Vector Operators: Grad, Div, Curl and Divergence Theorem

Gradient of a scalar function

Let’s start by considering the temperature in a room that has a fireplace (or some other heating
source) in one part of the room and some open windows scattered around the room. This is a
scalar field since temperature is a scalar quantity. Imagine now a very temperature sensitive (and
slow moving) fly that is moving through the room. The fly will measure some temperature when
it is at an initial position ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) . As the fly moves to another position in the room labeled as

( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) , the fly will measure a change in temperature. This change in temperature will occur
because the fly has changed positions in x, y, and z, and also because the temperature changes
from one position in the room to another.

A scalar field f is a function that takes a point in space and assigns a number to it:

f : From points in the space to real numbers

( x, y , z ) f ( x, y , z )

The gradient of a scalar function f (x ) with respect to a vector F = F1 , F2 ,......., Fn is denoted

by f where  denotes the vector differential operator del. By definition, the gradient is a
vector field whose components are the partial derivatives are of f . The gradient also describes
directions of maximum change in other contexts. For example, if we think of f as describing the
temperature at a point ( x, y, z ) as stated earlier, then the gradient gives the direction in which the
temperature is increasing. Thus, the gradient of a scalar field is vector field whose magnitude is
the rate of change and which points in the direction of the greatest rate of increase of the scalar
field. If the vector is resolved, its components represent the rate of change of the scalar field with
respect to each directional component.

Further, if f ( x, y, z ) is a scalar field, i.e. a scalar function in 3 dimensions, then its gradient at
any point is defined in Cartesian co-ordinates as:

1
  f f f  f  f  f 
f =  , ,  = i+ j+ k
 x y z  x y z 1.0

We can think of del (  ) as a linear operator that acts on scalar fields giving vectors fields. The
del operator is not a vector in itself, but when it operates on a scalar function, it produces a
vector.

The del,  operator is defined in various coordinate systems as shown below.

In cartesian coordinate system:

     
= i+ j+ k
x y z 1.1

In cylindrical coordinates:

  1    
= ar + a + a z 1.2
r r  z

In spherical coordinates:

  1   1  
= a + a + a
    sin   1.3

Divergence of a Vector Field

Divergence of a vector field is defined as the net outflow of flux per unit volume over a closed
incremental surface. A vector field is a function that assigns a vector to every point in space.
Vector fields are used to model force fields (gravity, electric and magnetic fields), fluid flow, etc.

The divergence of a vector field is relatively easy to understand intuitively. Imagine that the

vector field F pictured below gives the velocity of some fluid flow. It appears that the fluid is
exploding outward from the origin. It illustrates expansion or positive divergence. Since the

2
arrows in Figure 1 below are pointing out of the origin, then this means that from the perspective
of the outside world, this region of space is generating particles.

Figure: 1 2D vector field pointing outward

In contrast, the vector field below represents fluid flowing so that it compresses as it moves
toward the origin. Since this compression of fluid is the opposite of expansion, the divergence of
this vector field is negative. Since the arrows in Figure 2 below are pointing into the origin, then
this means that from the perspective of the outside world, this region of space is absorbing the
particles.

Figure: 2 2D vector field pointing inward

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If we have a volume of any shape or size, then the divergence of all the points inside the volume
is what determines the rate at which the volume as a whole is generating or absorbing the
particles.

The divergence of a vector field F = P, Q, R is defined as the partial derivative of P with

respect to x plus the partial derivative of Q with respect to y plus the partial derivative of R with
respect to z.

1.4

  
Divergence of a vector field F can also be represented as   F or divF . In Cartesian

coordinates,   F is represented as:

 F F F
F = + +
x y z 1.5
 
If we think of F as velocity field of a flowing fluid, then divF represents the net rate of change
of the mass of the fluid flowing from point ( x, y, z ) per unit volume. This can also be thought of
as the tendency of the fluid to diverge from a point.

Curl of Vector Field

  
We define the curl of a vector field F , written curlF or   F , as the cross product of the del

operator (  ) with F . We know that the del operator  is given in cartesian coordinates as:

     
= i+ j+ k
x y z 1.6

Given a field F = P, Q, R , then

          
curlF =   F = ( i + j + k )  ( Pi + Qj + Ri )
x y z

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This can be remembered by writing the curl as a "determinant"

  
i j k
  
x y z
P Q R

Theorem:

Let F be a three dimensional differentiable vector field with continuous partial derivatives.
 
Then Curl F = 0, if and only if F is conservative.
   
Example 1: Determine if the vector field F = yz 2 i + ( xz 2 + 2) j + (2 xyz − 1)k is conservative.

Solution:

Therefore the given vector field F is conservative.

   
Example 2: Find the curl of F ( x, y, z) = 3x 2 i + 2zj − xk

Solution:

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 Example 3: What is the curl of the vector field F = (x + y + z, x − y – z, x2 + y2 + z2)?

Solution:

Example 4:

   
Find the curl of F = ( x 2 − y)i + 4 zj + x 2 k
Solution:

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Divergence Theorem

This the theorem states that the total divergence of a vector field in a solid region V equals the
total flow across the boundary of the surface S. S is a closed surface and V is the region inside of
S. This implies that V must be a solid region bounded by S oriented by a unit normal vector
directed outward. The partial derivatives must be continuous on V.

Mathematically,

 

S
F .n dS =  dV
V
divF 1.7

 
But from the definition of the divergence of a vector field F , div F is given by

 F F F
F = + +
x y z

  F F F 
S .ndS = 
F
V 

x
+
y
+
z
dV

1.8

Equation (1.8) shows the relationship between a triple integral over a solid region and the surface
integral over a surface.