IEI 101 - UNIT - 5

SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND DAQ SYSTEMS

INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER

An instrumentation amplifier is one kind of IC (integrated circuit), mainly used for

amplifying a signal. This amplifier comes under the family of the differential amplifier
because it increases the disparity among two inputs. The main function of this amplifier is to
diminish surplus noise that is chosen by the circuit. The capacity to refuse noise is familiar to
every IC pins which are known as the CMRR (common-mode rejection ratio).
The instrumentation amplifier IC is an essential component in the designing of the circuit
due to its characteristics like high CMRR, open-loop gain is high, low drift as well as low DC
offset, etc.

An instrumentation amplifier is used to amplify very low-level signals, rejecting noise and
interference signals. Examples can be heartbeats, blood pressure, temperature, earthquakes
and so on. Therefore, the essential characteristics of a good instrumentation amplifier are as
follows.

 Inputs to the instrumentation amplifiers will have very low signal energy. Therefore the
instrumentation amplifier should have high gain and should be accurate.
 The gain should be easily adjustable using a single control.
 It must have High Input Impedance and Low Output Impedance to prevent loading.
 The Instrumentation amplifier should have High CMRR since the transducer output will
usually contain common mode signals such as noise when transmitted over long wires.
 It must also have a High Slew Rate to handle sharp rise times of events and provide a
maximum undistorted output voltage swing.
Instrumentation Amplifier using Op Amp

The instrumentation amplifier using op-amp circuit is shown below. The op-amps 1 & 2
are non-inverting amplifiers and op-amp 3 is a difference amplifier. These three op-amps
together, form an instrumentation amplifier. Instrumentation amplifier’s final output Vout is
the amplified difference of the input signals applied to the input terminals of op-amp 3.Let
the outputs of op-amp 1 and op-amp 2 be Vo1 and Vo2 respectively.

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Then, Vout = (R3/R2)(Vo1-Vo2)
Look at the input stage of the instrumentation amplifier as shown in the figure below.
The instrumentation amplifier derivation is discussed below.
The potential at node A is the input voltage V1. Hence the potential at node B is also V1, from
the virtual short concept. Thus, the potential at node G is also V1.

The potential at node D is the input voltage V2. Hence the potential at node C is also V2,
from the virtual short. Thus, the potential at node H is also V2.

The working of the instrumentation amplifier is, Ideally the current to the input stage op-
amps is zero. Therefore the current I through the resistors R1, Rgain, and R1 remain the
same.

Advantages of Instrumentation Amplifier

The advantages of the instrumentation amplifier include the following.

 The gain of a three op-amp instrumentation amplifier circuit can be easily varied by
adjusting the value of only one resistor Rgain.
 The gain of the amplifier depends only on the external resistors used.
 The input impedance is very high due to the emitter follower configurations of amplifiers
1 and 2
 The output impedance of the instrumentation amplifier is very low due to the difference
amplifier3.
 The CMRR of the op-amp 3 is very high and almost all of the common mode signal will
be rejected

Filters in a Data Acquisition (DAQ) system

Filters in a Data Acquisition (DAQ) system are used to clean and condition signals before
they are processed by the Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC). They remove noise, unwanted
frequencies, and distortions, ensuring that only the relevant data is captured and analyzed.
Filters can be either analog (applied before the ADC) or digital (applied after the data has
been digitized).

Types of Filters in DAQ Systems

1. Low-Pass Filters (LPF):

o Function: Allow signals with frequencies lower than a certain cutoff
frequency to pass through, while attenuating higher frequencies.
o Use Case: Often used to remove high-frequency noise from analog signals,
such as sensor signals that are prone to interference.
o Example: If you're measuring temperature, which changes slowly, a low-pass
filter can eliminate high-frequency noise that isn't relevant to the
measurement.
2. High-Pass Filters (HPF):
o Function: Allow signals with frequencies higher than a certain cutoff
frequency to pass, while attenuating lower frequencies.

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 o Use Case: Used to remove low-frequency noise, such as DC offsets or
baseline wander, from signals. They are especially useful in applications like
vibration analysis or strain measurements.
o Example: Filtering out the DC component from a voltage signal to focus on
the AC signal variations.
3. Band-Pass Filters (BPF):
o Function: Allow signals within a specific frequency range (band) to pass,
attenuating both lower and higher frequencies outside this range.
o Use Case: Used in applications where specific frequency bands are of interest,
such as in frequency analysis, vibration monitoring, or RF signals.
o Example: Monitoring vibrations in a machine with a specific operating
frequency and filtering out other irrelevant noise.
4. Band-Stop (Notch) Filters:
o Function: Attenuate signals within a narrow frequency band and allow others
to pass.
o Use Case: Often used to remove specific unwanted frequencies, such as 50 Hz
or 60 Hz power line noise, from sensor data.
o Example: A 50 Hz notch filter might be used in a DAQ system to eliminate
interference from AC mains in industrial environments.
5. Anti-Aliasing Filters:
o Function: A special type of low-pass filter used to prevent aliasing. Aliasing
occurs when the signal is undersampled and higher frequency components fold
into the lower frequencies, causing distortion.
o Use Case: Placed before the ADC to ensure that the input signal is band-
limited to less than half of the ADC sampling rate (according to the Nyquist
theorem).
o Example: If the sampling rate of an ADC is 1 kHz, an anti-aliasing filter
would have a cutoff frequency slightly below 500 Hz to avoid aliasing.
6. Digital Filters:
o Function: Applied after the data has been digitized by the ADC. These filters
can be designed as low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or notch filters and provide
flexibility for post-processing.
o Use Case: Digital filters are used for post-processing of the acquired data and
can be implemented using algorithms like FIR (Finite Impulse Response) or
IIR (Infinite Impulse Response).
o Example: A digital low-pass filter can be applied to smooth out noisy
temperature readings from a sensor after the data has been digitized.

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Importance of Filters in DAQ Systems

1. Noise Reduction: Filters help in removing unwanted noise from the signal, ensuring
that only relevant data is captured.
o Example: Low-pass filters are used to reduce high-frequency noise from
temperature sensors or pressure transducers.
2. Preventing Aliasing: Anti-aliasing filters prevent the distortion of signals during
analog-to-digital conversion by removing frequencies higher than the Nyquist
frequency.
o Example: In an audio DAQ system, an anti-aliasing filter removes frequencies
above the ADC's Nyquist limit to avoid audio distortion.
3. Improving Signal Quality: Filters enhance the signal-to-noise ratio, which improves
the accuracy of the data being recorded.
o Example: Vibration signals from a machine may have both high-frequency
noise and low-frequency drift. A band-pass filter isolates the relevant
frequency range for analysis.
4. Targeted Frequency Analysis: Filters like band-pass and band-stop filters allow
focusing on specific frequency ranges for applications like frequency domain analysis
or detecting specific events.
o Example: In an industrial motor, a band-pass filter isolates the operating
frequency for performance monitoring while rejecting other frequencies.

Filter Design Considerations for DAQ

1. Cutoff Frequency: The choice of cutoff frequency is critical. It depends on the

characteristics of the signal and the type of noise you want to remove.
o Example: For measuring temperature changes, a low-pass filter with a cutoff
frequency of 10 Hz may be sufficient.

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 2. Order of the Filter: Higher-order filters have steeper roll-off characteristics, meaning
they can more effectively separate signal frequencies near the cutoff point. However,
they may introduce more delay or phase shift.
o Example: A second-order low-pass filter provides a sharper cutoff compared
to a first-order filter.
3. Real-Time Constraints: In real-time applications, the filter must operate quickly
enough to keep up with the incoming data stream.
o Example: In high-speed data logging, digital filters need to be computationally
efficient to ensure real-time performance without introducing significant
latency.
4. Phase Response: In some applications, the phase response of the filter is important.
For example, linear-phase filters (e.g., FIR filters) ensure that all frequency
components of the signal are delayed by the same amount, preserving the signal's
waveform.
o Example: In audio processing, linear-phase filters are preferred to avoid phase
distortion in the output signal.

Analog vs. Digital Filters in DAQ

 Analog Filters: Applied before the signal is digitized. They are typically simpler and
faster but less flexible than digital filters.
o Example: A low-pass analog filter placed before the ADC to filter out high-
frequency noise.
 Digital Filters: Applied after the ADC has digitized the signal. They offer greater
flexibility and precision but require more processing power.
o Example: A digital band-pass filter applied to a vibration signal to isolate a
specific frequency band for analysis.

Sample and Hold Circuit

Definition: The Sample and Hold circuit is an electronic circuit which creates the samples
of voltage given to it as input, and after that, it holds these samples for the definite time. The
time during which sample and hold circuit generates the sample of the input signal is
called sampling time. Similarly, the time duration of the circuit during which it holds the
sampled value is called holding time.

Sampling time is generally between 1µs to 14 µs while the holding time can assume any
value as required in the application.

Circuit Diagram of Sample and Hold Circuit

The diagram below shows the circuit of the sample and hold circuit with the help of an
Operational Amplifier. It is evident from the circuit diagram that two OP-AMPS are
connected via a switch. When the switch is closed sampling process will come into the
picture and when the switch is opened holding effect will be there. The capacitor connected
to the second operational amplifier is nothing but a holding capacitor.

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Key Components of a Sample and Hold Circuit:

1. Analog Switch: This controls the sampling action. When the switch is closed, the
circuit samples the input voltage; when it's open, the circuit holds the voltage.
2. Capacitor: The capacitor stores the sampled voltage during the hold phase.
3. Operational Amplifier (Buffer): This prevents the capacitor from discharging and
ensures that the output remains constant during the hold phase.

Operating Phases:

1. Sample Phase:
o The switch is closed, allowing the input signal to charge the capacitor.
o The circuit "samples" the analog signal, following its variations in real-time.

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 2. Hold Phase:
o The switch opens, isolating the capacitor from the input signal.
o The capacitor holds the sampled voltage, which remains stable until the next
sample.

Applications of Sample and Hold Circuits:

 Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs): Ensuring stable input voltage for precise

conversion.
 Signal Processing: Used in data acquisition systems where signals need to be
digitized.
 Communication Systems: Stabilizing signals in modems, radios, etc.
 Control Systems: Holding values for feedback systems and preventing jitter.

Characteristics:

 Acquisition Time: Time taken for the circuit to sample the signal.
 Hold Time: The duration for which the sampled voltage is maintained.
 Aperture Time: The instant when the sampling switch closes.
 Droop Rate: The rate at which the held voltage decreases due to leakage or
imperfections in the circuit.

Zero-Order Hold Circuit: Construction and Working

A Zero-Order Hold (ZOH) circuit is a fundamental component in digital control and signal
processing systems. Its primary function is to reconstruct a discrete-time signal into a
continuous-time signal by holding each sample value constant for a specified period. This is
commonly used in Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs) and in systems where digital signals
are converted back into continuous analog signals.

Construction of Zero-Order Hold Circuit

The construction of a Zero-Order Hold (ZOH) circuit typically includes:

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 1. Digital Input: This can be a series of discrete-time sampled signals or values coming
from an ADC or any digital system.
2. Analog Switch (or Multiplexer): Controls when the input signal is passed to the
output. It is controlled by a timing signal (e.g., a clock) to switch at the discrete
sampling instances.
3. Hold Capacitor: A capacitor is used to store and hold the analog signal between
sampling intervals. The capacitor is charged during the sampling period and holds its
value until the next sample arrives.
4. Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp): This is used as a buffer to maintain the output
voltage during the hold phase and ensure no leakage of the signal stored on the
capacitor. It helps maintain a steady output during the hold phase.
5. Clock Pulse Generator: Generates clock signals that dictate when the circuit samples
the input signal. This helps synchronize the sampling with the digital system or DAC
input.

Working of Zero-Order Hold Circuit

The Zero-Order Hold circuit works by holding each input value for one full sampling period,
essentially approximating the discrete samples as a stepwise constant output signal.

Step-by-Step Working:

1. Sampling Input:
o The circuit receives digital samples at regular intervals (usually from a
Digital-to-Analog Converter).
o A clock signal controls when each sample is passed to the next stage of the
circuit.
2. Charging the Hold Capacitor:
o During the sampling period, the switch closes (controlled by the clock),
allowing the input signal to charge the hold capacitor.
o The input signal is effectively transferred to the output, and the capacitor
charges up to that value.
3. Hold Phase:
o When the switch opens (after a sample is taken), the capacitor retains the
charge (the sampled value), holding this output constant.
o The operational amplifier buffers this held value, ensuring it remains constant
during the entire sampling period (until the next sample arrives).
4. Output:
o The output is a piecewise constant waveform, where each sample is held
constant until the next sampling instance.
o This waveform approximates the original signal with a series of flat steps.
o For each new sample, the previous value is replaced, and the output is
updated.
5. Reconstruction:
o In applications like DACs, this held value represents a reconstruction of the
digital signal into an analog one.
o The resulting output is a staircase-like continuous-time signal that
approximates the original continuous signal from which the digital samples
were taken.

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Characteristics of Zero-Order Hold Circuit

 Piecewise Constant Output: The output signal is a series of constant values that
change only at the sampling instants.
 No Interpolation: Unlike higher-order holds (e.g., First-Order Hold), there is no
interpolation between samples. The ZOH simply holds the sample constant.
 Low-Pass Nature: ZOH introduces some delay and distortion, which acts as a low-
pass filter. This can be seen as the circuit smoothing the discrete signal, but it also
leads to high-frequency distortions (such as aliasing).

Applications of Zero-Order Hold Circuit

1. Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs): The ZOH is used to convert digital samples

into an analog signal, holding each digital sample as a constant voltage.
2. Digital Control Systems: ZOH is used to interface between digital controllers and
continuous-time physical systems, helping to create a continuous control signal from
discrete-time computations.
3. Data Reconstruction: In systems where discrete-time data needs to be transformed
back into a continuous-time signal, such as audio or video reconstruction from digital
signals.

Advantages of Zero-Order Hold

 Simple to implement with basic components like switches, capacitors, and operational
amplifiers.
 Works efficiently in DACs and other systems requiring the reconstruction of
continuous signals from discrete samples.

Limitations of Zero-Order Hold

 High-Frequency Distortion: It introduces high-frequency distortions (like Gibbs

phenomenon) due to the sudden transitions between the held values.
 Not Suitable for High Precision Applications: ZOH's piecewise constant
approximation can introduce errors in systems requiring smoother interpolation or
real-time processing.

First-Order Hold Circuit: Block Diagram and Working

A First-Order Hold (FOH) circuit is an advanced type of hold circuit used to reconstruct a
smoother continuous-time signal from discrete-time sampled data.

Unlike the Zero-Order Hold (ZOH), which holds the sampled signal as a constant, the FOH
approximates the signal by interpolating between samples with a linear function.

This results in a piecewise linear output, providing a better approximation of the original
analog signal.

Working of First-Order Hold Circuit

The First-Order Hold (FOH) works by interpolating between consecutive discrete-time
samples with a linear approximation. The step-by-step working of the FOH is as follows:

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1. Sampling the Input Signal:
 The input digital signal (or discrete-time samples) is fed to the Sample and Hold (S/H)
circuit.
 The S/H circuit stores the current sample value until the next sample arrives.
 These samples are then provided to the linear interpolator.
2. Linear Interpolation:
 The FOH interpolates between two successive sampled values x[n] and x[n+1] to
create a linear connection between them.
 During the interval between two sample times Ts (sampling period), the circuit
generates a piecewise linear output.
 The linear interpolator calculates the slope between successive samples, ensuring that
the output changes linearly from one sample to the next, minimizing abrupt changes
and signal distortion.
3. Output Generation:
 As the circuit moves from one sample point to the next, the output signal forms a
series of linear segments connecting each sampled point.
 This creates a piecewise linear approximation of the original signal, making the
FOH circuit a better option than ZOH in applications where smoother signal
reconstruction is needed.
Advantages of First-Order Hold Circuit
1. Improved Signal Approximation: The FOH produces a smoother output signal
compared to ZOH, as it linearly interpolates between samples rather than holding
them constant.
2. Reduced High-Frequency Distortion: Since the FOH transitions smoothly between
samples, it reduces the high-frequency components and distortion seen in ZOH
circuits (like the Gibbs phenomenon).
3. Better Accuracy: FOH provides a more accurate approximation of the original
continuous signal, making it suitable for applications requiring precision signal
reconstruction, such as in control systems or communication systems.
Applications of First-Order Hold Circuit
 Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC): FOH is used in DAC systems to reconstruct
smoother continuous-time signals from discrete samples, especially where precision
and fidelity are crucial.
 Signal Processing: In digital signal processing (DSP), FOH is useful when
converting discrete-time signals to continuous-time signals with minimal distortion.
 Control Systems: FOH is employed in digital control systems to provide a
continuous control signal with less error, improving overall system performance.
Limitations of First-Order Hold
 Increased Complexity: FOH circuits are more complex than ZOH circuits due to the
need for linear interpolation between samples.
 More Computational Resources: The circuit requires more processing to calculate
and implement the linear interpolation, which may increase system cost or power
consumption.
Comparison: Zero-Order Hold vs. First-Order Hold

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Feature Zero-Order Hold (ZOH) First-Order Hold (FOH)
Output Piecewise constant signal Piecewise linear signal
Accuracy Lower, due to constant steps Higher, due to linear interpolation
Signal Poorer approximation of the Better approximation of the
Approximation original signal original signal
Complexity Simple More complex
Suitable for high-precision
Applications Suitable for basic DAC systems
systems

DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

A data acquisition system or DAS refers to the combination of hardware and software tools
that measure physical parameters from the real world, such as temperature, pressure, sound,
motion, etc, and convert the data into digital values that can be saved, analyzed, or
transmitted on a computer. Data acquisition systems have revolutionized industrial processes
and scientific research by enabling automated and continuous monitoring of systems and
experiments.

A data acquisition system consists of sensors to measure physical quantities, data acquisition
hardware that reads sensor signals and converts them to digital values, and a software
program that collects and stores digital data on a computer. The sensors may include
thermocouples, load cells, position sensors, ultrasonic sensors, etc that convert temperature,
force, displacement, etc into electrical signals like voltage.

These analog signals are then fed to data acquisition devices which comprise an analog-to-
digital converter (ADC) that digitizes the analog values. Additional components like signal
conditioning circuits may also be present to filter, amplify, and process the sensor signals.

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The digital data is then transferred to a computer system running data acquisition software for
storage, analysis, and monitoring purposes.

Components of Data Acquisition System

o Sensors: Devices that convert physical parameters into electrical signals

like voltage based on the measured parameter.
o Signal conditioning circuits: Used to amplify, filter, and process weak sensor signals
before digitization.
o Analog to digital converter (ADC): Converts analog sensor voltage values into
discrete digital values.
o Data acquisition hardware: Plug-in boards or standalone devices containing ADC,
microprocessors, etc.
o Data acquisition software: Performs configuration, data logging, display, analysis,
and storage functions.
o Computer system: Used to run the DAQ software and store acquired data files.

The main steps involved in data acquisition and measurement using a DAS are:

1. Sensors convert physical parameters into electrical signals based on the measured
quantity.
2. Signal conditioning circuits process the sensor signals to get them ready for
digitization.
3. The conditioned analog signals are digitized by the ADC into discrete digital values.
4. The digital values are transferred to DAQ hardware via interfaces like USB, Ethernet,
etc.
5. DAQ software handles the configuration, timing, and storage of measured digital data
on a computer.
6. Data is analyzed, displayed, and stored on the computer for future retrieval and
processing.

Some key advantages of deploying data acquisition systems are:

o Enable automated, continuous, and remote monitoring of industrial processes without

manual intervention.
o Facilitate high-speed, high-precision capture of large volumes of measurement data.
o Reduce errors, and improve reproducibility and standardization of experiments
through computerization.
o Support applications requiring the measurement of multiple sensor inputs
simultaneously.
o Permit storage of synced, time-stamped data from different sensors into centralized
databases.
o Provide flexibility to scale systems by adding more sensor channels.
o Allow evaluation of process or equipment performance over long periods through
historical trend analysis.

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 Single channel DAQ

A Single Channel Data Acquisition System consists of a signal conditioner followed

by an analog to digital (A/D) converter, performing repetitive conversions at a free
running, internally determined rate. The outputs are in digital code words including
over range indication, polarity information and a status output to indicate when the
output digits are valid.

A/D converters based on dual slope techniques are useful for conversion of low
frequency data, such as from thermocouples, especially in the presence of noise. The
most popular type of converter for data system applications is the successive
approximation type , since it is capable of high resolution and high speed at moderate
cost. (For a conversion time of 10 μS, the maximum dv/dt for full scale and 0.1%
resolution is about 1 V/ms, which is a considerable improvement.)

Pre–amplification and Filtering:

Many low resolution (8/10 bit) A/D converters are constructed with a single ended
input and have a normalised analog input range of the order of 5-10 V, bipolar
or unipolar. For signal levels which are low compared to input requirements,
amplification may be used in order to bring up the level of the input to match
converter input requirements, so that optimum use can be made in terms of accuracy
and resolution. The amplifier used has a single ended input or a differential input, as
shown in Fig. 17.4.

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 the signal levels are below a tenth of an mV, or when resolution of 14 bits or 16 bits is
needed, the use of differential amplifiers can become a necessity. When differential output
has to be handled from a bridge network, instrumentation amplifiers are employed.
The accuracy, linearity and gain stability specifications should be carefully considered, to
ensure the system is not affected by any limitations.

If the input signals are to be physically isolated from the system, the conductive paths are
broken by using a transformer coupled or an optocoupled isolation amplifier. These
techniques are advantageous in handling signals from high voltage sources and transmission
towers. In biomedical applications such isolation becomes essential.
Pre-amplifiers can be coupled with active filters before processing of data, in order to
minimise the effect of noise carriers and interfering high frequency components. They
effective compensate for transmission sensitivity loss at high frequency and hence enable
measurements over an enhanced dynamic frequency range.
Special purpose filters, such as tracking filters, are used for preserving phase dependent data.

MULTICHANNEL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

The Multi Channel Data Acquisition System can be time shared by two or more input
sources. Depending on the desired properties of the multiplexed system, a number of
techniques are employed for the multi-channel DAS has a single A/D converter preceded by a
multiplexer, as shown in Fig. 17.5.

The individual analog signals are applied directly or after amplification and/or signal
conditioning, whenever necessary, to the multiplexer. These are further converted to digital
signals by the use of A/D converters, sequentially.

For the most efficient utilisation of time, the multiplexer is made to seek the next channel to
be converted while the previous data stored in the sample/hold is converted to digital form.

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When the conversion is complete, the status line from the converter causes the sample/hold to
return to the sample mode and acquires the signal of the next channel. On completion of
acquisition, either immediately or upon command, the S/H is switched to the hold mode, a
conversion begins again and the multiplexer selects the next channel. This method is
relatively slower than systems where S/H outputs or even A/D converter outputs are
multiplexed, but it has the obvious advantage of low cost due to sharing of a majority of sub-
systems.
Sufficient accuracy in measurements can be achieved even without the S/H, in cases where
signal variations are extremely slow.

Multiplexing After A/D Conversion:

It is now economically feasible to employ an A/D converter for each analog input and
multiplex the digital outputs.

Since each analog to digital converter (A/D) is assigned to an individual channel, the
conversion rate of the A/D need only be as fast as is needed for that channel, compared to the
higher rates that would be needed if it were used as in a multi channel analog multiplexed
system.
The parallel conversion scheme shown in Fig. 17.7 provides additional advantages in
industrial data acquisition systems where many strain gauges, thermocouples and LVDTs are
distributed over large plant areas. Since the analog signals are digitised at the source,
the digital transmission of the data to the data centre (from where it can go on to a
communication channel) can provide enhanced immunity against line frequency and other
ground loop interferences. The data converted to digital form is used to perform logic
operations and decisions. Based on the relative speed at which changes occur in the data,
the scanning rate can be increased or decreased.

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Alternatively, input channels having slowly varying data can be pre-multiplexed in any of the
forms suggested earlier, so that a set of sequentially multiplexed sub channels can then
replace one channel of the main digital multiplexed system, as indicated in Fig. 17.7.

SIGNAL CONDITIONING
Signal conditioning is the technique of making a signal from a sensor or transducer suitable
for processing by data acquisition equipment.
Proper signal conditioning is essential in getting an accurate measurement of your signal. It is
the first step of computerised data acquisition.
TYPES OF SIGNAL CONDITIONING

Amplification

Amplification increases a voltage signal to a level suitable for digitisation by the DAQ
equipment. Typically a data acquisition device is calibrated for input voltages in the 0 to 10
V range. A small voltage, such as that coming from a thermocouple or strain gauge bridge
may need to be amplified 1000 times to make it between 0 and 10 V. Our data acquisition
systems have programmable amplifiers - you can simply select the amplification or range
from Windmill software.
If your signal is larger than the maximum input range then you will have to divide the
signal down using a resistor network.

Excitation

Many transducers, like strain gauges and RTDs (resistance temperature devices), need a
power supply. The signal from these transducers is either a voltage or a mA current. For
many transducers the supply will be low voltage DC, but for transducers based on
capacitance measurement an AC supply may be required.

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 Our systems can be equipped with power supplies suitable for providing the excitation
voltage(s) required. Because the choice of power supply will depend on the number and
type of transducers, you should draw up a list of transducers and their excitation
requirements. The information needed includes voltage range and current requirements,
and for AC excitation voltages, the frequency used.
Excitation is commonly needed for measuring force, pressure, relative humidity,
temperature, level, light level, concentration and vibration.

Linearisation

Linearisation is needed when the signals produced by a sensor don't have a straight-line
relationship with the physical measurement, as is the case when using thermocouples to
measure temperature. Linearisation is sometimes achieved using signal conditioning.
Windmill data acquisition software, though, has built-in linearisation for B, E, J, K, N, R, S
and T type thermocouples so no prior signal conditioning is needed.

Filtering

Filtering reduces noise errors in the signal. For most applications a low-pass filter is used.
This allows through the lower frequency components but attenuates the higher frequencies.
The cut-off frequency must be compatible with the frequencies present in the actual signal
(as opposed to possible contamination by noise) and the sampling rate used for the A-D
conversion.
A low-pass filter that's used to prevent higher frequencies, in either the signal or noise,
from introducing distortion into the digitised signal is known as an anti-aliasing filter.
These generally have a sharper cut-off than the normal low-pass filter used to condition a
signal. Anti-aliasing filters are specified according to the sampling rate of the system and
there must be one filter per input signal. They are commonly used when measuring, for
example, vibration.
You can use Windmill software to enable and disable filters in the data acquisition
hardware.

Isolation

A high transient voltage at one input may damage not only the input circuit, but an also
propagate to other equipment connected to that input. You can prevent this type of damage
by providing isolation between inputs.

High Impedance

Certain types of transducer have a very high output impedance and are not able to supply
enough current to use a normal voltage input. When connected to a normal amplifier, the
currents drawn from the transducer can seriously distort the input signal. Typically glass
electrodes used to measure pH, or gas concentration probes, are of this type. You should
connect them to a voltage measuring circuit with a very high input impedance.

Rms Signal Conditioning

You can monitor signals from electrical power supplies when the current signal is sensed
with a current-sensing resistor, and high voltage signals are divided down using resistive

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 dividers. Software scaling functions in Windmill turn your low-voltage readings back to
the original power supply voltage and current values.
Since many power supplies provide an AC signal, a signal conditioning input which
provides a DC signal proportional to the root mean square (rms) amplitude of the input
signal would be suitable.

Design of a Data Logging System for Industry

A data logging system in industrial applications is designed to monitor, record, and store
various types of data, such as temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current, and other
process parameters. The system continuously gathers data from sensors or machines, logs the
information, and stores it for analysis or regulatory compliance.

Key Components of a Data Logging System

1. Sensors: These devices measure physical parameters such as temperature, humidity,

pressure, flow, etc. In industrial settings, there are various types of sensors:
o Temperature sensors (e.g., thermocouples, RTDs)
o Pressure sensors
o Flow sensors
o Current and voltage transducers
o Vibration sensors (for machine health monitoring)
2. Signal Conditioning: Converts and conditions the raw sensor data for analog-to-
digital conversion. This includes amplification, filtering, and noise reduction.
o Amplifiers: Boost weak signals (e.g., from thermocouples).
o Filters: Remove noise or unwanted frequencies from the signal.
o Isolation: Protects the system from electrical noise and high voltages,
ensuring safety.
3. Multiplexer (MUX): If multiple sensors are used, a multiplexer helps select the input
signals in sequence, feeding them one-by-one to the Analog-to-Digital Converter
(ADC).
4. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC): Converts the analog signals from the sensors
into digital data. Key considerations include:
o Resolution: Defines the precision of the conversion (e.g., 12-bit, 16-bit).
o Sampling Rate: The rate at which data points are recorded.
5. Microcontroller/Processor: This is the central processing unit that collects data from
the ADC, processes it, and stores it in memory. It can also control the multiplexer and
handle communication with external devices.
o Real-Time Data Processing: Some microcontrollers or microprocessors, like
ARM Cortex-M or STM32, are used for real-time monitoring and logging.
6. Memory/Storage: The system needs reliable storage for logged data, especially in
cases where it needs to be stored for a long period or transported for further analysis.
o Internal Memory (RAM): For temporary storage during data collection.
o External Memory (SD Cards, Flash Drives, Hard Drives): For long-term
data storage.
7. Clock/Timer (RTC): A Real-Time Clock (RTC) module helps in timestamping
each logged data point, making it useful for tracking trends and events over time.

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 8. Display Unit: Optional but useful for real-time monitoring. A display like an LCD or
LED screen can show important parameters in real-time.
9. Communication Interface: For transmitting data to a central server, cloud platform,
or local control system. Common interfaces include:
o Ethernet/Wi-Fi: For real-time monitoring and remote access.
o USB: For connecting to a PC or local machine.
o RS485/Modbus: Widely used in industrial environments for data
communication over long distances.
o Bluetooth/ZigBee: For wireless communication in specific industrial setups.
10. Power Supply: A stable power source is essential to ensure continuous operation. It
could be a DC power supply, batteries, or even industrial-grade UPS (Uninterruptible
Power Supply) for backup.
11. Software/Cloud Integration: Depending on the application, the system may require
software to visualize, analyze, or store the data. Modern data loggers often integrate
with cloud platforms for remote monitoring, data analysis, and predictive
maintenance.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DATA LOGGER

Step-by-Step Design of an Industrial Data Logging System

1. Sensor Selection
 Type of Sensors: Identify the type of physical parameters that need to be logged (e.g.,
temperature, humidity, pressure, vibration).
o Example: In a food processing plant, temperature and humidity sensors are
used for monitoring storage conditions.
 Range and Accuracy: Choose sensors based on the required measurement range and
accuracy.
2. Signal Conditioning
 Amplification: For signals like thermocouples, the millivolt output is amplified using
operational amplifiers to a suitable level (e.g., 0-5V).
 Filtering: Apply low-pass filters to remove high-frequency noise from the sensor
signals.

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  Isolation: Galvanic isolation helps protect the system from high voltage spikes,
especially in electrically noisy industrial environments.
3. Multiplexer (MUX)
 Multiple Inputs: If there are several sensors in the system, a multiplexer selects one
sensor at a time and routes its signal to the ADC.
 Example: In a factory, you may need to monitor temperature, pressure, and flow at
multiple points.
4. Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
 Resolution: A 16-bit ADC provides high-resolution data, which is important when
measuring fine changes in sensor outputs.
 Sampling Rate: Choose a suitable sampling rate based on the frequency of changes
in the measured parameter.
o Example: For monitoring temperature in a storage room, a low sampling rate
of 1 Hz (one sample per second) might be enough, but for vibration
monitoring, a higher sampling rate (e.g., 1 kHz) would be required.
5. Control Unit
 Microcontroller or Microprocessor: Choose a microcontroller (e.g., STM32 or
ESP32) to control the ADC, multiplexer, and signal conditioning components, and to
manage data storage.
 Data Processing: Implement real-time data processing algorithms for alert systems or
predictive maintenance.
 Task Scheduling: The microcontroller schedules regular data acquisition and storage,
manages sensor inputs, and ensures real-time operation.
6. Memory/Storage
 SD Card/Flash Memory: Use SD cards or flash memory for long-term storage,
especially for data collected over weeks or months.
 Database Integration: Store the data in a local database (e.g., SQLite) for easy
retrieval and analysis.
7. Real-Time Clock (RTC)
 Time Stamping: Use an RTC module to add timestamps to the data, making it easy to
analyze historical trends or events.
8. Communication Interface
 Ethernet/Wi-Fi: For remote access and real-time monitoring, the system can be
connected to a network via Ethernet or Wi-Fi. Data can be transmitted to a central
server or cloud-based storage.
 RS485/Modbus: For communication in harsh industrial environments where long-
distance communication and noise immunity are important.
 USB: For local data transfer to a PC or industrial machine for further processing.
9. Power Supply
 DC Power Supply: Ensure a stable and regulated DC power source to power the
microcontroller, ADC, and sensors.
 Backup Power: Industrial data loggers may require an uninterruptible power supply
(UPS) to avoid data loss during power outages.

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10. Software/Cloud Integration
 Visualization and Analytics: Data logging systems often integrate with software
platforms (e.g., SCADA systems or cloud platforms like AWS, Microsoft Azure) to
visualize and analyze the logged data in real-time.
 Cloud Storage: Data can be sent to the cloud for long-term storage, remote access,
and advanced analytics (e.g., using IoT frameworks).
 Alarms and Alerts: Implement real-time alerting (SMS, email) in case sensor values
exceed pre-set thresholds.

Example: Industrial Temperature and Pressure Data Logger

1. Sensors:
 Temperature Sensors: Thermocouples (Type K) for measuring temperatures in
industrial ovens.
 Pressure Sensors: Pressure transducers to monitor pressure in a pipeline.
2. Signal Conditioning:
 Use signal amplifiers to boost low-voltage thermocouple outputs.
 Low-pass filters are used to reduce noise in the pressure transducer signals.
3. Multiplexer (MUX):
 An 8-channel multiplexer selects between multiple temperature and pressure sensors.
4. ADC:
 A 16-bit ADC (e.g., ADS1115) samples the sensor data at a rate of 100 samples per
second.
5. Microcontroller:
 An STM32 microcontroller handles the sensor data, performs signal processing, and
stores the data to an SD card.
6. Storage:
 Data is saved to an SD card

Data logging

Data logging is the process of collecting and storing data over a period of time in different
systems or environments. It involves tracking a variety of events. It is collecting data about a
specific, measurable topic or topics, regardless of the method used.

A data logger (also datalogger or data recorder) is an electronic device that records data
over time or about location either with a built-in instrument or sensor or via external
instruments and sensors. They generally are small, battery-powered, portable, and equipped
with a microprocessor, internal memory for data storage, and sensors. Some data loggers
interface with a personal computer and use software to activate the data logger and view and
analyze the collected data, while others have a local interface device (keypad, LCD) and can
be used as a stand-alone device.

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Data logging Applications

Environmental monitoring

The environmental monitoring systems, measure and record temperature and humidity to
intelligent multi-channel instruments that can be used with weather stations and other sensors
to provide real-time information and capture data for further analysis.

The workplace environmental monitoring solution for a factory with a small series of office
rooms experiencing serious air quality issues. Employees reported headaches during the work
day, indicating a possible lack of adequate ventilation. These workspaces were located next
to the busy factory floor and suffered from an incidental buildup of contaminants. Nominal
CO2 values usually range within 600-800 ppm (parts per million) in an office atmosphere,
but due to outdated HVAC systems, these indoor levels topped 1,000 ppm,
which ASHRAE industry guidelines marked as unhealthy. Additionally, the factory’s owners
needed the ability to log temperature and humidity to gauge the effectiveness of their air
conditioning control system, and all this data also had to be recorded for maintenance and
documentation purposes.

The 3-channel data loggers simultaneously measured and recorded CO2 concentration,
temperature, and humidity for proper workplace environmental monitoring. The T&D loggers
each had a wide CO2 measurement range of up to 5,000 ppm and a logging capacity of 8,000
data sets (1 data set consisted of readings for all 3 channels). These dataloggers also featured
a warning monitoring function with contact closure output.

The loggers also recorded a temperature measurement range from 0 to 45°C (32-113°F) and
recorded the relative humidity from 10 to 90% RH. The combo loggers also supported user-
set recording intervals from every second up to once an hour—in this case, they were set to
log once a minute. All the recorded data was quickly downloaded to PC via USB connection.
Current readings for all 3 channels were accessible–CO2 concentration, temperature, and
humidity readings were all clearly shown on the large LCD screen. Temperature Humidity
CO2 Data Logger is a three-channel logger designed to simultaneously measure and record
carbon dioxide concentration, temperature and humidity. Making atmospheric pressure
settings for the measurement location ensures more stable and accurate Carbon Dioxide
measurements. The supplied software enables the user to download data recorded via USB
connection, whereby data from all three channels can be simultaneously viewed in graph or
table form.

The product is an all-in-one package that includes the data logger unit, sensors and software.
We offer two types of packages with different temperature/humidity sensors depending on
your required measurement range and accuracy needs.

This versatile data logger can be used in a wide range of applications from personal to
business use; for measurements of home environment, CO2 measurements in offices and
other buildings, and/or energy-saving measures such as ventilation and air conditioning
controls.

Many highly-regulated industries must maintain precise environmental conditions throughout

the manufacturing, distribution, and storage process. This helps ensure that the products stay

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effective and safe for use. Environmental monitoring is particularly important in the pharma,
healthcare, food and beverage, aerospace, and manufacturing industries.

Industrial health and safety

Data loggers are not just used to keep consumers safe when using certain products. They also
help keep the people who produce these products safe too. Data loggers are currently being
implemented in a number of industries where the health and safety of workers can be at risk.
They are especially pre To monitor air quality in industrial situations, organizations are
turning to carbon dioxide (CO2) data loggers to keep workers safe. High levels of indoor
CO2 can be hazardous to a person’s health. Certain industrial processes produce high levels
of CO2, and data loggers can monitor these levels to make sure they do not get too high and
warn people if they do.

It is not just in industrial processes that CO2 data loggers are being used. The data loggers
can also help ensure that HVAC systems in buildings are performing correctly. In certain
buildings, like government or school buildings, monitoring the HVAC systems and air-
quality is required by local laws and regulations.

Energy efficiency management

In 2021, becoming greener and more environmentally-friendly is a top priority. Saving
money is and always has been a top priority for businesses. Data loggers can help with both
these goals when they are used to monitor and manage the energy efficiency of a space,
facility, or building.

Data loggers are being used in all types of settings to help monitor power usage, energy
consumption, and HVAC efficiency, to name a few. For some industries, this is a regulated
piece of what they do. Data loggers help these organizations conform to the Energy Savings
Opportunity Scheme (ESOS) in the UK, ISO 50001 elsewhere in the world (including the
U.S.), and other energy management requirements.

Monitoring energy consumption and energy efficiency is food for the planet and will have
long-term benefits for the organization and the world. In the shorter-term, keeping a close eye
on energy efficiency and usage will also help benefit an organization’s bottom line.

Farming

Farming may seem like an area where technology isn’t used as much as other, newer
industries but these days, that is far from the truth. Technology is helping the agricultural
industry grow greater quantities and better quality food for everyone. One of the ways they
are doing this is by making the farming process more data-driven through the use of data
loggers.

In farming, data loggers are being used for a variety of advancements. They are used to better
record the weather to help in crop growth. They are used to record the hydrographic

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conditions as well. That means things like the water level, depth, flow, pH levels, and more.
They can also be used to help record data on soil moisture levels.

All this data allows farmers to know when to plant crops, when to harvest crops, what to
plant, and how to better manage other food sources like livestock. The oldest industry in the
world, farming in 2021 uses data loggers to help make it a thoroughly modern industry.

Data loggers are being used on highways and surface roads to do road traffic counting. This
gives municipalities a better idea of how and when their roads are being used and how many
people are using them. This will allow these institutions to make better decisions when it
comes to things like road maintenance and, potentially, traffic management as well.

Data loggers and its applications

Data loggers are electronic devices that automatically monitor and record physical measured
values over a certain time. The possibilities of data logging depend on the sensors installed.
Shock, temperature, humidity and other measured variables - depending on the equipment,
various influences can be measured and subsequently analyzed.

Application in the aerospace industry

There are numerous requirements in the aerospace sector where highly sensitive and
expensive goods must be protected against shock and vibration during transport. This makes
it all the more important to accurately detect impacts in order to assess the risk of serious
damage.

For example, when transporting a helicopter by air, detected vibrations can lead to a complete
inspection of the aircraft. Or when transporting highly sensitive and expensive mirror
components for research telescopes, which are extremely fragile as well as sensitive to
humidity and temperature and yet must be transported multimodally over long distances
worldwide.

In all these tasks for monitoring critical events, electronic data loggers show their full
potential and provide reliable reports.

Application in mechanical and plant engineering

Whether by sea, air or land – high-quality machines and systems nowadays cover long
distances. On the one hand, systems are exported all over the world, on the other hand, long
transport routes are often already involved in the production process. Here, many cogs
interlock, which brings additional challenges. The problem: During the transport process,
damage to the sensitive and expensive equipment occurs time and time again. A frustrating
and costly problem.

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Ultimately, the burden of proof lies with the machine and plant manufacturers, but how can
improper handling be proven? Data loggers are the optimal solution. During the entire
transport route, they detect shock events such as vibrations and impacts and record them
reliably - the decisive proof when it comes to costly damage in transit. Furthermore, the
handy and lightweight sensors can be attached directly to the most sensitive parts of the
machines, indicating damage that is difficult to detect.

Transport monitoring for energy technologies

Wind, water, sun, geothermal energy and hydrogen will secure our future energy supply. In
contrast to conventional large-scale power plants, renewable energy generation is highly
decentralized with thousands of feed-in points into the grid. The result is an increase in the
number of transports around the globe.

Long distances, many different transport service providers - this is where the risks for defects
in sensitive energy technology lie in wait. In addition to PV modules, this includes
transformers and switching electronics (e.g. in use at substations), generators, high-power
inverters, and hydrogen technology equipment.

Damage to deliveries is a sad everyday occurrence in the energy industry. Data loggers bring
light into the darkness, they provide transparency in logistics. During the entire transport,
they monitor impacts, temperature and humidity fluctuations. The digital shock recorders
show damage to the systems even before commissioning and provide reliable facts in
disputes with the transport insurance.

Data loggers in the electronics industry

Electronic devices and components are ubiquitous in today's world. It is not uncommon for
such technology to undergo long delivery distances or storage periods, which quickly turns
out to be a risky undertaking due to its sensitivity. Electronics transports not only have to be
carefully secured against shock and impact damage, adverse storage conditions also result in
defects.

An important factor is the permissible temperature range: Both cold and heat can damage
electronic devices. The situation is similar with humidity - another influence that must by no
means be neglected. During transport and storage, the air must be neither too humid nor too
dry. Data loggers that record not only vibrations but also critical temperature and humidity
events are therefore ideal for ensuring optimal conditions.

Data loggers for automotive suppliers

Automotive suppliers play a key role in Germany's largest sector, the automotive industry.
They are part of an extensive logistics chain that is characterized by numerous influencing
factors. The central feature is just-in-time production, a decentralized organizational and
control concept in which required components are delivered on time for production.

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Delivery delays and quality deficiencies, in turn, lead to a production stop. When time is of
the essence, data loggers with shock and impact measurements ensure transparent and
seamless monitoring along the entire supply chain. In addition, the compact devices play their
part in development and quality assurance in the automotive and vehicle industry.

DATA LOGGER APPLICATION IN HOME APPLIANCES

Introduction Appliance testing typically require 100% quality check prior to shipping. Early
life cycle test and outgoing quality check is instrumental in measuring the product’s power
consumption, heat dissipation, cabin temperature and safety. The test parameters must be
logged and analyzed to ensure the product performs to the quality standards.

Application

A refrigerator unit under test goes through a series of parameter testing such as, but not
limited to, refrigerator cabinet temperature, compressor amperage, suction & discharge and
voltage/wattage consumption. The data logger must have a temperature accuracy range of
±0.8°C and accommodate 30 individual refrigerator units. In addition, end users must have
access to the data logger test values remotely via a network connection so analysis can be
performed to ensure the refrigerator conforms to quality requirements

Solution

A major refrigerator manufacture is realizing the benefits of measuring accurate and precise
test data for their refrigerator quality assurance. A total of 3 MW100 systems were utilized
for the quality test. The PR300 power analyzer and power transducer were used to determine
the energy consumption. 2 MW100 data loggers were used to gather temperature and the last
MW100 data logger was used to gather data from the PR300 and power transducers.
Additionally, the GA10 data logging software was deployed to view live and historic data
from the 3 MW100 data loggers.

Overall, the system features the following advantages: • Web Based, Plug & Play, Open
System Expandable & Modular Architecture will help to connect more no: of refrigerators
data at one time and monitor the data of all in one platform • GA10 data logging software to
remotely view and analyze live/historical parameter values • Industrial Grade -20 to +60°C
continuous will help to work in the harsh environmental operating conditions • Input Isolation
of 600Vac continuous (3700Vac for 1min) makes the accurate and reliable measurements
which will mark the quality of product • Noise Rejection of CMRR 120dB & CMV=600Vac
will reduce the unwanted noise pick up of power surges, and surrounding fields • Thus
achieving the End to End Accuracy of Temp: ±0.8°C for Temp, ±0.5 for Energy

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