METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 1

MODULE NO-1

Introduction & basic materials used in foundry: Definition, Classification of manufacturing processes.
Metals cast in the foundry-classification, factors that determine the selection of a casting alloy. Introduction
to casting process & steps involved – (Brief Introduction)
Patterns: Definition, classification, materials used for pattern, various pattern allowances and their
importance.
Sand moulding: Types of base sand, requirement of base sand. Binder, Additive’s definition, need and
types; preparation of sand moulds. Moulding machines- Jolt type, squeeze type and Sand slinger.
Study of important moulding process: Green sand, core sand, dry sand, sweep mould, Co2 mould, shell
mould, investment mould, plaster mould, cement bonded mould.
Cores: Definition, need, types. Method of making cores, Concept of gating (top, bottom, parting line, horn
gate) and risers (open, blind) Functions and types.

1.1 Introduction

Manufacturing is a process of converting raw materials into finished product. It includes design and
manufacturing of goods using various production methods and techniques. The above figure illustrates
the manufacturing process. Every product requires material from which the product is made and also
requires a method to convert raw material into desired product. We need machines to convert the
materials to get desire shape and size. To convert the raw material into the product using machine and
methods we require men to operate the machines and to apply the methods. Money is the essential
input required for purchasing raw materials, machines and man power.

Classification of manufacturing process:

a. Casting
b. Forming
c. Machining
d. Joining

a. Casting:

In casting process, the molten metal is poured into a mould cavity and is allowed to solidify after
solidification, the casting is removed from the mould and cleaned, finally machined to the required shape
and size and inspected before use. They are further classified into 2 types
1. Expandable mould.
2. Permanent mould.

1. Expandable mould
Here, the mould is prepared from sand, plaster or any other similar material which can break easily to
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 2

remove the solidified part, in other words a new mould has to be prepared for each new casting. Eg:
Green sand, dry sand, plaster, etc.
2. Permanent mould
Here, the mould is fabricated out of steel and can be used repeatedly to produce many castings. Eg:
Gravity die casting, continuous casting, pressure die casting, centrifugal casting.

b. Forming
In forming process, the desired shape and size are obtained through the plastic deformation of
material. The type of loading may be tensile, compressive, shearing or combination of these loads, unlike
machining technique. In this process no material is removed and wasted.
1. Hot working
In this process deformation of metal takes place above its re-crystallization temperature. Eg:
Forging, rolling, extrusion, etc.

2. Cold working
In this process deformation of metal takes place below its re-crystallization temperature. Eg:
Bending, wire drawing, etc.

c. Machining process
The process of removing the unwanted material from a given work piece to give it to a required
shape and size is known as machining. The unwanted material is removed in the form of chips from the
blank material by a harder tool, so as to obtain a final desired shape.

1. Traditional or conventional machine

In this process a cutting tool is used to remove excess material from the work piece. The tool is
rigidly mounted on the machine. Eg: Turning, milling, drilling, grinding, etc.

2. Non-Traditional or non-conventional machine

In this process, a layer of electron beam, chemical erosion, electric discharge and electro chemical
energy is used instead of traditional cutting tool.

d. Joining
In this process, two or more pieces are joined together to produce the required shape and size of
the product. The joint can be either permanent or temporary.

1. Permanent joint
In this joining, it can be done by pouring metals together i.e. welding, gas welding, etc.

2. Temporary joint
In this, it can be done by nuts, bolts, screws, adhesive (gum) bonding, soldering, brazing.

1.2 Selection of a process for production

 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 3

Selection of a particular process for manufacturing to produce a given component depends on several
factors. Some of the important factors to be considered are:
1. Shape to be produced
2. Quantity to be produced
3. Type of material
4. Surface finish and dimensional tolerance
5. Technical viability of the process
6. Economic consideration

1. Shape to be produced
The shape of the component place a very important role in selection of the process if the shape is simple it
can be machined from raw material or it can be forged or extruded however, when the shape is highly
complex and intricate, casting is best suited.

2. Quantity to be produced
The quantity required is also an important factor for small quantities. Casting may not be required or
economical, while for large quantities it is best suited.

3. Type of material
The type of material and its properties such as ductile, hardness, toughness, brittleness, are the contributing
factor. Very hard materials cannot be machined easily. Brittle materials cannot be mechanically worked.

4. Surface finish and dimensional tolerance

The surface finish and dimensional tolerance limits the selection of process considerably. Eg: Commercial
sand casting processes cannot be used for high degree of surface finish and tolerance are required, if they
are used. Machining may become mandatory otherwise one has to use die casting or investment casting
to overcome this problem. Similarly hot working may not give good surface finish and dimensional
tolerance. It should be definitely be followed by cold working finishing operation.

5. Quality and property requirement

A defect free product with a specific property serves its purpose for long life. Properties of cast materials are
generally used when compare to that of mechanically worked materials, also castings gives a lot of
defects, hence a process that gives better property and quantity should be selected.

6. Technical viability of the process

The process selected must be technically viable i.e. we should be in position to manufacture the components
using this process without much difficulty.

7. Economic consideration
Customers often demands for product with more features and performance at reduced price, hence a low cast
production process should be selected, but at the same time see that no compromise is made in terms
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 4

of quality.

1.3 Introduction to casting

In this process, components are produced by pouring molten metal into a contoured cavity followed by
cooling to a solid mass.
1. The cold solid mass represents the configuration of the cavity and is the required shape of the
component.
2. The components thus produced are called as casting.
3. The cavity compound to shape of the component is called mould.
4. The mould can be made of refractory material or metal.
5. The mould made out of refractory material is called sand moulds and that of made out of metal is
called metal moulds or dies.
6. Cooling of liquid metal to solid metal is termed as phase transformation. The place where this
activity is carried out is referred to as foundry.
7. In short, casting process involves shaping of the metal by using a mould cavity and hotmetal.
8. In this process, the final shape is realized without using any other mechanism unlike in other
processes, except the conversion of liquid metal to solid metal.

1.4 Steps involved in making a casting

1. Pattern
2. Mould preparation
3. Core making
4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning and Inspection

1. Pattern

A pattern is a replica of the object is to be cast. It is used to prepare a cavity into which the molten metal
is poured. A skilled pattern maker prepares the pattern using wood, metal, plastic or any other material.
Many factors like durability, allowance for shrinkage and machining, etc., are considered when making a
pattern.

2. Mould preparation

It involves for making a cavity by packing sand around a pattern enclosed in a supporting metallic frame.
When the pattern is removed from the mould an exact shaped cavity remains into which the molten
metal is poured. Gating and risering are provided at suitable locationsin the mould.
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3. Core making

In some cases a hole or a cavity is required in the casting. This is obtained by placing a core in the
mould cavity. The shape of the core corresponds to the shape of the hole required. The mould is
cleaned & finished before metal pouring.

4. Melting and pouring

Metals or alloys of the required composition are melted in a furnace and poured in to the mould cavity.
Many factors like temperature of molten metal, pouring time, turbulence, etc should be considered while
making & pouring.

5. Cleaning and Inspection

After the molten metal is solidified and cooled, the rough casting is removed from the mould, cleaned
and dressed (removing cores, adhered sand particles, gating, risering system, fins, blisters, etc from the
casting surface) and then sent for inspection to check for dimensions or defects like blow holes, crakes,
etc.

Advantages and limitations of casting process

Advantages:
 Casting is the basic and versatile (flexible) manufacturing process.
 Difficult shapes can be easily cast.
 Large, hollow & intricate shapes can be easily cast.
 Casting provides freedom of design with respect to shape, size and quality of theproduct.
 Some metals that cannot be machined can be produced by casting to the required shape.
 Heavy objects can be produced only by casting process.
 Controlled mechanical & metallurgical properties can be obtained.
 Casting process is most suitable for mass production.
 A large variety of alloying composition & properties can be obtained.
 Directional properties can be obtained in certain cases by controlled cooling.
 Parts with close dimensional tolerance & ready to use can be produced by special casting
methods.

Disadvantages OR Limitations
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 Casting process is an elaborate process and involves operations.

 It requires large infrastructure like casting section, melting, pattern, core section, cleaning,
finishing, and inspection.
 Very high investment is required.
 Casting process is not economical & viable for small scale operations.
 The man power requirement is large.
 High care is required in handling chemicals and molten metal.
 The actual casting operation cannot be automated.
 Generally most operations may be casting or one of type i.e. mould has to be prepared for each
casting.
 Great care is required in controlling the cooling rate to obtain defect free casting.
 Very difficult to cast thin sections.

Varieties of Components produced by casting process

Casting is the 1st step and the primary process for shaping any material. All materials have to be cast
before it is put in use.
The ingots produced by casting process are used as raw material for secondary processes like
machining, forging, rolling, etc.
To list the components produced by casting is an endless process, a few major components produce
by casting are given below:

a. Automotive sector: A few parts like brake drum, cylinder, cylinder linings, pistons, engine
blocks, universal joints, rocker arms, brackets, etc.
b. Aircraft: Turbine blades, casting, etc.
c. Marine: Propeller blades
d. Machining: Cutting tools, machine beds, wheels and pulleys, blocks, table for supports,etc.
e. Agriculture & rail road equipments: Pumps and compressor, frames, valves, pipes and fittings
for construction.
f. Camera frame, parts in washing machine, refrigerator & air-conditioners
g. Steel utensil & a wide variety of products.

1.5 PATTERNS:

Definition: Pattern is a tool used to produce the mould cavity. It is a mould making tool. The shape of the
pattern is the same as that of the component or casting, but the size will be slightly larger than the
casting. Pattern is also referred to as the positive replica of the casting. A number or castings can be
made using a single pattern.

Functions of a pattern: The basic functions of a pattern are;

 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 7

1. To produce the mould cavity faithfully and to establish parting line

2. To promote production of quality casting
3. To incorporate gating system and riser.
4. To bring economy to the process.
5. To have provision for core prints.

Materials used for Patterns: Before selecting a particular material, a few factors are to be considered,
they are:

a) Number of castings to be produced.

b) Degree of accuracy and surface finish of casting required.
c) Shape and size of the casting.
d) Re-usability of pattern, so that they will provide a repeatable dimensionallyacceptable.
e) Type of mould material used- clay or resin.
f) Type of moulding selected – green sand moulding, investment process etc.

The following materials are used for making patterns:-

a) Wood – Well seasoned teak wood is used for the pattern. Wood is soft, light and easy to work and
takes the shape easily. Used for producing smaller number of castings. Large and small patterns can
be made. It wears out faster, cannot withstand rough handlingand can absorb moisture.
b) Metal – Is stronger than wood, but heavier than wood. Can maintain dimensions accurately for a
very long time. Does not absorb moisture. Used to produce large number of castings. Has longer
life. It is difficult to repair. Bigger sized patterns cannot be made using this.
c) Wax – Is a low melting point material. Imparts good surface to the mould. Can be recovered and
used again and again. Used in investment casting moulding. A combination of paraffin, wax, bees
wax, etc. is used for making the pattern.
d) Plastics – Plastic material is a compromise between wood and metal. Thermosetting resins like
phenolic resin, epoxy resin, foam plastic etc. are used as materials for making pattern. It is strong and
light in weight. Does not absorb moisture during its use and storage. Gives good surface finish to
castings. Thin sections are difficult to cast using plastics. Initially plastic patterns have to be cast and
finished to desired shape and size. This leads to the increase in cost of the final cast product.
e) Plaster – Gypsum or plaster of Paris is another pattern material capable of producing intricate
castings to close dimensional tolerances. They are strong, light in weight, easily shaped, gives good
surface finish. However, they used for small castings only. Plaster readily mixes with water and
when allowed sets and becomes hard. Normally plaster is used for producing master dies and moulds.

Various Pattern allowances and their importance:

Pattern has the same shape as that of the casting but the dimensions will be generally more than that of
the casting. This extra dimension from the required value, given on the pattern is called as
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 8

“allowances”. These allowances need to be given on the pattern due to metallurgical and mechanical
reasons. The different types of allowances are;
a) Shrinkage allowance
b) Draft allowance
c) Machining allowance
d) Scale & Grinding allowance
e) Distortion allowance

a) Shrinkage allowance: All metals and alloys undergo decrease in volume when cooled from liquid
temperature to room temperature. This change in volume of metal or alloy is called as “shrinkage”.
Fig. 1 shows the variation of shrinkage as a function of temperature. As the molten metal is cooled
from its superheat temperature, the volume starts decreasing continuously till it reaches room
temperature. This is a natural phenomenon. Shrinkage of metal or alloy takes place in three stages
viz. liquid to liquid, liquid to solid and solid to solid. The first two are taken care of by providing
risers in thecastings. The last one is taken care of by providing shrinkage allowance on the pattern
This is also referred to as pattern shrinkage allowance. The value of this depends on the nature of the
metal or alloy. This allowance when given on to the pattern, will increase its size. Pattern maker‟s
scale is available to facilitate easy and direct measurement. Pattern shrinkagefor some metals is:

Ex. Cast steel 3-5 mm per 100mm length

Aluminium 3-4 mm per 100mm length
Cast iron 2-3 mm per 100mm length

b) Draft allowance: It is the allowance given to the vertical surface of the pattern to facilitate easy
removal of the pattern from the mould cavity, without causing any damage to the mould. This
allowance depends on the type of moulding. Fig. 2 and 2a, 2b & 2c shows the method of draft
allowance given in patterns. Damage is caused to the vertical pattern portions of the mold, when
there is no draft. Hence by giving taper or draft on the vertical portions of the pattern there is no
damage caused to the mould when
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 9

c) Machining allowance: Most of the castings will have more than one surface that needs machining.
The dimensions get reduced after machining. Hence, the size of the pattern is made larger than
required. During machining, this extra material on the casting is removed. This allowance depends
on the nature of the metal and the dimensions of the castings. Typical machining allowances are:
Ex.Cast Iron 1-10 mm
Cast steel 3-12 mm
Aluminium 1.5-4.5 mm
Alloy 1.5-4.5 mm
Brass, Bronze, etc 1.5-5 mm

d) Scale & Grinding allowance: Most of the castings undergo heat treatment and due to higher
temperatures scales are formed on the surface. This needs to be removed by grinding operation. In
addition, sometimes surface roughness or imperfection needs to be removed by grinding operation.
Hence, the size of the casting is made slightly bigger than the required to accommodate this. The
magnitude of this extra allowance is
0.2 -3 mm.

e) Distortion allowance: Casting having shapes such as C, U and large plate, loose their shapes during
solidification. The loss of shape is referred to as distortion. This is due to the shrinkage stresses
present during solidification. To take care of this, the pattern is given an allowance in the direction
opposite to the expected distortion. This is referred to as distortion allowance. More or experience
is essential is addition to the design knowledge in arriving to this allowance. Fig. shows the
distortion allowance
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 10

Classification of patterns: Patterns are of various types. But the selection of a particular type of pattern depends
upon the type of moulding process employed, shape and size of the casting required. Some of the commonly
sued patterns are discussed

a) Single piece pattern: Single piece pattern also called, solid pattern the simplest type made in one
piece without any joints or loose pieces. Used for simple shape and large size castings. It can be
made easily. Fig. Shows the single piece pattern.

b) Split pattern: Consists of pattern in two halves joined by a pin. It is used to prepare moulds using
hand. It is used popularly in hand moulding. The split can be at two or more planes. The split in the
pattern facilitates easy moulding. Fig. shows the split pattern.

c) Loose piece pattern: Pattern consists of a main body to which small projection pieces are attached.
These pieces can be removed from the mould after removing the main body. This type of pattern is
used to get undercut portions in the castings. Fig. shows theloose piece pattern.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 11

d) Cope & Drag pattern: It is basically a two part pattern (split type). Each half is fixed to a metal
plate separately with gates, runners and risers. These two plates with patterns are used to make
moulds in a moulding machine, separately to get bottom and top mould cavities. The bottom portion
is called as the drag portion and the top portion is called as the cope portion. Hence the names cope
and drag pattern. The two moulds are prepared separately using separate machines and assembled.
This type of pattern is used toproduce large number of castings. Fig. Shows the cope & drag pattern.

e) Gated pattern: This consists of a number of patterns attached with runner, ingate, sprue and risers.
A cope & drag pattern may be used for this purpose. A machine is used for making the moulds. More
number of castings can be produced per mould. Size of the casting is small. Fig shows the gated
pattern.

f) Match plate pattern: This consists of two parts of the pattern mounted on either surfaces of a
metal plate. It is basically a split pattern. The two parts are perfectly aligned. It is used in a moulding
machine. Both cope and drag boxes are made in the same machine one after the other. When the two
boxes are closed, the desired mould is obtained. Fig. shows the match plate pattern.

g) Follow board pattern: When the shape of the pattern is such that it cannot be held stable in its
position, a wooden board conforming to the contour of the pattern is used to rest the same in correct
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 12

position and moulding is carried out. Such a pattern which needs a follow board is referred to as follow
board pattern. Follow board holds the pattern till the moulding is over. Even for moulding thin
sections follow board is used. Fig. shows the follow board pattern.

h) Skeleton pattern: It consists of a number of wooden pieces assembled together to form the desired
shape. The assembly resembles a skeleton. The skeleton portion is then covered with thin boards.
This type of arrangement is used for heavy and big castings and the number required is only a few.
Material saving for the pattern is achieved and the cost of pattern is reduced. Used for simple
shapes. Ex. Water pipe bends, frames, calve bodies can be cast. Fig. shows the Skeleton pattern.

i) Sweep pattern: Makes use of a thin board of wood conforming to the outer contour of the casting. It
is used when the casting has a surface of revolution contour such as cylindrical, bell shape, etc. Can be
used for small or big castings and the number of castings is not a problem. Saves pattern material. It is
easy to handle and store. It can be used for makingcores. Fig. shows the sweep pattern.

1.6 SAND MOULDING

Sand Moulding: A mould is a cavity created using metal or refractory sand. The shape of the cavity
corresponds to the shape of casting except the dimensions. A mould is referred to as the negative replica
of the casting. Mould made of metal is called as metal or metallic moulds and the ones made by using
sand is called sand moulds.

Sand moulds or non metallic moulds:

Sand moulds are made using a mixture of refractory sand along with a binder, additiveand water. This
mixture is referred to as moulding sand.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 13

A mould cavity is prepared using this moulding sand.

They are also referred to as non-metallic moulds or refractory moulds.

Moulding sands may be:

Natural sand:
Occur readily in nature and contains all the ingredients in the right proportion. The sand
can be directly used to prepare the mould.
Synthetic sand:
Are prepared by making different ingredients (sand, binder, water, etc.) in the correct proportion
and then used for preparing the moulds.

Properties of moulding sand: An important property of a moulding sand is that, it should produce a
sound casting, i.e. a good casting.

To achieve this, the moulding sand should posses the following desired properties:

1. Flowability:
 It is the ability of the sand to flow easily and cover all the contours on the pattern, thus take
the desired shape.
 The sand with good flowability gets compacted to a uniform density.
 Energy during ramming gets easily transmitted through the sand if the flowability isgood.
 Clay and water additions influence flowability.
Good moulding sand should have good flowability property.

2. Green Strength:
 It is the strength of the sand when in moist condition or green condition (after
compaction).
 A mould with adequate green strength will retain its shape, does not distort and will not collapse
while handling it.
 A mould with adequate green strength resists metallostatic pressure and sand erosion while
molten metal is flowing in the mould.
Good moulding sand should have good green strength property.

3. Dry strength:
 It is the strength of the sand when there is no moisture in the sand i.e. in the drycondition.
 Hence, a good moulding should be able to develop good dry strength.
 By heating the mould to approximately 200oC, all the moisture in the sand can be removed,
the strength of such dried sand represents dry strength.
 Dry sand enhances strength of the mould.
 Resistance to erosion is improved considerably.
 Shape of the mould is retained easily in the dry condition.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 14

4. Hot Strength:
 It is the strength of the sand mould at high temperature above 100 oC i.e. if the hot strength of
sand is good at 200oC, it means that the sand has the necessary strength when sand is heated and
held at 200oC.
 When molten metal is poured into the cavity, the mould gets heated up.
 If the sand does not have sufficient strength at this temperature it will induce castingdefects.
Hence, sand should have adequate strength at elevated temperature.

5. Permeability:
 It is the ability of the sand/mould to allow easy escape of gases/vapour through it.
 When molten metal comes in contact with the mould and core surface, moisture, binders and
additives present in them produce gases and vapour.
 These tend to go through vents and also pass through the mould surface.
 The sand surface should allow the gases/vapour to escape.
 If these are entrapped in the casting, defects will appear in the casting as pores. Hence,
good moulding sand should have good permeability.

6. Collapsibility:
 It is the ability of the moulding sand to collapse after the casting solidifies. It should break down
into pieces at the knock out and cleaning stages, easily.
 Easier the mould breaks, higher is the collapsibility property of the sand.
 If the mould or core sand does not collapse easily, it may obstruct/restrict the contraction
of the solidifying casting and result in cracks/tear in the casting.
Hence, the collapsibility of the sand should be good.

7. Bench line:
 It is the ability of the moulding sand to retain its properties during its storage.
 The sand should posses fairly good bench life. A good
moulding sand should have good bench life.

8. Coefficient of expansion:
 Moulding sand should have very low expansion characteristics otherwise sand expansion
will occur.
 Lower the value of expansion, lesser is the problem of expansion defects in the mold.
Lesser is the cracking tendency of the mold.

9. Adhesiveness:
 It is the property of the moulding sand owing to which the surfaces of the mould are held
together.
 It is because of this property that the sand sticks to the walls of the boxes. A good
moulding sand should have good adhesiveness.
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10. Durability:
 It is the ability of the sand to withstand repeated cycles of heating and cooling and still retain
its properties.
 The sand should be reusable i.e. should be able to reclaim the sand.

Requirements of base sand: For producing good casting the sand has to fulfill thefollowing:-

Base Sand:
 Should be sub angular (grain size)
 Should be good grain distribution
 Should have high refractoriness
 Should have low impurities
 Should have low expansion characteristics
 Should be thermally stable.

BASE SAND:
It is a mass of refractory grains. Grains are formed due to the withering action of rocks. It is available in
plenty in nature along se beaches, deserts, etc. Bas sand refers to sand grains without any other
ingredients. They are normally oxides of elements.

Types of base sand:

1) Silica Sand
2) Olivine Sand
3) Chromite Sand
4) Zircone Sand

1.
Silica Sand: Silica sand is essentially silicon dioxide (SiO2) found in nature on the bottom and banks
of the rivers, lake and seashore. Silica deposits tend to have varying degree of organic and mineral
contaminants like limestone, magnesia, soda and potash that must be removed prior to its use,
otherwise which affects castings in numerous ways.
Silica sand is available in plenty, less expensive and possess favorable properties. But its high
thermal expansion leads to certain casting defects; the reason for which not being used in steel
foundries. However, silica sand when mixed with certain additives like wood flour, cereals, (corn
flour) saw dust, etc., defects can be eliminated. These additives burn by the heat of the molten metal
thereby creating voids that can be accommodated the sand expansion.

2.
Olivine sand: Olivine sand is typically used in non-ferrous foundries. With its thermal expansion
about half of that of silica sand makes it suitable for production of steel castings also. But the high
cost restricts its wide use.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 16

3.
Chromite sand: This is African sand with cost being much higher compared to other sands. Due to
its superior thermal characteristics, it is generally used in steel foundries for both mould and core
making.

4.
Zircon sand: Zircon or zirconium silicate possesses most stable thermal properties of all the above
discussed sand. The choice for this type of sand arises when very high temperatures are encountered
and refractoriness becomes a consideration. But the major disadvantage is that, zircon has trace
elements of uranium & thorium which is hazardousin nature, thereby restricting its use in foundries.

TYPES OF SAND MOULDS: Moulds prepared with sand are called “sand moulds” or “temporary
moulds”, (when moulds are with metal, it is called metallic moulds or permanent moulds) as they are
broken for removing the casting. The different types of sand moulds are:-

 Green sand mould

 Dry sand mould
 No bake sand mould

Green Sand mould: The moulding sand is in the moist state at the time of metal pouring. The main
ingredients of green sand are silica sand, clay and moisture (water). Additives may be added in small
quantity to obtain the desired properties of mould/casting. Nearly 60% of the total castings are prepared
from green sand moulds.

Advantages:
Prepared for simple, small and medium castings Suitable for
mass production
Least expensive
Sand can be reused many times after reconditioning with clay & moisture.

Disadvantages:
 Moulds/cores prepared by this process lack in permeability, strength and stability.
 They give rise to many defects like porosity, blow holes, etc.
 Moulds/cores cannot be stored for long time.
 Not suitable for large castings.
 Difficult to cast thin and intricate shapes.

Dry sand mould: The dry sand mould is prepared in the normal manner as that of green sand mould, i.e.,
by mixing base sand, clay, water and other additives. Strength is realized after baking the mould in the
oven, to remove moisture present in them. Baking is carried out for 6-12 hours at 200-300 oC, depending
on the size of the mould and type of metalbeing poured.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 17

Advantages:
Moulds are stronger than green sand moulds. Surface
finish of the casting is better.
Defects related to moisture are eliminated.

Disadvantages:
 Production is slower, labour and cost due to baking process.
 Under baked or over baked moulds is another disadvantage.
 Not suitable for large & heavy castings as they are difficult to bake.

No Bake sand moulds: A no bake or self setting sand mould is one that does not require baking. The
main ingredients are base sand, binder (resin type), hardener and a catalyst or accelerator. The bonding
strength developed in moulds by means of a self-setting chemical reaction between binder and hardener.
In some cases, a catalyst or an accelerator is added tospeed up the chemical reaction.

Advantages:
Higher strength about 50 to 100 times that of green sand moulds.
Patterns can be stripped within a few minutes after ramming, which is not possible in green and
dry sand mould.
Moulds can be stored for longer periods. Highly
simplified moulding.
Better dimensional accuracy & stability. Improve
casting quality.
Surface finish is excellent.

Disadvantages:
 Use of resin and catalyst causes lot of environmental problem both within (i.e. during mixing &
pouring) and outside (dumping of sand).
 Resins and catalysts are expensive.
 Unsafe for human operators.
 Due to high strength & hardness, reuse of sand is slightly difficult.

Mouldings and mixture ingredients for different andmixtures

A moulding sand is a mixture of base sand, binder and additives. Ingredients for dry sand mixture are
similar to that of green sand.

a. Ingredients for Green Sand Mixture

 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 18

Green sand mixture is composed of base sand, binder, moisture and additives.
Base Sand: Silica sand is used as the base sand. It possesses favourable properties, inexpensive and can
be reused many number of times. The amount of silica sand added may vary depending on the
requirements.
Binder: Bentonite (clay binder) is the widely used binder for bonding sand particles. It is activated in
the presence of water. A best bond between the sand can be obtained with bentonite varying from 6-
12% and water 3-5%.
Additives: Additives are added in small quantities to develop certain new properties or to enhance the
existing properties of moulding sand. Sea coal, silica flour, wood flour and iron oxide are commonly
used additives.

b. Ingredients for No-bake sand mixture:

Of all the various no-bake sand mixture, viz., Furan system, Phenolic urethane system, Alkyd system,
sodium silicate binder system, etc. Ingredients of Alkyd binder system which is one of the most
widely used binder system is discussed below.
Base sand: Silica sand is used as the base sand.

Binder: The alkyd binder system consists of three parts: Part – A

(binder)
Part – B (hardener) Part – C (catalyst)

Part – A (binder): The binder is alkyd resin which is obtained by reacting linseed oil with a polybase
acid like iso-pathalic and solvents like turpentine, kerosene or mineral spirit to improve flowability.
Its addition ranges from 2-5% based on weight of sand.
Part – B (hardener): The hardener is a reacted product between cobalt/lead salts and napthanic acid. Its
addition ranges from 5-10% based on weight of binder.
Part – C (catalyst): Methylene-diphenyl-Di-isocyanate commonly known as MDI is used as catalyst to
speed up the chemical reaction. It addition ranges from 20-25% basedon weight of binder.

METHODS USED FOR SAND MOULDING

The various sand moulding methods are:- Bench

moulding
Floor moulding Pit moulding &
Machine moulding

Bench Moulding: Bench moulding is preferred for small jobs and is carried out on a bench of
convenient height. The bench moulder (mould maker) prepares the mould manually while standing.
Floor Moulding: Floor moulding is preferred for large size moulds that cannot be carried out on
benches. In most of the foundries, moulding is carried out on floors irrespective of the size of jobs.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 19

Pit moulding: Large castings that cannot be accommodated in mould box (flasks) are made in pits dug
on the floor. The pits form the drag part of mould and a separate cope box is placed above the pit. The
mould maker enters the pit and prepares the mould. The cope box is rammed using dry sand with risers
placed at suitable location.
The walls of the pit are lined with brick and the bottom is covered with moulding sand with
connecting vent pipes to the floor level for easy escape of hot gases. A crane is used for handling the
cope box and other operations.

Machine moulding: In bench, floor and pit moulding, all the operations viz., ramming, withdrawing
pattern, rolling flasks, etc., are done manually by mould makers. But when large number of castings are
to be produced manual operations consumes more time and also accuracy and uniformity of moulding
varies. To overcome this difficulty, machine moulding is used. The operations perform by machines
includes:
Ramming moulding sand: By jolt operations or Jolt squeeze machines.
Rapping the pattern: Patterns are rapped in the sand with vibrators that are operated electrically
or by compressed air.
Removal of pattern: By raising or lowering the mould, or by raising or lowering the pattern.

1.7 CORES

Cores are used in the mould to produce mainly hollow castings. It is the only method through which
cavities can be produced in the casting without machining.
Core sand is used to prepare the core. A core consists of base sand, a binder and water if required.
Special types of binders are used for the purpose. Core sand is filled in a metal or wooden die then
rammed to get the desired geometry of the die. The shaped sand represents green core. This core gains
strength after suitable treatments, depending on the type of binder used.

TYPES OF CORES
Cores are classified based on:
a) Condition of core: i. Green sand core - contains moisture
ii. Dry sand core - Cores does not contain moisture,
core in the dried form
b) Binder used i. Resin bonded core - contains resin as binder
ii. Sodium silicate core - contains sodium silicate as thebinder
iii. Oil bonded core - contains oil as binder
iv. Shell core - contains urea/phenol formaldehyde
resin as binder
c) Hardening process i. CO2 process - uses co2 gas to harden the sand
used ii. No bake oil - uses air to harden the sand
iii Furan no bake - uses heating to harden the sand
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 20

iv. Nishiyama - uses chemical reaction to harden the

sand
v. Fluid sand - uses chemical reaction to harden
the sand
d) Shape & position i. Horizontal core - core placed in horizontal position of the
core ii. Vertical core - core placed in vertical position
iii. Balanced core - core hanging on one side
iv. Hanging core - core suspended from the top.

Green sand core: A green sand core is composed of a mixture of silica sand, binder (bentonite),
moisture and additives. The preparation of green sand core is similar to that used for green sand mould.
Dry sand core: The sand used for preparing a dry sand core is different from that used for dry sand
moulds. A dry sand core is composed of a mixture of silica sand and binder. The binder may be
sodium silicate, Portland cement, linseed oil, mineral oil, natural resins, etc.Binder used :
explained above.
Hardening process used : explained above

Shape and position of the core:

a. Horizontal core: The core is placed horizontally in the mould, it is known as horizontal core. The
core prints are provided at both ends of the core to rest in the seats initially provided by the pattern.
These core prints helps the core to be securely and correctly positioned in the mould cavity.

b. Vertical core: When the axis of the core is vertical, it is known as vertical core.
c. Balanced core: A balanced core is one that is supported from its one end only. Such cores are
used when the cavity required is only to a certain depth.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 21

d. Hanging core: The core is supported from the top, the core hangs vertically from the mould and
the core may be provided with a hole for molten metal to flow.

e. Drop core: Drop core is used when the axis of the desired hole does not co inside with the parting
line of the mould, i.e., the core is required to be placed either above or belowthe parting line

f. Kiss core: In some cases, pattern cannot be provided with core prints and hence no seat will be
available as a rest for the core. In such cases, the core is held in position between the cope and the
drag by the pressure exerted from the cope on the drag. Such a core is called a kiss core and is shown
in fig.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 22

g. Ram-up core: When a core is to be placed in an inaccessible position, it is difficult to place it after
ramming the mould. The core used in this case is called a ram-up core and is placed in the mould
along with the pattern before ramming fig.

METHOD OF MAKING CORES

Core making consists of the following four steps:
1. Core sand preparation
2. Core making
3. Core baking
4. Core finishing
1. Core sand preparation: The core sand of desired type (dry sand) and composition along with
additives is mixed manually or using muller of suitable type.
2. Core making: Cores are prepared manually or using machines depending on the needs. Machine like
jolt machine, sand slinger, core blower, etc., are used to for large scale continuous production, while
small sized cores for limited production are manually made.

A core box is similar to a pattern that gives a suitable shape to the core fig. shows a core box used to
produce rectangular shaped cores. The procedure involved for preparing core is as follows:

 The prepared core sand mixture is rammed manually into the core box.
 The core box is inverted over a core plate and rapped in all direction using woodenmallet.
 The box is lifted vertically to leave the core on the core plate.
 The core along with the core plate is sent for baking.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 23

3. Core baking: Cores are baked in ovens in order to drive away the moisture in them and also to
harden the binder thereby imparting strength to the core. The temperature and duration for baking
may vary from 93-232oC and from a few minutes to hours respectively depending on the size of the
core and type of binder used.

4. Core finishing: The baked cores are finished by rubbing or filing with special tools to remove any
fins, bumps, loose sand or other sand projection from its surface. The cores are also checked for
dimensions and cleanliness. Finally, if cores are made in parts, they are assembled by using suitable
pastes, pressed and dried in air before placing them in mould and cavity.

BINDERS USED FOR CORES

Binders used for core making are of various types: each type used to provide some desired property to a core
for particular use or set of conditions. The core binders commonly used are discussed below:
a) Binders that become firm at room temperature.
The binders that come under this group include:
 Sodium silicate
Sodium silicate is mixed with silica sand to prepare a core of desired shape and size. Vent holes are
made in the core after which carbon-dioxide gas is passed through it. The core hardens rapidly within
a few seconds after gassing is stopped.
 Port Land Cement
Port land cement is mixed with silica sand and water to prepare a core of desired shapeafter which it is made
to set (dry) in a room for about 72 hours. The strength develop with this binder is very high and hence,
preferred for heavy steel and gray iron castings.
 Rubber Cement (Rubber latex)
Bonding of cores with this binder is a patented process. Silica sand is mixed with water, and then the
rubber latex (obtained from plant) is added. The core is rammed and allowed to harden at room
temperature.
 Synthetic resins (No bake binders)
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 24

Synthetic resins like phenol and urea formaldehyde are used as binders. They are mixed with hardeners
and/or catalyst to bring about a chemical reaction. Strength development in cores takes place within a
few minutes after mixing.

b) Binder that become firm on baking

This group of binders does not develop their strength by chemical or physical changes, rather they
become hard on heating (baking). Binders materials of this group include:
Vegetable oils ex. Linseed oil Marine
animal oil ex. Whale oilCereal binder
Dextrin made from starch
Molasses (by product of sugar industry) Pitch (a coal tar
product)
Protein binders ex. Gelatin & glues.

c) Binder that harden on cooling after being heated

A binder that softens on heating and hardens on cooling includes natural resins like:
 Gum resins – obtained by tapping the living tree and distilling the gum.
 Wood resins – obtained from pine stump wood.
 Limed wood resins – these are wood resins treated with lime
 Coal tar resins – a product of coal tar industry.
d) Other binders
Clay binders – bentonite mixed with water.
Saw dust and wood floor – although not pure binders (they provide little adhesive strength), they
serve to improve the collapsibility of the core.

GATING

The concept of gating is very important, as it helps one to learn the controlled flow of molten metal from the
crucible or ladle into the mould cavity.The term gating or gating system refers to all the channels or
cavities through which the molten metal flows to reach and fill the mould cavity. Fig shows a simple
gating system which consists of the following components.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 25

a. Sprue b. Pouring cup

c. Runner d. Ingates or Gate

a) Sprue
A sprue is a vertical passage way through which the molten metal will enter the runner. It is also called
„down gate‟ or „down sprue‟. The sprue is tapered in cross-section with its bigger end at the top
connected to the pouring cup while its smaller end connected to the runner.
b) Pouring cup
The enlarged portion (usually funnel shaped) of the sprue at its top into which the molten metal is poured
is called pouring cup. (Fig. 15 a & b). In some cases, pouring basin is used instead of cup. The pouring
basin has a larger opening as shown in fig 15(a). It makes pouring easier, eliminates aspiration (air pick-
up) and reduces the momentum of the liquid flowing into the mould settling first into it.
c) Runner
The runner is a horizontal passage way through which the molten metal flows into the gates. The cross
section of the runner runner may be square or trapezoid and its length is very large compared to its
width.

d) Runner extension
It is a small portion of the runner that extends beyond the last gate. It is used to trap the slag in the initial
molten metal.

e) Ingates
The ingates or gate is a short passageway which carries the molten metal from the runner to the mould
cavity. The gates used may vary in number and depends on the size of the casting and rate of
solidification of molten metal. A gate may be built as a part of the pattern or it may be cut in the mould
using gate cutter tool. The combination of sprue base, runner and ingates completes the total pouring
system of any casting.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 26

RISERING
When the molten metal solidifies, it shrinks in volume. At this stage, if it does not have a source of more
molten metal to feed as it shrinks, voids appear leading to defects in castings. This problem is overcome
with the use of risers.A riser or feed head is a vertical passage that stores the liquid metal and supplies
(feed) the same to the casting as it solidifies. This means that the metal in the riser must stay liquid
longer than the metal in the part being cast.

Requirement of a riser

a) A riser must be large enough that the casting detail it is intended to feed. This helps continuous
feeding of liquid metal to the solidifying casting so that shrinkage cavitiesare eliminated.
b) The riser must be kept open to the atmosphere and placed in such a location that it maintains a
positive pressure of liquid metal on all portions of the casting it is intendedto feed.
c) A riser should be located in a position that will cause directional solidification from the casting
towards it.

PRINCIPLE OF GATING SYSTEM

1. A good gating system should help easy and complete filling of the mould cavity.
2. It should fill the mould cavity with molten metal with least amount of turbulence.
3. It should prevent mould erosion and gas pickup.
4. It should establish proper temperature gradient in the casting.
5. It should promote directional solidification.
6. It should regulate the rate of flow of metal into the mould cavity.

TYPES OF GATES
The common types of gate are:
1. Top Gate
2. Bottom Gate
3. Parting line Gate
4. Step Gate

1. Top Gate
The top are used for simple casting. Molten metal flows into the mould cavity directly from the top.
They are the most efficient type of gating. Simple to mould.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 27

2. Bottom Gate
The bottom gates are used for denser metals such as steel. Molten metal flows into the mould cavity
from the bottom and slowly rises up. It avoids erosion of mold taken more time in moulding. Bottom
gate is shown in fig.

3. Parting line gate

The gates located at the junction of cope and the drag boxes. They can be easily prepared. Molten metal
flows into the cavity from a certain height. These are used for most of the non-ferrous alloys and steel
castings Fig.

TYPES OF RISERS

Basically riser can be classified as open riser and blind riser. The open riser is kept open to the atmosphere
at the top whereas the blind riser is close to the atmosphere.

Open Riser
An open riser is a riser provided in the mould cavity when the top portion is open to the
atmosphere. It is easy to mould. Further, an open riser can be classified as Top riser – when the riser is
placed above the casting. Side riser - when the riser is placed by the side of the casting. Top risers are
extensively used since its efficiency is very high. In open riser molten metal is subjected to atmospheric
pressure directly.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 28

Blind riser

A blind riser as shown in fig. is one which is completely enclosed in the mould and not exposed to
the atmosphere. Due to this, the metal in the riser cools slower and thus stay liquid longer promoting
directional solidification.

FETTLING AND CLEANING OF CASTINGS

Castings are to be separated from sand mould box before the gates and risers are removed. This is
referred to as fettling and cleaning of casting. The steps involved are:

Fettling
Shake out sand, Casting and mould boxes are separated

Sand lumps are broken Returned to the moulding section

Cleared of nails, wires, etc to be used again

Cleaning operation of castings

Returned to sand Muller
For reuse for moulding Involves
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 29

 Removing sand by shot blasting

 Removing core sand
 Removing moulding sand on the casting surface
 Removing gates and risers
 Removing fins, excess metal, sand, etc.,
 Leveling the surface by grinding
 Rectifying the casting from defects

 Cleaning operation depends on the casting shape, size, metal and the process used.
 Sand cores are removed by shaking, chipping, poking or dissolving, etc.,
 Gates, risers, fins are removed by oxy-acetylene flame cutting, hammering, abrasive grinding
wheel, etc.,
 Sand sticking on the casting surface removed by shot blasting or sand blasting.

1.8 MOULDING MACHINES

Moulding machines are used to maintain mold quality, reduce allowances, have reproducibility in
molding, casting and to enhance productivity.

The following are moulding machines, classified based on the method of ramming.
a. Jolt machine
b. Squeeze machine
c. Jolt-squeeze machine
d. Sand slinger

a. Jolt Machine

The machine consists of a cylinder with two passages on for permitting compressed air at the bottom
and another for air to go out. A piston is located in the cylinder and can move up and down. The piston
carries a table at the top. One the top of the table a pattern can be fixed and mould box can be placed
around it. A control panel is located near the machine to operate it. The machine is located on a firm and
rigid concrete base. A hopper carrying sand mixture is located above the machine. By operating the lever
compressed air can be made toflow through the bottom of the piston.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 30

Working operation:
 First the moulding sand is filled into the box to cover the pattern.
 The pattern is placed on the table. Moulding box is placed on to the table.
Compressed air let into the cylinder.
 Now the table starts moving upwards till the bottom of the piston reaches the topportion.
 At top portion the air escapes out causing a drop in the pressure inside the cylinder.
 Due to its own weight the table along with the box drops down.
 Again the compressed air lifts the piston up till top point and the box is droppeddownwards.
A jolting action is created.
The process is repeated several times to achieve a desired hardness in the mould. Sand is
compacted more at the bottom due to jolting action.
Cope and drag boxes are prepared this way.

b. Squeeze Machine
It consists of a cylinder and piston assembly as in jolting machine. It has only one opening in the
cylinder connected by a two way valve. Through this valve compressed air can be let inside the cylinder
or let out. Thus the piston can be lifted or lowered inside the cylinder. The piston head carries a table on
which the platen/board corresponding to the inside cross section of the mould box is fixed. This board
when positioned above the box will squeeze the sand in it when the piston moves upwards. The platen
can be swung to one side for placing the mold box and filling the sand.

Working operation:

First the mould box is kept on the table fixed with the pattern.
Moulding sand is filled in the box at least 25% in excess of the box volume. The
platen/board is brought in position above the box.
Compressed air is then allowed inside the cylinder through the value. Now the
piston will move upwards along with the box.
The platen will squeeze the sand in the box during this period.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 31

Compacted sand will have more compaction on the top and less at the bottom due to squeezing
action.
The air pressure is released now. The piston and box move down wards. The box is
ejected out using ejector pins.
One half of the mould is ready now. Similarly next half is
done and assembled.
Two machines placed side by side are used to prepare cope and drag molds. Suitable for
small works and shallow boxes.

c. Jolt and Squeeze Machine

Here both jolt and squeeze action are imparted to the sand.
Constructional features

 It consists of a piston (P) carrying a table (T)

 Piston is housed in a sleeve (S)
 Sleeve has an opening O1 at the top and another opening (O3) at the bottom
 Sleeve is housed in an outer casing (C) which has a firm base (B)
 The casing has 3 openings O2, O4 and O5
 Opening O4 is connected to the valve 1 referred to as Jolt valve
 Opening O5 is connected to valve 2 referred to as squeeze valve
 Opening O2 is the exhaust part and connects the opening O1 Valves 1 and 2 are connected
to a pipe which in turn is connected to compressed air supply.

The pattern for moulding can be mounted on the table and the moulding box can be placed in
position by using locating pins.

A squeeze head at the top of the machine is used to squeeze the sand in the mouldbox.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 32

Working Operations:

To start with the piston and sleeve are in the bottom position. O1, O2 and O3, O4 are connected and are
in line. By opening the valve 1, compressed air is made to pass through the opening O4, O3. Now the
piston carrying the mould box with sand mixture moves upwards till the bottom of the piston just move
above the opening O1. Suddenly the compressed air below the piston escapes out through O 1, O2,
opening. This results in drop in the pressure inside the sleeve below the piston. Due to this the piston
drops downwards causing jolting action. The sand gets compacted. Now the connection between O1, and
the sleeve chamber is cut off. Since the valve 1 connects O 4, and O3, this will again increase the
pressure inside the sleeve. This once again lifts the piston upwards. When the bottom of the piston
crosses the opening O1, the pressure drops once again causing jolting. This can be repeated several
times. Now for bringing about squeezing action, valve 1 is closed and valve 2 is opened. This results in
establishing connection between valve 2 and opening O 5. This causes increase in the pressure at the
bottom of the sleeve. Now the piston and the sleeve now get lifted upwards. The squeeze head is brought
in line with the mould box containing sand. This results in the squeezing action of the sand against the
squeeze head. Squeezing action can be repeated. By this mechanism both jolting squeezing can be
imparted to the sand in the mould. The hardness of the mould will be uniform throughout from top to
bottom.

d. Sand Slingers:

 Sand slinger is used for large boxes for preparing large molds.
 Large amounts of sand is handled.
 Uniform ramming is obtained.
 Ramming is fast.
 Initial cost is high.
 A number of moulds can be prepared one after the other, around the slinger.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 33

Steps in moulding using sand slinger:

1. Mould boxes with patterns are kept around the base of the slinger.
2. Mixed sand is dumped in the container
3. The slinger is switched on.
4. The conveyor buckets carry sand to the top and delivers to the belt conveyor.
5. The sand is now conveyed into the horizontal hopper containing a screw conveyor.
6. At the end of the hopper an impeller keeps rotating and carries the sand mixed from the screw
conveyor and throws it out.
7. The sand at high velocity is thrown above the pattern and gets consolidated.
8. Uniform hardness is obtained in the mould.

STUDY OF IMPORTANT MOULDING PROCESSES

Moulds can be prepared with sand or metal. There are various sand moulds and metallic
moulds in which castings are made. The following moulds are discussed below:

(a) Sand Moulds

 Green sand mould

 Dry sand mould
 Core sand mould
 Carbon dioxide mould (CO2 mould)
 Shell mould
 Investment mould
 Sweep mould
 Full mould

(b) Metal moulds

Gravity die casting or Permanent mould casting Pressure

die casting
Continuous casting
Centrifugal casting Squeeze
casting Slush casting
Thixocasting process

a. SAND MOULDS

Green sand mould:

Green sand moulding is the most widely used process for casting both ferrous and non- ferrous
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 34

metals.

Procedure involved in making green sand mould:

a) It is made from silica sand (85-92%), clay (bentonite binder) - (6-12%), water (3-5%) and
additives are mixed to prepare green sand mixture.

b) The pattern is placed on a flat surface with the drag box enclosing it as shown in fig 1(a).
Parting sand (it is dried silica sand) is sprinkled on the pattern surface to avoid green sand
mixture sticking to the pattern.
c) The drag box is filled with green sand and rammed manually till its top surface as
shown in fig.. The drag box is now inverted so that the pattern faces the top as shown in Fig.
Parting sand is sprinkled over the mould surface of the drag box.
d) The cope box is placed on top of the drag box and the sprue and riser pin are placed in suitable
locations. The green sand mixture is rammed to the level of cope box as shown in fig.
e) The sprue and the riser are removed from the mould. The cope box is lifted and placed aside,
and the pattern is the drag box is withdrawn by rapping it carefully so as to avoid damage to the
mould. Gates are cut using hand tools to provide passage for the flow of molten metal. Fig. The
mould cavity is cleaned and finished. Cores, if any, are placed in the mould to obtain a hollow
cavity in the casting fig.
f) The cope is now placed on the drag box and both are aligned with the help of pins. Vent holes
are made to allow the free escape of gases from the mould during pouring. The mould is made
ready for pouring fig.

Advantages of green sand moulding:

 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 35

Least expensive method.

Sand can be reused many times after reconditioning with clay and moisture. Preferred for simple,
small and medium size castings.
Suitable for mass production.

Disadvantages:

1. Moulds prepared by this process lack permeability, strength and stability.

2. The give rise to many defects like porosity, blow holes, etc., because of low permeability and lot of
steam formation due to moisture presence.
3. Moulds cannot be stored for quite long time.
4. Not suitable for very large castings.
5. Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of castings are not satisfactory.

Dry Sand Moulding

Dry sand moulding is prepared in the same manner as that of green sand moulding, except that the
mould is baked in a oven to remove the moisture present in the sand and also to harden the moulds.

Advantages:

Strength and stability of dry sand moulds is high when compared to green sand moulds. Baking removes
moisture and hence defects related to moisture are eliminated.Dry sand moulds give better surface
finish and dimensional tolerance of castings.

Disadvantages:
1. Consumes more time, labour and cost due to baking process, hence not suitable for mass
production.
2. Not suitable for large and heavy size castings, as they are difficult to bake.
3. High capital cost of baking moulds in oven.
4. Under baked or over baked moulds is another disadvantage.

Core sand moulding

In this process, sometimes complete mould can be obtained by assembling a large number of intricate
cores to obtain the desired mould cavity and the cores are baked to develop greater strength. Such a
mould is called core sand mould. This is a useful moulding process when the intricacy of the
casting is such that green sand moulding becomes impracticable. The motor block is a good
example. Good surface finish can be obtained.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) moulding

 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 36

Carbon dioxide moulding also known as sodium silicate process is one of the widely used process for
preparing moulds and cores. In this process, sodium silicate is used as the binder. But sodium
silicate activates or tend to bind the sand particles only in the presence of carbon dioxide gas to
form silica gel & sodium carbonate. For this reason, the process is commonly known as CO2
process, as shown in fig.

Na2 SiO3 + CO2 Na2 CO3 + SiO2

(Sodium silicate) (Silica gel)

Silica gel acts as a strong binder between silica sand grains and this process takes place without
the application of heat.

Advantages:
Operation is faster, moulds and cores can be used immediately after processing Eliminates
baking ovens
Semi skilled labourers can be used.

Disadvantages:
Moulds are more expensive compared to other process.
Difficulty is reclaiming the used sand.

Shell Moulding

1. It is a special form of sand moulding.

2. It is used for producing small castings (up to 50 Kg steel castings)
3. Very intricate, accurate, very good surface finish castings can be produced.
4. Machining can be eliminated almost.
5. Sand mix consists of washed and dried fine sand (+60 – 150 sieve), 3-4% thermosetting binder
(urea/phenol formaldehyde) resin.
6. Sand mix is prepared dry in a mixer and taken in a box.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 37

7. A metal pattern (aluminium) is heated 200-250oC and coated with the releasing agent.
(silicon grease) (only one half of the pattern is used).
8. The sand mix is dumped on the heated metal pattern.
9. A thin layer/shell of sand is formed on the pattern in about 30 sec.
10.Now the shell along with the pattern is cured in a oven at about 300 oC for 2 to 3 min. to make
the shell strong.
11.The shell is ejected out of the pattern.
12.Similarly another half of the shell is prepared.
13.Two halves are joined together with the gum.
14.The completed shell is kept in an empty mould box and packed with sand, metal shots or gravel
as support.
15.Molten metal is poured through the sprue and castings are made.
16. The pattern along with gates and riser are fixed on to a metal plate to facilitate preparingthe
shell, i.e., heating, coating with the resin sand and ejecting the shell easily. Fig. .

Investment shell moulding (Investment moulding)

 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 38

1. Is a process to produce intricate, complex shape and highly smooth surface casting.
Absolutely no machining is required on the casting.
2. Any metal or alloy can be cast in the shell.
3. A disposable pattern material such as wax is used. Wax is the most popular pattern
material used.
4. Sand mix is a refractory slurry consisting of -200 mesh sand, a binder (ethyl silicate or
colloidal silica etc.) accelerator (HCl), water.
5. First the required shape of the pattern is got by injecting molten wax into a metallic die. After
freezing, the pattern is taken out of the die.
6. A number of patterns may be attached onto a common sprue with necessary gates, to form
a cluster.
7. The cluster pattern is dipped in the refractory slurry and taken out. A thin layer of
coating is formed on the pattern.
8. This process is continued several times (7-8) so that 8-10mm shell thickness is formed. Now
the shell is heated suddenly at 110-1200oC to remove wax as well as sintering the shell (to
harden the shell).
9. The sintered shell with the cavity is ready to receive molten metal.
10. After casting the metal, the shell is broken and the required castings are separated/cut off
from the sprue and gate.
11. Wax is collected and reused.
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 39

12. The castings are then collected for dispatch.

13. All types of metals and alloys can be easily cast.
14. Mainly Ni alloys, alloy steel, high temperature alloys are cast.
15. Surgical instruments, turbine blades, aerospace parts, etc., are produced by this method.
Process is costly.

Sweep Moulding

In sweep moulding, the cavity is formed as the pattern sweeps the sand all around the
circumference.
A thin wooden piece is attached to the spindle at one edge while the other edge has a contour
depending on the desired shape of the casting. (Refer Fig. 5). The spindly is placed at the center of
the mould and rotated so that the wooden piece sweeps in the mould box generating the shape of
the required casting. Green sand, loam sand or sodium silicate sandcan be used to prepare moulds.
The process is used for producing large castings of circularsections and symmetrical shapes.
Full Moulding

1. The mould contains pattern along with the sand.

2. No cavity is seen in the mould.
3. When molten metal is poured into the sprue, mould cavity is created instantaneously.
4. The pattern burns off and makes away for the molten to occupy the space left.
5. Hence the name full moulding.
6. Here polysterene pattern is used.
7. Polysterene has very low ash content and burns of easily at molten metal temperature.
8. Extremely complex shaped castings can be made by this method.
9. Any metal or alloy can be cast.
10. Pouring rate of metal is very important in the process.
11. Regular moulding sand can be used for moulding.
12. Pattern is placed in the mould box and sand is rammed alround.
13. The pattern with gates and riser is left in the mould itself.
14. Molten metal is poured through the sprue at a rapid rate.
15. Pattern burns off, cavity is created in its place and molten metal fills up this,
 METAL CASTING FORMING & JOINING PROCESS (21ME32) 40

instantaneously.
16. Thus mold cavity is created and is filled up with liquid metal at the same time.
17. After cooling, the casting is taken out (solidified metal).
18. Each time a new pattern must be used, to produce a casting.

(b) Metal moulds

 Metal moulds are used to make castings.

 Usually cast iron, carbon steel, copper are used to prepare the moulds.
 Metal moulds can be used again and again for making a number of
castings
1. Good accurate, consistent quality castings can be produced in the mould.
2. Very much useful in mass production.
3. The molten metal is subjected to gravitational force.
4. Suitable for small & medium size castings.
5. Section thickness of <6mm can be cast.
6. The metal moulds incorporate gating & risering.
7. Process is costlier than sand mould.