MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

MODULE-1
Syllabus
Introduction & basic materials used in foundry: Introduction: Definition, Classification of
manufacturing processes. Metals cast in the foundry-classification, factors that determine the
selection of a casting alloy. Introduction to casting process & steps involved – (Brief
Introduction)- Not for SEE
Patterns: Definition, classification, materials used for pattern, various pattern allowances and
their importance.
Sand moulding: Types of base sand, requirement of base sand. Binder, Additive’s definition,
need and types; preparation of sand moulds. Molding machines- Jolt type, squeeze type and
Sand slinger.
Study of important moulding process: Green sand, core sand, dry sand, sweep mould,
CO2mould, shell mould, investment mould, plaster mould, cement bonded mould.

Cores: Definition, need, types. Method of making cores, Concept of gating (top, bottom,
parting line, horn gate) and risers (open, blind) Functions and types.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Definition of manufacturing.
Manufacturing is the conversion of raw materials into usable products. The word manufacture
derives from two Latin words: ‘manu’, meaning by hand and ‘factum’, meaning made - almost
literally hand making.
Classification of manufacturing processes
The various processes available for manufacturing a product can be put into anyone of the four
categories mentioned below:
(i) Casting
(ii) Forming
(iii) Machining and
(iv) Joining.

Figure 1.1 classification of manufacturing processes

Detailed classification of Manufacturing Processes

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Casting
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mould,
which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified
part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mould to complete the
process.
Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two
or more components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most
often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to
make by other methods.

Forming
Forming processes are particular manufacturing processes which make use of suitable stresses
(like compression, tension, shear or combined stresses) which cause plastic deformation of the
materials to produce required shapes. During forming processes no material is removed, i.e.
they are deformed and displaced.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Machining
Machining is the broad term used to describe removal of material from a work piece, it covers
several processes, which we usually divide into the following categories: Cutting, generally
involving single-point or multipoint cutting tools, each with a clearly defined geometry.
Abrasive processes, such as grinding.

Joining
Joining processes involve assembling or joining two or more parts together to form a single
component of the desired shape and size. They are further classified into two categories based
on the type of joint:
i. Temporary joining process
In these processes, the joint obtained is temporary. The assembled parts can be separated easily
without damage to them. Example Bolt and nut, soldering, brazing, adhesive bonding etc.
ii. Permanent joining process
In these processes, the joint obtained will be such that, the connected parts have to be broken
in order to separate them. Example; Welding and riveting.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

METAL CAST IN THE FOUNDRIES-CLASSIFICATION

a) Based on the type of metal being cast
 Ferrous foundry (ex: Cast irons, steel, ductile iron.)
 Non-ferrous foundry (ex: Al-alloys, Cu-alloys, and Mg-alloys etc. )
b) Based on the nature of foundry
 Jobbing foundry (Here castings are produced against job orders)
 Captive foundry (Produces castings to its own requirement)
 Mechanized foundry (Produces large number of castings of repetitive nature using
equipment and machinery)
c) Based on the total tonnage of castings produced
 Small sized foundry (ex:20-50T/Month production)
 Medium sized foundry (ex:50-100T/Month Production.)
 Large sized foundry (ex:1000/T Month Production.)

d) Based on the type of mould used

 Sand casting foundries (Small to very huge castings can be produced)
 Die casting foundries or Permanent mould casting foundries (Size of the castings is
limited to few hundred kilograms.)
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE SELECTION OF A CASTING ALLOY
The important factors that influence the choice of casting alloy are:
1) Alloy cost
2) Process cost
3) Structural properties
4) Minimum weight
5) Impact strength
6) Surface finish
7) Corrosion resistance
8) Bearing properties and wear resistance
9) Machinability
10) High temperature resistance
11) Low melting point
12) Hardness
13) Density
14) Weldability
15) Brazability
16) Abrasion resistance
17) Oxidation resistance
18) Resistance to crack propagations

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

19) Thermal conductivity

INTRODUCTION TO CASTING PROCESS
• Casting or Founding is one of the oldest manufacturing process that has been practiced for
over 5000 years. Pre-historic man found copper and shaped it to use as a weapon (arrowhead)
for his defence.
Later he found that weapons could be easily made by melting and pouring copper in moulds
(cast) than they could be beaten (forged) to size and shape.
• Progress in civilization made man to discover different metals and process for casting them.
• Casting or Founding is one of the oldest manufacturing process that has been practiced for
over 5000 years.
• Pre-historic man found copper and shaped it to use as a weapon (arrowhead) for his defence.
• Later he found that weapons could be easily made by melting and pouring copper in moulds
(cast) than they could be beaten (forged) to size and shape.
• Progress in civilization made man to discover different metals and process for casting them.
• Casting involves melting metal and pouring it into a mould cavity whose shape resembles the
shape of the desired object, and then allowing the molten metal to solidify in the cavity.
• The solidified part is taken out of the mould, cleaned and finished to make it suitable for use.
• Casting is not restricted to metals. Glass and plastics can also be cast using a variety of
processes.
• Also, products ranging from a few millimeters to meters and a few grams to several tons can
be cast efficiently and economically thereby making it a versatile method for shaping objects.
• Casting which was once practiced as an art has emerged to a science, and a major
manufacturing process to shape objects.
STEPS INVOLVED IN MAKING A CASTING
The basic steps in making a casting include:
a) Pattern making
b) Mould preparation (including gating and risering)
c) Core making
d) Melting and Pouring
e) Cleaning and Inspection
(a) Pattern making
• A pattern is a replica of an object to be cast. It is used to prepare a cavity into which the
molten metal is poured. A skilled pattern maker prepares the pattern using wood, metal, plastic
or other materials with the help of machines and special tools.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Many factors viz., durability, allowance for shrinkage and machining etc., are considered while
making a pattern.

(b) Mould preparation (including gating and risering)

Mould preparation involves forming a cavity by packing sand around a pattern enclosed in a
supporting metallic frame called flask (mould box). When the pattern is removed from the
mould, an exact shaped cavity remains into which the molten metal is poured. Gating and
risering are provided at suitable locations in the mould.

Gating - Passage through which molten metal flows and enter the mould cavity.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Risering – A reservoir of molten metal connected to the mould cavity to supply additional so
as to compensate for losses due to shrinkage, as the metal solidifies

(c) Core making

• In some cases, a hole or cavity is required in the casting.
• This is obtained by placing a core in the mould cavity.
• The shape of the core corresponds to the shape of the hole required.
• The mould is cleaned, finished and made ready for pouring molten metal.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

(d) Melting and Pouring

• Metals or alloys of the required composition are melted in a furnace and then transferred
(poured) into the mould cavity.
• Many factors viz., temperature of molten metal, pouring time, turbulence etc., should be
considered while melting and pouring.

(e) Cleaning and Inspection

After the molten metal has solidified and cooled, the rough casting is removed from the mould,
cleaned and dressed (removing cores, adhered sand particles, gating and risering systems, fins,
blisters etc., from the casting surface) and then sent for inspection to check for dimensions or
any defects like blow holes, cracks etc.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

PATTERNS
• Primitive man discovered the art of melting copper and found that the molten metal would
take the form of the impression or cavity into which it had been poured.
• The impression was obtained by hollowing out the sand/clay with his hands or crude tools.
• He soon learned that he must have some object to use as a model or pattern, if accurate
impression were to be made. This led to the art of making pattern
• “A pattern is the replica of the object to be cast. It is used to prepare a cavity into which the
molten metal is poured.”
• Pattern making is a highly skilled trade translating the 2D (Two dimensional) design plan to
a 3D (Three dimensional) object.
• A skilled pattern maker builds the pattern from wood, metal, plastic or other materials with
the help of machines and special tools.
MATERIALS USED FOR PATTERN
• Patterns may be made of wood, metal, plastic or other materials. Before selecting a particular
material, a few factors are to be considered. They are:
a) Number of castings to be produced.
b) Degree of accuracy and surface finish of the casting required.
c) Shape and size of the casting.
d) Re-usability of patterns, so that they will provide a repeatable dimensionally
acceptable castings.
e) Type of mould material used i.e., clay or resins.
f) Type of moulding selected i.e., green sand moulding, investment process etc

i) WOOD
• Wood is the widely used material for making pattern.
• Different types of wood viz., pine wood, teak wood, mahogany, deodar, compressed wood
laminates (ply wood) etc., are generally used .
Advantages of wooden patterns
a) Wood is available in plenty compared to other materials.
b) Inexpensive.
c) Light in weight
d) Can be easily worked.
Disadvantages of wooden patterns
a) They are poor in strength.
b) Affected by moisture of the moulding sand causing swelling and distortion
c) Less resistant to wear and chemical actions.
d) Not suitable for long production runs.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

(ii) METAL
• Various metals like cast iron, aluminum alloys, steel etc., are used as materials for making
patterns
Advantages of Metal patterns
a) Metals are strong.
b) Wear resistant.
c) Dimensionally stable under changing humidity.
d) Gives good surface finish to castings.
e) Suitable for mass production .
Disadvantages of Metal patterns
a) Metals are heavy.
b) Costlier.
c) Tendency to rust during long storage periods .
d) Initially they have to be cast or machined to the desired shape and size. This leads to the
increase in cost of the final cast product.
(iii) PLASTICS
• Plastic material is a compromise between wood and metal.
• Thermosetting resins like phenolic resin, epoxy resin, foam plastic etc., are used as
materials for making pattern
Advantages of Plastic patterns
a) Moderately strong and light in weight.
b) Does not absorb moisture during its use and storage.
c) Gives good surface finish to castings.
Disadvantages of Plastic patterns
a) Initially plastic patterns have to be cast and finished to desired shape and size. This leads
to the increase in cost of the final cast product.
b) Thin sections are difficult to cast using plastics
(iv) GYPSUM (PLASTER)
• Gypsum or Plaster of Paris is another pattern material capable of producing intricate
castings to close dimensional tolerances.
• They are strong, light in weight, easily shaped, gives good surface finish
• However, they are used for small castings only
(v) WAX
• Wax is a re-usable material. It is light in weight, gives good surface finish and suitable for
complex shapes.
• Withdrawal of wax pattern from the mould is easier compared to other pattern materials.
• This is done by inverting the mould box and heating it to a suitable temperature.
• The wax melts and drops down leaving a fine finished cavity in the mould.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

• Wax patterns are used in investment casting process. They are suitable for small castings
Only.
PATTERN ALLOWANCES
• Although a pattern is the replica of the object to be cast, it is slightly enlarged in size for a
few reasons.
• This increase in size of the pattern is called allowance, and is essential to all patterns, which
helps to produce a good quality mould, and hence a casting.
• The various allowances provided on the pattern include:
a) Shrinkage allowance
b) Machining allowance
c) Draft allowance, and
d) Distortion allowance

(a) Shrinkage allowance

• Shrinkage allowance or contraction allowance is provided to the pattern to compensate for
shrinkage or contraction (decrease in volume) of metal during solidification.
All metals shrink or contract during solidification, and hence, the dimensions of casting
become smaller than the desired.
• To avoid this, the pattern must be made slightly larger in size to compensate for the
contraction of the metal.
• Different metals shrink at different rates and hence, allowance should be selected based on
the individual type of metal to be cast.

(b) Machining allowance

• During pouring of molten metal, non-metallic inclusions which are lighter than metal floats
up the mould top, and upon solidification forms a layer of faultless surface leading to
imperfections in castings.
• Also, in some cases, castings have to be produced with exact dimensions and tolerances.
• Machining or finish allowance is provided to the pattern so that the extra material on the
casting thus produced can be machined or finished to the desired size and accuracy and also
helps to remove imperfections.
• Typical machining allowances for sand castings vary from 3 mm - 12 mm.

(c) Draft allowance

• Draft or taper allowance is a small amount of taper added on all the vertical long faces of
the pattern to facilitate its easy removal from the mould without damage to it. Figure shows a
pattern with and without draft allowance. When the pattern is lifted from the mould as shown
in figure (a), the vertical face of the pattern remain in contact with the mould surface tending

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

to damage it.
• But, when a draft is provided as shown in figure (b), the moment the pattern lifting
commences, its faces are free from the mould surface thereby avoiding damage to the mould.

(d) Distortion allowance

• Distortion allowance is provided to those patterns from which the castings produced may
have the tendency to distort during cooling due to the thermal stresses developed.
• For example a casting in the form of ‘U’, shape (refer figure (a)) will contract at the closed
end on cooling while the open end remain fixed in position.
• Distortion for such castings can be eliminated by providing an allowance and constructing
the pattern initially distorted so that the casting after cooling neutralizes the initial distortion
given on the pattern. Refer figure (b)

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

SAND MOULDING
TYPES OF BASE SAND
Sand, due to its high refractoriness, and also being inexpensive, is the primary and basic
material used for preparing moulds. Nearly 90 - 95% of the moulding sand mixture is occupied
by sand and the remaining being binder and additives. Sand, usually referred to as base sand
has many sources and compositions. But all sands have their common origin in the fact that
they are granular material resulting from the disintegration or crushing of rocks.

Four basic types of sand are discussed below:

a) Silica sand
b) Olivine sand
c) Chromite
d) Zircon
(a) Silica sand
Silica sand is essentially silicon dioxide (SiO2) found in nature on the bottoms and banks of
rivers, lakes and seashore. Silica deposits tend to have varying degree of organic and mineral
contaminants like limestone, magnesia, soda and potash that must be removed prior to its use,
otherwise which affect castings in numerous ways. Silica sand is available in plenty, less
expensive and possess favorable properties that are essential to make a good casting. But its
high thermal expansion leads to certain casting defects; the reason for which not being used in
steel foundries. However, silica sand when mixed with certain additives like wood flour,
cereals (corn flour), saw dust etc., defects can be eliminated.
These additives burn by the heat of the molten metal thereby creating voids that can
accommodate the sand expansion.
(b) Olivine sand
Olivine sand is typically used in non -ferrous foundries. With its thermal expansion
(0.0083"/inch) about half of that of silica sand (0.018"/inch) makes it suitable for production
of steel castings also. But the high cost restricts its wide use.
(c) Chromite
This is African sand with cost being much higher compared to other sands. Due to its superior
thermal characteristics, it is generally used in steel foundries for both mould and core making.
(d) Zircon
Zircon or Zirconium silicate possesses most stable thermal properties of all the above
discussed sands.
The choice for this type of sand arises when very high temperatures are encountered, and
refractoriness becomes a consideration. But the major disadvantage is that, zircon has trace
elements of Uranium and Thorium which is hazardous in nature thereby restricting its use in
foundries.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

REQUIREMENT (PROPERTIES) OF BASE SAND

Following are the requirements to be satisfied while selecting the base sand for moulding
process.
a) Sand should have a high refractoriness. It should withstand the heat of the molten metal
without melting, losing its shape, size etc.
b) Sand grains when packed (rammed) together should be permeable or porous enough to allow
the escape of hot gases and water vapour through them. This property called permeability is an
important requirement of base sand that helps the hot gases or moisture (generated from the
molten metal) to pass out of the mould, otherwise which, defects related to gas entrapment
occurs in castings.
c) Sand grains when mixed with binder should provide good strength and also distribute and
flow easily under the ramming pressure.
d) Sand should be available in plenty, and also should be cheaper.
e) Sand should not fuse or burn out. They should be reusable.
f) Sand should not chemically react with the molten metal.

BINDERS
• The sand used for preparing moulds is a mixture of silica sand, binder and additives in suitable
proportions.
• A hard mould is a primary requirement in making any casting, and binders serve the purpose.
• A binder is a material used to produce cohesion or bind the sand particles (silica sand) together
thereby imparting strength to the sand
Clay binders (Bentonites) are the most widely used for bonding moulding sands. But, clay
activates or tends to bind sand particles only in the presence of water (moisture).
• The amount of water added to clay should be based on experimental trials because, if too little
water is added, the sand will lack strength as the bond between the sand particles is low.
• On the other hand, too much water causes sand to reach semi-liquid state thereby making it
unsuitable for moulding.
• In other words, for a given percentage of clay, there is an optimum percentage of water that
gives favorable properties to the moulding sand.
• For a good moulding sand, clay may vary in the range 6 - 12 % and moisture from 3 - 5 %.

TYPES OF BINDERS USED IN MOULDING SAND

Binders are classified into two types:
a) Organic binders and
b) Inorganic binders.
Organic group of binders include:
• Dextrin -made from starch.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

• Molasses -a by-product of sugar industry.

• Cereal binders -gelatinized starch and gelatinized flour.
• Linseed oil - a vegetable oil.
• Resins - Urea formaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde etc.
Inorganic group of binders include:
• Clay binders -Bentonite, Fire clay etc.
• Portland cement.
• Sodium silicate etc.

ADDITIVES
• Additives are generally added to develop certain new properties, or, to enhance the existing
properties of the moulding sand.
• They do not form a compulsory constituent to the moulding sand. However, its addition
improves the quality of the moulding sand and hence the casting obtained.

A few commonly used additives and their functions are described below.
a) Sea coal
b) Silica Flour
c) Wood Flour (Cellulose material)
d) Iron oxide
e) Graphite

(a) Sea coal

• It is a finely powdered bituminous coal.
• Its addition ranges from 2 -8 % by weight of sand.
• Enhances peeling property of castings.
• Improves surface finish of castings.
• Prevents sand burn out.
• Note: Sea coal material is added for casting cast iron alloys, but not suitable for steels ,
because the volatile nature of coal produces smoke and gas that adds lustrous carbon on
the metal surface. However, these gases aid in producing a non-oxidizing atmosphere for
cast iron alloys.
(b) Silica Flour
• It is pulverized silica added in ranges of 5 – 10% based on sand weight.
• Resists metal penetration in the mould walls.
• Improves surface finish.
• Minimizes sand expansion defects.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

(c) Wood Flour (Cellulose material)

• It is a pulverized soft wood (fibrous material) .
• Added in ranges of 1 - 2% by weight of sand.
• Controls sand expansion created by temper water.
• Absorbs excess water and improves flowability of sand during moulding process.
• Improves collapsibility of moulds/cores.
(d) Iron oxide
• Develops hot strength to moulding sand.
• Aid in the thermal transfer of heat from the mould-metal interface and provides stability to
the moulds dimensional properties.
(e) Graphite
• It may be natural or synthetic graphite.
• Added in ranges of 0.2 - 2% by weight of sand.
• Improves surface finish of castings.
• Improves mouldability of foundry sand mixture.
(f) Pitch
• Pitch is distilled from soft cool at about 600°F.
• May be added up to 2% by weight of sand.
• Improves hot strength.
• Improves surface finish on ferrous castings.

PREPARATION OF SAND MOULDING

Green sand moulding is the most widely used process for casting both ferrous and nonferrous
metals. Nearly 60% of the total castings are produced from green sand moulds.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Procedure involved in making green sand moulds

a) Suitable proportions of silica sand (85 - 92 %), bentonite binder (6 - 12 %), water (3 -5%)
and additives are mixed together to prepare the green sand mixture .
b) The pattern is placed on a flat surface with the drag box enclosing it as shown in figure
3(a).
c) Parting sand (It is a dried silica sand) is sprinkled on the pattern surface to avoid green
sand mixture sticking to the pattern.
d) The drag box is filled with green sand mixture and rammed manually till its top surface.
Refer figure 3(b). The drag box is now inverted so that the pattern faces the top as shown in

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

figure 3(c). Parting sand is sprinkled over the mould surface of the drag box.
e) The cope box is placed on top of the drag box , and the sprue and riser pin are placed in
suitable locations. The green sand mixture is rammed to the level of cope box as shown in
figure 3(d).
f) The sprue and the riser are removed from the mould. The cope box is lifted and placed
aside, and the pattern in the drag box is withdrawn by rapping it carefully so as to avoid
damage to the mould. Gates are cut using hand tools to provide passage for the flow of
molten metal. Refer figure 3(e) and 3(f).
g) The mould cavity is cleaned and finished. Cores, if any, are placed in the mould to obtain
a hollow cavity in the casting. Refer figure 3(g).
h) The cope is now placed on the drag box and both are aligned with the help of pins. Vent
holes are made to allow the free escape of gases from the mould during pouring .
i) The mould is made ready for pouring. Refer figure 3(h).

MOULDING MACHINES
• When large number of castings are to be produced, hand moulding consumes more time,
labour, intensive, and also accuracy and uniformity in moulding varies.
• To overcome this difficulty, machines are used for moulding. Based on the methods of
ramming, moulding machines are classified as follows:
a) Jolt machine
b) Squeeze machine
c) Jolt-squeeze machine
d) Sand slinger.

a) JOLT MACHINE
• A jolt machine consists of a flat table mounted on a piston -cylinder arrangement.
• The table can be raised or lowered by means of compressed air. Refer figure.
• In operation, the mould box with the pattern and sand in it is placed on the table.
• The table is raised to a short distance and then dropped down under the influence of
gravity against a solid bed plate. The action of raising and dropping (lowering) is called
Jolting.
Jolting causes the sand particles to get packed tightly above and around the pattern .
• The number of jolts may vary depending on the size and hardness of the mould required.
• Usually, less than 20 jolts are sufficient for a good moulding.
• The disadvantage of this type is that, the density and hardness of the rammed sand at the top
of the mould box is less when compared to its bottom portions.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

b) SQUEEZE MACHINE
• In squeeze machine, the mould box with pattern and sand in it is placed on a fixed table as
shown in figure.
• A flat plate or a rubber diaphragm is brought in contact with the upper surface of the loose
sand, and pressure is applied by a pneumatically operated piston.
• The squeezing action of the plate causes the sand particles to get packed tightly above and
around the pattern.
• Squeezing is continued until the mould attains the desired density.
• In some machines, the squeeze plate may be stationary with the mould box moving upward.
• The disadvantage of squeeze machine is that, the density and hardness of the rammed sand
at the bottom of the mould box is less when compared to its top portions.

c) SAND SLINGER
• A sand slinger is an automatic machine equipped with a unit that throws sand rapidly and
with great force into the mould box. Figure shows a sand slinger.
• Sand slinger consists of a rigid base, sand bin, bucket elevator, belt conveyor, ramming
head (sand impeller) and a swinging arm.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

In operation, the pre-mixed and mixture from the sand bin is picked by the bucket elevator and
is dropped on to the belt conveyor.
• The conveyor carries the sand to the ramming head, inside which there is a rotating impeller
having cup-shaped blades rotating at high speeds (around 1800 rpm).
The force of the rotor blades imparts velocity to the sand particles and as a result the sand is
thrown with very high velocity into the mould box thereby filling and ramming the sand at the
same time.
• The density of the ramming sand can be controlled by varying the speed of the impeller.
• Rest of the operations, viz., removal of pattern, cutting gates etc., are done manually.
• In the initial stages of ramming, the blades are rotated at slow speeds; around 1000 - 1200rpm
to avoid damage to the pattern due to the abrasive action of the high velocity sand particles.

STUDY OF IMPORTANT MOULDING PROCESS

• Moulds can be prepared with sand or metal. There are various sand moulds and metallic
moulds in which castings are made.
• However, the following Sand moulds only are discussed below.
SAND MOULDS
• Green sand mould
• Core sand mould
• Carbon dioxide mould (CO2 mould)

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

• Shell mould
• Investment mould
• Sweep mould
• Dry sand mould
• Plaster mould
• Cement bonded mould
• Flaskless mould
• No-bake mould

GREEN SAND MOULDING

• Green sand moulding is the most widely used process for casting both ferrous and nonferrous
metals. Nearly 60% of the total castings are produced from green sand moulds

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Procedure involved in making green sand moulds

a) Suitable proportions of silica sand (85 - 92 %), bentonite binder (6 - 12 %), water (3 -5%)
and additives are mixed together to prepare the green sand mixture .
b) The pattern is placed on a flat surface with the drag box enclosing it as shown in figure
3(a).
c) Parting sand (It is a dried silica sand) is sprinkled on the pattern surface to avoid green
sand mixture sticking to the pattern.
d) The drag box is filled with green sand mixture and rammed manually till its top surface.
Refer figure 3(b). The drag box is now inverted so that the pattern faces the top as shown in
figure 3(c). Parting sand is sprinkled over the mould surface of the drag box.
e) The cope box is placed on top of the drag box , and the sprue and riser pin are placed in
suitable locations. The green sand mixture is rammed to the level of cope box as shown in
figure 3(d).
f) The sprue and the riser are removed from the mould. The cope box is lifted and placed
aside, and the pattern in the drag box is withdrawn by rapping it carefully so as to avoid
damage to the mould. Gates are cut using hand tools to provide passage for the flow of
molten metal. Refer figure 3(e) and 3(f).
g) The mould cavity is cleaned and finished. Cores, if any, are placed in the mould to obtain
a hollow cavity in the casting. Refer figure 3(g).
h) The cope is now placed on the drag box and both are aligned with the help of pins. Vent
holes are made to allow the free escape of gases from the mould during pouring .
i) The mould is made ready for pouring. Refer figure 3(h).

Advantages of Green sand moulding

• Least expensive method.
• Sand can be reused many times after reconditioning with clay and moisture
• Preferred for simple, small and medium size castings.
• Suitable for mass production
Disadvantages of Green sand moulding
• Moulds prepared by this process lack in permeability, strength and stability.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

• They give rise to many defects like porosity, blow holes etc., because of low permeability,
and lot of steam formation due to their moisture content.
• Moulds cannot be stored for appreciable length of time.
• Not suitable for very large size castings.
• Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of castings are not satisfactory.
• Mould erosion is common in green sand moulds.
• Difficult to cast thin and intricate shapes.

CORE SAND MOULDING

• In this process, the complete mould is prepared by assembling a number of cores together.
• Cores are prepared by mixing suitable proportions of silica sand and binders. Various
resins or oils are used as binders. • The cores are prepared individually in separate core boxes,
after which they are baked in
ovens to develop greater strength. Core sand moulding requires no flask to surround the
mould.
• The advantages of this process is that, at high temperatures, the bond between the sand
grains is destroyed thereby causing collapsibility of moulding sand.
This helps to separate the casting easily from the sand. Also, good surface finish and
dimensional tolerance is obtained in castings.
• But the cost of binders, baking equipment's, time consumed, labours involved etc., makes
the process very expensive.

CARBON DIOXIDE MOULDING (CO2 MOULDING)

• Carbon dioxide moulding also known as sodium silicate process is one of the widely used
process for preparing moulds and cores.
• In this process, sodium silicate is used as the binder.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

• But sodium silicate activates or tend to bind the sand particles only in the presence of
carbon dioxide gas.
• For this reason, the process is commonly known as CO2 process.

Steps involved in making carbon dioxide mould

a) Suitable proportions of silica sand and sodium silicate binder (3- 5% based on sand weight)
are mixed together to prepare the sand mixture. Additives like aluminum oxide, molasses etc.,
are added to impart favorable properties, and to improve collapsibility of the sand.
b) The pattern is placed on a flat surface with the drag box enclosing it. Parting sand is sprinkled
on the pattern surface to avoid sand mixture sticking to the pattern.
c) The drag box is filled with the sand mixture and rammed manually till its top surface. Rest
of the operations like placing sprue and riser pin, and ramming the cope box are similar to that
of green sand moulding process. Vent holes are made at various locations with the help of vent
wire of suitable diameter. At this stage, the carbon dioxide gas is passed through the vent holes

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

for a few seconds as shown in figure 2(a).

d) Sodium silicate reacts with carbon dioxide gas to form silica gel that binds the sand.

Advantages
• Instantaneous strength development. The development of strength takes place immediately
after carbon dioxide gassing is completed. Since the process uses relatively safe carbon
dioxide gas, it does not present sand disposal problems or any odour while mixing and
pouring. Hence, the process is safe to human operators.
• Very little gas evolution during pouring of molten metal.
Disadvantages
• Poor collapsibility of moulds is a major disadvantage of this process. Although some
additives are used to improve this property for ferrous metal castings, these additives cannot
be used for non-ferrous applications.
• The sand mixture has the tendency to stick to the pattern and has relatively poor flowability.
• There is a significant loss in the strength and hardness of moulds which have been stored for
extended periods of time.
• Over gassing and under gassing adversely affects the properties of cured (hardened) sand.

SHELL MOULDING
• Shell moulding is an efficient and economical method for producing steel castings.
• The process was developed by Herr Croning in Germany during World war-II, and hence
is sometimes referred to as the Craning shell process

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Procedure involved in making shell mould

a) A metallic pattern having the shape of the desired casting is made in one half from low
carbon steel material. Pouring element is provided in the pattern itself. Refer figure
3.3(a).
b) The metallic pattern is heated in an oven to a suitable temperature between 180 - 250°C.The
pattern is taken out from the oven and sprayed with a solution of a lubricating viz., silicone oil
or spirit in order to prevent the shell (formed in later stages) from sticking to the pattern.
c) The pattern is inverted and is placed over a box as shown in figure 3.3(b). The box
contains a mixture of dry silica sand or zircon sand, and a resin binder (5% based on sand
weight).
d) The box is now inverted so that the resin-sand mixture falls on the heated face of the metallic
pattern as shown in figure 3.3(c). The resin-sand mixture gets heated up, softens and sticks to
the surface of the pattern.
e) After a few seconds, the box is again inverted to its initial position so that the lose resinsand
mixture falls down leaving behind a thin layer of shell on the pattern face. Refer figure 3.3 (d).
f) The pattern along with the shell is removed from the box and placed in an oven for a few
minutes which further hardens the shell and makes it rigid. The shell is then stripped from the
pattern with the help of ejector pins that are initially provided on the pattern. Refer figure 3.3(e).
g) Another shell half is prepared in a similar manner and both the shells are assembled together
with the help of bolts, clips or glues to form a mould cavity. The assembled part is then placed
in a box with suitable backing sand* to receive the molten metal. Refer figure 3.3(f).
h) When the molten metal solidifies, it is removed from the mould, cleaned and finished to
obtain the desired shape and size.
Advantages
• Better surface finish and dimensional tolerance.
• Reduced machining.
• Requires less foundry space.
• Semi-skilled operators can handle the process easily.
• Shells can be stored for extended periods of time.
Disadvantages
• Initially the metallic pattern has to be cast to the desired shape, size and finish.
• Size and weight range of castings is limited.
• Process generates noxious fumes.

INVESTMENT MOULD
• Investment mould , also called as Precision casting or Lost wax process is an ancient method
of casting complex shapes like impellers , turbine blades and other airplane parts that are
difficult to produce by other manufacturing techniques.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

The various steps involved in this process are:

• Step 1: Die* and Pattern making
• Step 2: Pre-coating wax patterns
• Step 3: Investment
• Step 4: De-waxing (300°F or 148.9 °C)
• Step 5: Reheating the mould (550-1100°C)
• Step 6: Melting and Pouring

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Step 1: Die* and Pattern making

A wax pattern is prepared by injecting liquid wax into a pre-fabricated die having
approximately the same geometry of the cavity of the desired cast part. Refer figure 3.4(a).
Several such patterns are produced in the similar manner and then attached to a wax gate and
sprue by means of heated tools or melted wax to form a tree as shown in figure 3.4(b).
Step 2: Pre-coating wax patterns
The tree is coated by dipping into a refractory slurry which is a mixture of finely ground silica
flour suspended in ethyl silicate solution (binder). The coated tree is sprinkled with silica sand
and allowed to dry. Refer figure 3.4(c)
Step 3: Investment
The pre-coated tree is coated again (referred as ‘investment’) by dipping in a more viscous
slurry made of refractory flour (fused silica, alumina etc.) and liquid binders (colloidal silica,
sodium silicate etc.), and dusted with refractory sand.
The process of dipping and dusting is repeated until a solid shell of desired thickness (about 6
- 10 mm) is achieved.
Step 4: De-waxing
• The tree is placed in an inverted position and heated in a oven to about 300°F ( 148.9 °C) The

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

wax melts and drops down leaving a mould cavity that will be filled later by the molten metal.
Refer figure 3.4(d).
Step 5: Reheating the mould
The mould is heated to about 1000 - 2000°F (550-1100°C) to remove any residues of wax and
at the same time to harden the binder.
Step 6: Melting and Pouring
The mould is placed in a flask supported with a backing material, and the liquid metal of the
desired composition is poured under gravity or by using air pressure depending on the
requirement. Refer figure 3.4(e). After the metal cools and solidifies, the investment is broken
by using chisels or hammer and then casting is cut from the gating system, cleaned and finished.
Refer figure 3.4(f).

Advantages
• Gives good surface finish and dimensional tolerances to castings.
• Eliminates machining of cast parts.
• Very accurate coring is possible to give precise location for inserts or holes.
• Wax can be reused.
Disadvantages
• Process is expensive.
• Size and weight range of castings is limited.
• In some cases, it is difficult to separate the refractory (investment) from the casting.
• Requires more processing steps.

SWEEP MOULD
In sweep moulding , the cavity is formed as the pattern sweeps the sand all around the
circumference as shown in figure 3.5. The process is used for producing circular, symmetrical
shaped castings like rings, wheels, etc., of very large sizes but in small quantities.
The mould is prepared with the help of a sweep pattern , and using either green sand, loam
sand, or sodium silicate sand. The sweep pattern consists of a thin wooden piece with one of
its edge attached to a spindle, while the other edge has a contour depending on the desired
shape of the casting Refer fig.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

The spindle is mounted on a suitable base, which supports the sweep arm and sweep board
allowing it to rotate about a vertical axis. The spindle is placed at the center of the mould and
sand rammed up to the drag box . The spindle is rotated so that the wooden piece sweeps in the
mould box generating the shape of the required casting.
The cope box is rammed with green sand by placing in it the required gates, sprue, and risers.
Rest of the process is similar to that in green sand moulding.
Advantages
• Simple and economical method for producing large symmetrical shaped castings.
• Eliminates the need for preparing large patterns.
Disadvantages
• Process is slow.
• Requires skilled operator for producing quality castings.
• Primarily suitable for Symmetrical profiles.
• Not suitable for large quantity parts

DRY SAND MOULD

The word dry signifies that the mould is dry or free from moisture at the time of metal pouring.
The absence of moisture makes dry sand moulds to overcome most of the disadvantages of
green sand moulds.
A dry sand mould is prepared in the same manner as that of green sand mould, i.e., by mixing
silica sand, clay and water. The entire mould/core is then dried (baked) in ovens to remove the
moisture present in them.
Also, baking hardens the binder thereby increasing the strength of moulds/cores. The
temperature and duration of baking ranges from 200 - 450°F and from a few minutes to hours
respectively, depending on the type of metal being poured, and size of the casting.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Advantages of Dry sand mould

• Strength and stability of moulds is high when compared to green sand moulds.
• Baking removes moisture and hence, defects related to moisture are eliminated.
• Better surface finish and dimensional tolerance of castings.
Disadvantages of Dry sand mould
• Consumes more time, labour and cost due to baking process. Hence, not suitable for
mass production.
• Not suitable for large and heavy size castings, as they are difficult to bake.
• Capital cost of bake ovens.
• Under baked or over baked moulds/cores is another disadvantage.

PLASTER MOULD
• The mold material in plaster molding is gypsum or plaster of paris. Figure shows plaster
mould a) Slurry making, b) Mold making and c) Assembly

To this plaster of paris, additives like talc, fibers, asbestos, silica flour etc. are added in order
to control the contraction characteristics of the mold as well as the settling time
• The plaster of paris is used in the form of slurry.
• This plaster slurry is poured over a metallic pattern confined in a flask.
The pattern is usually made of brass and it is generally in the form of half portion of job to be
cast and is attached firmly on a match plate which forms the bottom of the molding flask.
• Wood pattern are not used because the water in the plaster raises the grains on them and
makes them difficult to be withdrawn.
• Some parting or release agent is needed for easy withdrawal of the pattern from the mold.
• As the flask is filled with the slurry, it is vibrated so as to bubble out any air entrapped in the
slurry and to ensure that the mold is completely filled up.
• The plaster mold thus produced is dried in an oven to a temperature range between 200- 700
degree centigrade and cooled in the oven itself.
• In the above manner two halves of a mold are prepared and are joined together to form the

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

proper cavity.
• The necessary sprue, runner etc., are cut before joining the two parts.
Advantages
• In plaster molding, very good surface finish is obtained and machining cost is also reduced.
• Slow and uniform rate of cooling of the casting is achieved because of low thermal
conductivity of plaster and possibility of stress concentration is reduced.
• Metal shrinkage with accurate control is feasible and thereby warping and distortion of thin
sections can be avoided in the plaster molding.
Disadvantages
• There is evolution of steam during metal pouring if the plaster mold is not dried at higher
temperatures avoid this, the plaster mold may be dehydrated at high temperatures, but the
strength of the mold decreases with dehydration.
• The permeability of the plaster mold is low. This may be to a certain extent but it can be
increased by removing the bubble.

CEMENT BONDED MOULD

• A mixture of silica sand containing 8-12% cement and 4-6% water is used.
• When making the mold, the cement-bonded sand mixture must be allowed to harden first.
before the pattern is withdrawn. The mold obtained is then allowed to cure for about 3-5 days.
• When the metal is poured, heat causes the water of crystallization of the cement to be driven
off, and thus steam must be allowed to pass off through the sand by means of its porosity and
suitably distributed vent holes.
• Large castings with intricate shapes, accurate dimensions and smooth surfaces are usually
produced by this method.
• The only shortcoming being the long time required for the molding process. Refer diagram
of plaster mould.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

CORES
A core is a pre-formed (shaped) mass of sand placed in the mould cavity to form hollow cavities
in castings. The core defines a volume or location in a mould cavity where the molten metal
will not flow into. Refer figure
When molten metal is poured into the mould, it surrounds the core filling the cavity. After
solidification, the casting is removed from the mould, with the core still at the center of the
solidified casting. The core when knocked out leaves a void or cavity in the casting.

TYPES OF CORES
Cores are classified based on:
(a) The material from which they are made
 Green sand core
 Dry sand core
 No-bake sand core
(b) Their position and use
Based on position :
 Horizontal core
 Vertical core
 Balanced core
 Drop core
Based on use:
 Kiss core
 Ram-up core etc
(a) The material from which they are made
(i) Green sand core
• A green sand core is composed of a mixture of silica sand, binder (bentonite), moisture and
additives.
• The preparation of green sand core is similar to that used for green sand moulds.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

(ii) Dry sand core

• The sand mixture used for preparing a dry sand core is different from that used for dry sand
moulds.
• A dry sand core is composed of a mixture of silica sand and binder. The binders may be
sodium silicate, ester, portland cement, rubber cement, linseed oil, mineral oil, natural resins
(gum resin, pine resin, coal tar resin etc.), cereals etc.
(iii) No-bake sand core
• The sand used for preparing no-bake core is similar to that used for making no-bake sand
moulds.
• Synthetic resins like phenol or urea formaldehyde are used as binder for bonding silica sand.
• Certain chemicals are used as hardeners and catalysts to bring about a chemical reaction with
the binder due to which bonding of sand grains takes place.

(b) Based on position of core and their uses

Based on position :
(i) Horizontal core
• When the core is placed horizontally in the mould , it is known as horizontal core.
• Refer figure 2.2. The core prints provided at both ends of the core rests in the seats initially
provided by the pattern.
• These core prints help the core to be securely and correctly positioned in the mould cavity.

(ii) Vertical core

• When the axis of the core is vertical, it is known as vertical core. Refer figure 2.3

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

(b) Based on position of core and their uses

Based on position :
(iii) Balanced core
• A balanced core is one that is supported and balanced from its one end only.
• Such cores are used when the cavity required is only to a certain depth. Refer figure 2.4.

(iv) Drop core

• Drop core is used when the axis of the desired hole does not coincide with the parting line of
the mould , i.e., the core is required to be placed either above or below the parting line. Figure
2.5 shows a drop core placed in the mould.

(b) Based on position of core and their uses

Based on use:
(v) Kiss core
• In some cases, patterns cannot be provided with core prints, and hence, no seat will be
available as a rest for the core.
• In such cases, the core is held in position between the cope and the drag by the pressure
exerted from the cope on the drag. Such a core is called a kiss core and is shown in figure 2.6.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

(vi) Ram-up core

• When a core is to be placed in an inaccessible position, it is difficult to place it after ramming
the mould.
• The core used in this case is called a ram-up core, and is placed in mould along with the
pattern before ramming. Figure 2.7 shows a ram-up core placed in the mould.

METHOD OF MAKING CORES

Core making consists of the following four steps:
(i) Core sand preparation
(ii) Core moulding
(iii) Core baking
(iv) Core finishing

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

(i) Core sand preparation

The core sand of desired type (dry sand, no-bake etc.,) and composition, along with additives
is mixed manually or using muller* of suitable type. Muller - It is a mixer type that kneads,
shears, slices through and stirs the sand by means of revolving wheels or rollers. A muller can
he assumed to he like a wet grinder.

(ii) Core moulding

• Cores are prepared manually or using machines depending on the needs.
• Machines like jolt machine, sand slinger, core blower etc., are used for large scale continuous
production , while small sized cores for limited production are manually made in hand filled
core boxes .
• A core box is similar to a pattern that gives suitable shape to the core.
• Figure 2.8 (a) shows a core box used to produce rectangular shaped cores.
The procedure involved for preparing core is as follows:
• The prepared core sand mixture is rammed manually into the core box.
• The core box is inverted over a core plate and rapped in all directions using wooden mallet.
Refer figure 2.8(b).
• The box is lifted vertically to leave the core on the core plate. Refer figure 2.8(c).
• The core along with the core plate is sent for baking.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

(iii) Core baking

Cores are baked in ovens in order to drive away the moisture in them, and also to harden the
binder thereby imparting strength to the core. The temperature and duration for baking may
vary from 200- 450°F and from a few minutes to hours respectively depending on the size of
the core and type of binder used.
(iv) Core finishing
The baked cores are finished by rubbing or filing with special tools to remove any fins, bumps,
lose sand or other sand projections from its surface. The cores are also checked for dimensions
and cleanliness. Finally, if cores are made in parts, they are assembled by using suitable pastes,
pressed and dried in air be ore placing them in the mould cavity.
BINDERS USED FOR CORES
• Binders used for core making are of various types: each type used to provide some desired
property to a core for a particular use or set of conditions.
The core binders commonly used are discussed
(a) Binders that become firm at room temperature
(b) Binders that become firm on baking
(c) Binders that harden on cooling after being heated
(d) Other Binders
(a) Binders that become firm at room temperature
The binders that come under this group include :
Sodium silicate
• Sodium silicate is mixed with silica sand to prepare a core of desired shape and size.
• Vent holes are made in the core through which carbon -dioxide gas is passed for a few
seconds.
• The core hardens rapidly within a few seconds after gassing is stopped. Portland cement
• Portland cement is mixed with silica sand and water to prepare a core of desired shape after
which it is made to set (dry) in a room for about 72 hours.
• The strength developed with this binder is very high, and hence preferred for heavy steel and
gray iron castings.
Rubber cement (Rubber latex)
• Bonding of cores with this binder is a patented process.
• Silica sand is mixed with water, and then the rubber latex (obtained from plant) is added.
• The core is rammed and allowed to harden at room temperature.
Synthetic resins (No-bake binders)
• Synthetic resins like phenol and urea formaldehyde are used as binders.
• They are mixed with hardeners and/or catalysts to bring about a chemical reaction.
• Strength development in cores takes place within a few minutes after mixing.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

(b) Binders that become firm on baking

This group of binders does not develop their strength by chemical or physical changes, rather
they become hard on heating (baking).
Binder materials of this group include:
• Vegetable oil. Example Linseed oil.
• Marine animal oil. Example Whale oil.
• Cereal binder
• Dextrin (made from starch)
• Molasses (a by-product of sugar industry)
• Sulfite binder. Example Lignin, a by-product of paper pulp process .
• Pitch (a coal tar product)
• Protein binders. Example Gelatin, casein and glues.
(c) Binders that harden on cooling after being heated
• A binder that softens on heating and hardens on cooling includes natural resins like:
• Gum resins-Obtained by tapping the living tree, and distilling the gum .
• Wood resins -Obtained from pine stump wood .
• Limed wood resin -These are wood resins treated with lime.
• Coal tar resins -A product of coal tar industry.
(d) Other Binders
• Clay binders -Bentonite mixed with water.
• Saw dust and wood flour -Although not pure binder’s (they provide little adhesive
strength), they serve to improve the collapsibility of the core

CONCEPT OF GATING AND RISERING

GATING
• The concept of gating is very important, as it helps one to learn the controlled flow of
molten metal from the crucible (ladle) into the mould cavity.
• The term gating or gating system refers to all the channels or cavities through which the
molten metal flows to reach and fill the mould cavity.
• Figure 2.9 shows a simple gating system which consists of the following components.
a) Sprue
b) Pouring cup
c) Runner
d) Ingates or gates

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

(a) Sprue
• A sprue is a vertical passage way through which the molten metal will enter the runner. It
is also called down gate or down sprue.
• The sprue is tapered in cross-section with its bigger end at the top connected to the
pouring cup, while its smaller end connected to the runner.
(b) Pouring cup
• The enlarged portion (usually funnel shaped) of the sprue at its top into which the molten
metal is poured is called pouring cup. Refer figure 2.10(a).
• In some cases, pouring basin is used instead of cup.
• The pouring basin has a larger opening as shown in figure 2.10(b).
• It makes pouring easier, eliminates aspiration*, and reduces the momentum of the liquid
flowing into the mould by settling first into it.

(c) Runner
• The runner is a horizontal passageway through which the molten metal flows into the
gates. The cross-section of the runner may be square or trapezoid, and its length is very large
compared to its width.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

(d) Runner extension

• It is a small portion of the runner that extends beyond the last gate.
• It is used to trap the slag in the initial molten metal.
e) Ingates
• The ingate or gate is a short passageway which carries the molten metal from the runner to
the mould cavity.
• The gates used may vary in number and depends on the size of the casting and rate of
solidification of molten metal.
• A gate may be built as a part of the pattern, or it may be cut in the mould using gate cutter
tool. The combination of sprue, sprue base, runner and ingates completes the total pouring
system of any casting.
RISERING
• We know that as the molten metal solidifies, it shrinks in volume.
• At this stage, if it does not have a source of more molten metal to feed as it shrinks, voids
appear leading to defects in castings.
• This problem is overcome with the use of riser. Refer figure 2.9.
• A riser or feeder head is a vertical passage made in the cope, to store the liquid metal and
supply (feed) the same to the casting as it solidifies.
• Referring to figure 2.9, molten metal flows into the mould cavity through the gating system
mould cavity through the gating system, fills the cavity and then rises up through the riser till
its top. At this moment, the pouring of molten metal is stopped.
• However during solidification, the metal in the cavity shrinks in volume and hence there will
be no additional metal to be supplied into the mould cavity to compensate for the shrinkage.
• It is here where the riser comes to use to accomplish the required task. Since the riser is the
last portion to be fed with molten metal, the metal contained in the riser will be in the liquid
state compared to the metal in the gate and the runner.
• Thus, the liquid metal in the riser flows into the cavity thereby compensating the shrinkage
effects. The riser continues to feed liquid metal to the casting until the casting has completely
solidified.

PRINCIPLES OF GATING & RISERING

• To optimize gating and risering practice , and hence to improve castings, one should know
the principles that have been derived from considerable research and production experience.
GATING SYSTEM
The principles or fundamental requirements of a gating system are:
a) Molten metal flows under gravity from the ladle into the mould cavity.
 The taller the mould the greater the velocity of the metal as it flows into the mould
cavity. But this results in undesirable effects on the mould and the casting.
 Hence, the gating system should be designed in such a way that the molten metal flows
with low velocity and as little turbulence* as possible, so that the mould gases and air

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

will not be trapped in the metal stream, and also the moulding sand will not be washed away.
b) The metal should enter the mould cavity in a manner that will produce temperature
differences between points in the casting thereby promoting directional solidification.
c) The gating system must deliver clean molten metal, free of slag and dross at a rate and
velocity sufficient to fill the mould cavity before the metal starts freezing.
 It is very interesting to know how this requirement is achieved. Liquid metal flows
turbulently from the pouring basin and in the vertical sprue. Refer figure 2.9.
 This turbulence can and usually does carry dross or slag down the sprue, into the runner
and to the mould cavity where it will cause a defect in casting.
 It should be known that the flow of metal through the ingates commences only after the
end of the runner stops the flow.
 For this reason, the runner includes in it an extension, past the last ingate to trap the
slag in the initial molten metal.
d) The gating system should be economical. In other words, the amount of metal solidified
in the sprue, runner, gate, and risers should be less, else the gating system will be expensive.

RISERING SYSTEM
The principles or fundamental requirements of a risering system are:
a) For a sound casting a riser must be large enough to freeze after the casting. The ratio of
(volume/surface area)2 of the riser must be greater than that of the casting. However, when this
condition does not meet , the metal in the riser can be kept in liquid state by heating it externally
or using exothermic materials* in the risers. This helps continuous feeding of liquid metal to
the solidifying casting so that shrinkage cavities are eliminated.
b) The riser must be kept open to the atmosphere and placed in such a location that it maintains
a positive pressure of liquid metal on all portions of the casting it is intended to feed.
c) A riser should be located in a position that will cause directional solidification from the
casting towards it. Without directional solidification, liquid metal in the casting may be cut off
from the riser, resulting in defect.
d) The spacing of risers in the casting must be considered by effectively calculating the feeding
distance of the risers.
e) The shape of the riser is another primary requirement in risering system. Cylindrical risers
are recommended for most of the castings as spherical risers, although considered as best, are
difficult in moulding. To increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom of the riser can be
shaped as hemisphere.

TYPE OF GATES
The common types of gates are:
a) Top gate

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

b) Bottom gate
 Simple Bottom gate
 A horn Gate
c) Parting gate
a) Top gate
 A top gate is so called, because the molten metal from the pouring basin (from the top)
is fed directly into the mould cavity. Figure 2. 11 shows a top gate.

Top gate on one hand is advantageous, because the hottest metal remains at the top of the
casting.
 This promotes directional solidification from the castings towards the gate. Top gate
serves as a riser too.
 On the other hand, use of top gate is limited, because the turbulence of the falling metal
tends to erode portions of the mould, as well as entraps air and metal oxides in the
cavity itself.
 Advantages of Top Gating
 Simplicity for moulding.
 Low consumption of additional metal.
 Generation of favourable temperature gradients to enable directional solidification from
 the casting towards the gate which serves as riser too.
 Disadvantages of Top Gating
 The dropping liquid metal stream erodes the mold surface.
 Dropping metal does cutting action, lifts portions of the surface and causes scab (Skin).
 Splashing of molten metal associated with the liquid metal stream increase chances of
 oxidation.
 There is lot of turbulence and pick-up of air and other gases.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

b) BOTTOM GATE
Types of Bottom gate
Simple Bottom gate
A horn gate
• A bottom gate is so called, because the molten metal enters the mould cavity from its
bottom . Figure 2.12 shows a bottom gate.
• The molten metal fills the bottom portion of the mould cavity and rises steadily and gently
up the mould walls.
• Bottom gate minimizes turbulence and erosion in the mould cavity, but provides
unfavorable temperature gradients that do not promote directional solidification .
• The reason is that in bottom gating, the molten metal at the bottom of the mould remains
hot due to the heat of the entering molten metal.
• As the metal rises in the mould cavity, it loses heat and the metal which finally goes into
the riser located at the top of the casting is comparatively cooler than the metal near the
ingate.
• Bottom gating is preferred when side risers are used.

Figure 2.12(b) shows a horn gate, It consists ofhorn-shaped sprue, and is connected to a mold
cavity through gating arrangementsis called a horn gate.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Advantages of Bottom Gating

• There is no scouring (Rubbing) and splashing in the bottom gate.
• As compared to top gate, a bottom gate involves little turbulence and metal erosion.
• Bottom gate produces good casting surfaces.
Disadvantages of Bottom Gating
• In bottom gates, liquid metal enters the mold cavity at the bottom. If freezing takes place
at the bottom, it could choke off the metal flow before the mold is full.
• A bottom gate creates an unfavorable temperature gradient and makes it difficult to achieve
directional solidification especially when the bottom gate has a riser at the top of the casting.
A bottom gate involves greater complexity of molding.
• The liquid metal cools as it rises the mold walls and results in cold metal and cold mold
near the (top) riser and hot metal and hot mold near the gate.

c) PARTING GATE
• Parting gate is the most commonly used gate and is a compromise between top and
bottom gate.
• The gate is provided at the parting line of the mould as shown in figure 2.13(a).
• In some cases, parting gates are provided with a choke that controls the rate of metal flow
and, skim bob that restricts slag, dirt or sand particles from entering into the mould
cavity. Refer figure 2.13 (b).
• The molten metal will be trapped in the upper part of the skim bob due to its curvature.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

Advantages of Parting Line Gating

• Parting line gates are simple to construct.
• Parting line gates are very fast to make.
• Parting line gates produce very satisfactory results when drag is not very deep.
• Parting line gating makes best compromise between molding convenience and the ideal
gating arrangement.
Disadvantages of Parting Line Gating
• In case the parting line is not near the bottom of the mold cavity or the drag portion is deep,
some turbulence will occur as the liquid metal falls into the mold cavity.
• Cascading (Spilling) of molten metal from a height in the mold cavity will cause erosion or
washing of the mold.
• Cascading in non-ferrous metals will promote air pickup by the liquid metal and thus result
in an inferior casting.

TYPES OF RISERS
There are two types of risers:
1) Open riser
2) Blind riser.
1) OPEN RISER
• In this type, the top surface of the riser will be open to the atmosphere.
• An open riser is usually placed on the top of the casting as shown in figure 2.14 or at the
parting surface of the mould as shown in figure 2.13(a).
• Gravity and atmospheric pressure causes the liquid metal in the riser to flow into the
solidifying casting.
• But, when a certain thickness of the liquid metal on the top surface of the riser solidifies, the
atmospheric pressure will no longer be effective in feeding the molten metal.
• However, open riser is commonly used in foundries.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

2) BLIND RISER
• A blind riser as shown in figure 2.15 is one which is completely enclosed in the mould and
not exposed to the atmosphere.
• Due to this, the metal in the riser cools slower and thus stay liquid longer promoting
directional solidification.
• In blind risers, the liquid metal is fed to the solidifying casting under the force of gravity
alone.
• Hence, when shrinkage occurs in the blind riser, a partial vacuum is developed in the riser.
Due to this vacuum, the pressure due to gravity is also reduced.
• For efficient functioning of the blind riser, it is essential to make a provision to keep the riser
open to the atmosphere to enable atmospheric pressure to exert feeding pressure on the liquid
metal.
• This is achieved by inserting a core of permeable sand at the top of the blind riser as shown
in figure 2.15.

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri

MANUFACTURING PROCESS BME302 SEMESTER-III

REFERENCES:
1. Ghosh, A. and Mallik, A. K., (2017), Manufacturing Science, East-West Press.
2. Parmar R. S., (2007), Welding Processes and Technology, Khanna Publishers.
3. Little R. L. – ‘Welding and Welding Technology’ – Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi – 1989
4. Grong O. – ‘Metallurgical Modelling of Welding’ – The Institute of Materials – 1997 –
2nd Edition
5. Kou S. – ‘Welding Metallurgy’ – John Wiley Publications, New York – 2003 – 2nd
Edition.
6. Serope Kalpakjian and Steven R. Schmid – ‘Manufacturing Engineering and
Technology’ – Prentice Hall – 2013 – 7th Edition
7. Principles of foundry technology, 4th edition, P L Jain, Tata McGraw Hill, 2006.
8. Advanced Welding Processes technology and process control, John Norrish, Wood Head
Publishing, 2006.
9. A text book of “Manufacturing Process-I” by Kestoor Praveen, Suggi Publishing

MODULE-1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri