR ------> 04 - 18

• Apparatus ------------------------------------> 05 - 05
• Introduction ---------------------------------> 06 - 08
• Theory ----------------------------------------> 09 - 13
• Procedure ------------------------------------> 14 - 15
• Conclusion -----------------------------------> 16 - 16
• Sources Of Error ----------------------------> 16 - 16
• Bibliography ---------------------------------> 17 - 17
• Applications ---------------------------------> 18 - 18

2. To study the variations in current flowing in a

circuit containing a LDR ------------------------------> 19 - 30
• Introduction ----------------------------------> 20 - 21
• Theory -----------------------------------------> 22 - 25
• Procedure ------------------------------------> 25 - 26
• Observation ----------------------------------> 27 - 27
• Application -----------------------------------> 28 - 28
• Conclusion ------------------------------------> 29 - 29
• Bibliography ----------------------------------> 30 - 30

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4 | Page
1) LDR (Light Dependent
Resistor)
2) Connecting wires
3) Bulb holder
4) Bulbs of different power
rating
5) Meter scale
6) Multimeter
7) Battery

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A photoresistor or light dependent
resistor is a component that is sensitive
to light. When light falls upon it then the
resistance changes changes. Values of
resistance of the LDR may change over
many orders of magnitude the value of
resistance falling as the level of light
increases. With such a wide variations
in resistance, LDRs are easy to use and
there are many LDR circuits available.
The sensitivity of light dependent
resistors or photoresistor also varies
with the wavelength of the incident light.
LDRs are made from semiconductor
materials to enable them to have their
light sensitive properties. Many
materials can be used, but one popular
material for these photoresistor is
cadmium sulphide.

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Types of photoresistor :
• Intrinsic photoresistor : Intrinsic
photoresistor use un-doped
semiconductor materials including silicon
or germanium. Photons fall on the LDR
excite electrons moving them from the
valence band to the conduction band. As a
result these electrons are free to conduct
electricity. The more light that falls on the
device, the more electrons are liberated
and the greater the level of conductivity,
and this results in a lower level of
resistance.
• Extrinsic photoresistor : Extrinsic
photoresistor are manufactured from
semiconductor of material doped with
impurities. These impurities or dopants
create a new energy band above the
existing valence band. As a result,
electrons need less energy to transfer to
the conduction band because of smaller
energy gap.
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LDR Symbol:
• The LDR symbol user in circuits is

based around the resistor circuit

symbol, but shows the light, in the

form of arrows shining on it.

• Circuit symbols used for light

dependent resistor / photoresistor

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 1.)LDR and its characteristics
When light is incident on it, a photon is
absorbed and thereby it excites an
electron from valence band into
conduction band. Due to such new
electrons coming up in conduction band
area, the electrical resistance of the device
decreases. Thus the LDR or photo-
conductive transducer has the
resistance which is the inverse
function of radiation intensity. ℎ. 𝒸

e. Eω 𝜆𝜊 =
λo=threshold wavelength, in
meters
e = charge on one electron, in Coulombs Ew
= work function of the metal used, in Ev

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Here we must note that any radiation with
wavelength greater than the value obtained
in above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any
change in the resistance of this device.
The gap energy of Cadmium Sulphide is
2.42eV and for Cadmium Selenide it is
1.74eV. Due to such large energy gaps, both
the materials have extremely high
resistivity at room temperature.
Such large energy gaps, both the
materials have extremely high resistivity at
room temperature.

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Characteristics of photoconductive cells:

Now when the device kept in darkness, its

resistance is called a dark resistance. This
resistance is typically of the order of
1013ohms. When light falls on it, its
resistance decreases up to level kilo ohms
or even hundreds of ohms, depending on
the intensity of light, falling on it.
The spectral response characteristics of two
commercial cells were compared in our
laboratory. And we found that there is almost
no response to the radiation of a wavelength
which was shorter than 300nm. It was very
interesting to note that the Cadmium Sulphide
cell has a peak response nearer or within the
green colour of the spectrum with a range of
520nm. Thus it can be used nearer to the
infrared region up to 750nm. It was found that
the maximum response of Cadmium
Sulphoselenide is in the yelloworange range
at 615nm and also it can be used in the
infrared region up to about 970nm

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Sensitivity :

The sensitivity of a photo detector is the

relationship between the light falling on
the device and the resulting output
signal. In the case of a photocell, one is
dealing with the relationship between
the incident light and the corresponding
resistance of the cell.

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Spectral Response :
Like the human eye, the relative
sensitivity of a photoconductive cell is
dependent on the wavelength (color) of
the incident light. Each photoconductor
material type has its own unique
spectral response curve or plot of the
relative response of the photocell
versus wavelength of light.

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1) Draw a diagram showing the scheme
of the connections as
shown in fig.
2) Make the connections as
given in the diagram.
Arrange the incandescent
lamp and LDR so that they
are in same straight line,
and make sure that both are
stable.
3) To find the resistance, set the multimeter
to ohm section and select suitable range
and measure the resistance of LDR with
a bulb on.
4) In multimeter select the switch to
microampere to get current.
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 5) Switch on the bulb and take different
readings with different power sources
played at same distance.
6) Now repeat these steps again with
different power sources at different
distances and repeat the observations.

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o The LDR resistance decreases with
increase in intensity of light and
hence there is an increase in the flow
of current. There is an increase in
current as the distance from the
source decreases.
o The intensity decreases as the
distance from
o the source increases.

o The LDR may not be perpendicular to

the source. o Connections may be
faulty.
o Experiment should be conducted in a
dark room.
o Measurements should be taken
accurately.

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• NCERT Class-12 Physics
• www.technologystudent.com/elec1/l
dr1

• Physics Lab Manual Class-12

• https://en.wikipedia.org

• https://www.google.co.in

• Physics for you blogs

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Analog Applications:
 Camera Exposure Control
 Auto Slide Focus- dual cell
 Photocopy machines
 Electronic scales- dual cell
 Automated Rear View Mirror

Digital Applications:
 Automatic headlight Dimmer
 Night Light Control
 Street Light Control
 Position Sensor

❖ LDR has a disadvantage that

when its temperature changes, its
resistance changes drastically for a
particular light intensity.

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study the variations in
current flowing in a

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The general purpose photoconductive cell
is also known as LDR – light dependent
resistor. It is a type of semiconductor and
its conductivity changes with proportional
change in the intensity of light. There are
two common types of materials used to
manufacture the photoconductive cells.
They are Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) and
Cadmium Selenide (CdSe). Extrinsic
devices have impurities added, which
have a ground state energy closer to the
conduction band - since the electrons
don't have as far to jump, lower energy
photons (i.e. longer wavelengths and
lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger
the device. Two of its earliest applications
were as part of smoke and fire detection
systems and camera light meters. The
structure is covered with glass sheet to
protect it from moisture and dust and
allows only light to fall on it.
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Objective:-
To study the variations, in current flowing
in a circuit containing a LDR, because of a
variation:-
(a) In the power of the incandescent lamp,
used to ‘illuminate’ the LDR. (Keeping all
the lamps at a fixed distance).
(b) In the distance of a incandescent lamp,
(of fixed power), used to ‘illuminate’ the
LDR.

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 1.) LDR and its characteristics when light is
incident on it, a photon is absorbed and
thereby it excites an electron from valence
band into conduction band. Due to such new
electrons coming up in conduction band area,
the electrical resistance of the
device decreases. Thus the
LDR or photoconductive
transducer has the resistance which is the
inverse function of radiation intensity.

λ0 = threshold wavelength, in meters

e = charge on one electron, in Coulombs
Ew= work function of the metal used, in Ev

Here we must note that any radiation with

wavelength greater than the value obtained in
above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change
in the resistance of this device. The band gap
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energy of Cadmium Sulphide is 2.42eV and for
Cadmium Selenide it is1.74eV. Due to such large
energy gaps, both the materials have extremely
high resistivity at room temperature.
2.) Characteristics of photoconductive cells
Now when the device is kept in darkness, its
resistance is called as dark resistance. This
resistance is typically of the order of 1013 ohms.
When light falls on it, its resistance decreases up
to several kilo ohms or even hundreds of ohms,
depending on the intensity of light, falling on it. The
spectral response characteristics of two
commercial cells were compared in our laboratory.
And we found that there is almost no response to
the radiation of a wavelength which was shorter
than 300nm. It was very interesting to note that the
Cadmium Sulphide cell has a peak response
nearer or within the green color of the spectrum
within a range of 520nm. Thus it can be used
nearer to the infra-red region up to 750nm. It was
found that the maximum response of Cadmium
Sulphoselenide is in the yellow-orange range at
615nm and also it can be used in the infra-red
region up to about 970nm.
3.) Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a photo detector is the
relationship between the light falling on the device
and the resulting output signal. In the case of a
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photocell, one is dealing with the relationship
between the incident light and the corresponding
resistance of the cell.

4) Spectral Response
Like the human eye, the relative sensitivity of a
photoconductive cell is dependent on the
wavelength (color) of the incident light. Each
photoconductor material type has its own unique
spectral response curve or plot of the relative
response of the photocell versus wavelength of
light.

Materials Required:-
• Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
• Connecting Wires
• Source of different power rating (bulbs)
• Bulb Holder
• Metre scale
• Multi Meter
• Battery

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Circuit Diagram:-

• Choose a specific position for the source and

mount it using a holder, make sure it is
stable. Select the bulb with the lowest
power rating and connect it to the holder as
shown in the figure.
• Connect the LDR, battery(6V) and the
multimeter in series.

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• Set the multimeter to ohm section and select
suitable range and measure the resistance
with a bulb on.
• Similarly switch to current section and move to
micro ampere in the multimeter. This gives the
value of the current.
• Repeat these steps with different power
sources at different distances and note down
observations

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Observations
The experiment has been conducted by using
various sources with different power ratings.
Voltage of the battery= 6 V

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Applications :-
Lead sulphite (PbS) and indium antimonide (InSb)
LDRs are used for the mid infrared spectral region.
GeCu photoconductors are among the best far
infrared detectors available, and are used for
infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.

1.) Analog Applications

• Camera Exposure Control
• Auto Slide Focus - dual cell

• Photocopy Machines - density of toner

• Colorimetric Test Equipment

• Densitometer

• Electronic Scales - dual cell

• Automatic Gain Control – modulated light source.

• Automated Rear View Mirror.

2.) Digital Applications

• Automatic Headlight Dimmer
• Night Light Control
• Oil Burner Flame Out
• Street Light Control
• Position Sensor

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• The LDR resistance decreases with increase
in intensity of light and hence there is an
increase in the flow of current.
• There is an increase in the current as the
distance from the source decreases.
• The intensity decreases as the distance from
the source increases
• The error lies within the experimental limit.

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• NCERT physics class XII

• Art of Electronics by Paul

worowitz

• www.wikipedia.com/

• www.electronics2000.co.uk/lin

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