Manufacturing Technology – I

Course ID: ME 222 (3-0-0-6)

Introduction to manufacturing processes: Moulding materials and their requirements; Patterns:
Types and various pattern materials. Casting processes: Various casting methods, viz., sand
casting, investment casting, pressure die casting, centrifugal casting, continuous casting, thin roll
casting; Mould design; Casting defects and their remedies.

Metal joining processes: brazing, soldering, welding; Solid state welding methods; resistance
welding; arc welding; submerged arc welding; inert gas welding; Welding defects, inspection.
Metal forming Processes: Various metal forming techniques and their analysis, viz., forging,
rolling, extrusion, wire drawing, sheet metal working, spinning, swaging, thread rolling; Super
plastic deformation; Metal forming defects.
Powder metallurgy Processing and its applications.

Text books:
1. P.L. Jain, Principles of Foundry Technology, MGH, Eds. 5, 2011
2. P N Rao, Manufacturing Technology: Foundry, Forming And Welding, Tata McGraw Hill,
2008.
3. A Ghosh and A K Mallik, Manufacturing Science, Wiley Eastern, 1986.
4. George E Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, MGH, Eds. 3, 2013.
References:
1. J.S Campbell, Principles Of Manufacturing Materials And Processes, Tata McGraw Hill,
1995.
2. S Kalpakjian and S R Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, Pearson
education, 2009

Grading Scheme:
End semester : 40 %
Mid Semester : 25 %
Quiz (minimum 4 nos) : 20 %
Assignment : 15 %
---------------------------------------------------------
Total : 100

(In addition, 5 marks will be given as additional bonus for those students having attendance ≥
90%)
NOTE: Minimum of 75% attendance is a must for writing the end-sem examination.

Quiz-I: 24.01.2019
Quiz-II: 12.02.2019
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What is Manufacturing: Manufacturing can be defined two ways : Technologically and
Economically.
Technologically, manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical processes to alter the
geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a given starting material to make parts or products.
Other definition : Manufacturing is the process of transforming raw materials, components, or
parts into finished goods that meet a customer's expectations or specifications.

Economically, manufacturing is the transformation of materials into items of greater value by

means of one or more processing and/or assembly operations.

Manufacturing process are broadly classified into 6 groups :

1. Casting
2. Metal forming
3. Joining
4. Powder metallurgy
5. Material removal
6. Special processing and assembly technology.

Lecture 2 - Metal casting:

Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes. It is the first step in making most of
the products. In casting, the starting work material is either a liquid or is in a highly plastic
condition, and a part is created through solidification of the material.
Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold
where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity. The term casting is also applied to the part that
is made by this process.

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 The principle of casting seems simple: melt the metal, pour it into a mold, and let it cool
and solidify; yet there are many factors and variables that must be considered in order to
accomplish a successful casting operation
 Casting is usually carried out in a foundry.
 A foundry is a factory equipped for making molds, melting and handling metal in molten
form, performing the casting process, and cleaning the finished casting.
 The workers who perform the casting operations in these factories are called foundrymen
 Casting includes both the casting of ingots and the casting of shapes. The term ingot is usually
associated with the primary metals industries; it describes a large casting that is simple in shape
and intended for subsequent reshaping by processes such as rolling or forging.
 Shape casting involves the production of more complex geometries that are much closer to the
final desired shape of the part or product
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Steps:
 Making mould cavity
 Material is first liquefied by properly heating it in a suitable furnace.
 Liquid is poured into a prepared mould cavity
 allowed to solidify
 product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to shape

We should concentrate on the following for successful casting operation:

i. Preparation of moulds and patterns

ii. Melting and pouring of the liquefied metal
iii. Solidification and further cooling to room temperature
iv. Defects and inspection
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Advantages of metal casting
1. Casting can be used to create complex part geometries, including both external and internal
shapes. As, molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be
made by this process.
2. Possible to cast practically any material: ferrous or non-ferrous.
3. Some casting processes are capable of producing parts to net shape. No further
manufacturing operations are required to achieve the required geometry and dimensions of
the parts. Other casting processes are near net shape, for which some additional shape
processing is required (usually machining) in order to achieve accurate dimensions and
details.
4. Casting can be used to produce very large parts. Castings weighing more than 100 tons have
been made.
5. The necessary tools required for casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive. As a
result, for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.
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 6. Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.
7. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this way.

Limitations of metal casting

1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes are
a limitation to this technique.
2. Many new casting processes have been developed which can take into consideration the
aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are die casting
process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed moulding process, and shell moulding
process.
3. The metal casting process is a labour intensive process
4. Automation: a question
---------------------------------
Casting processes falls into two broad categories, according to type of mould used:
Expendable-mould casting : An expendable mould means that the mould in which the molten
metal solidifies must be destroyed in order to remove the casting. These moulds are made out of
sand, plaster, or similar materials, whose form is maintained by using binders of various kinds.
Sand casting is the most prominent example of the expendable-mould processes.
Permanent-mould casting : A permanent mould is one that can be used over and over to produce
many castings. It is made of metal that can withstand the high temperatures of the casting
operation. In permanent-mould casting, the mould consists of two (or more) sections that can be
opened to permit removal of the finished part. Die casting is the most familiar process in this
group.

In an open mould (shown in figure), the liquid metal is simply poured until it fills the open cavity.

In a closed mould, a passageway, called the gating system, is provided to permit the molten metal
to flow from outside the mould into the cavity.

Parts of a sand casting :

Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mould is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in the moulding structure, it is referred to by various
names such as drag – lower moulding flask, cope – upper moulding flask, cheek – intermediate
moulding flask used in three piece moulding
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the mould

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Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould cavity is made with the help of
pattern
Moulding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a
mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the
mould cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings
Core: A separate part of the mould, made of sand and generally placed inside the moule cavity,
which is used to create openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.

Gating system: It is the assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into the
mold cavity is called the gating system. It consists of puring basin/cup, down sprue, cross gates
(runners) and ingates (or gates).
Pouring basin / cup: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten
metal is poured
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the runner.
In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould
Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as ―feed head‖.
Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of air and gases
Chaplets: Chaplets (shown below) are used to support the cores inside the mould cavity to take
care of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
Chills: A chill is an object used to promote solidification in a specific portion of a metal casting
mold, usually metal and promotes directional solidification.

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The six basic steps in making sand castings are,
(i) Pattern making,
(ii) Core making,
(iii) Moulding,
(iv) Melting and pouring,
(v) Shake out (removal of sand mould)
(vi) Cleaning & inspection
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(i) Pattern making
- Pattern: It is the replica of the part to be cast and is used to prepare the mould cavity. It is the
physical model of the casting used to make the mould. Made of either wood, plastics or metal.
Types of patterns
1. Solid pattern or loose pattern: same geometry as the casting, adjusted in size for shrinkage and
machining. Although it is the easiest pattern to fabricate, it is not the easiest to use in making the
sand mold.

 simplest, least expensive type

 reusable pattern
 also known as one-piece patterns or solid patterns
 suited only for low-quantity production
 generally used for experimental or prototypes
 gates and risers are cut by hand

2. Split patterns consist of two pieces, dividing the part along a plane coinciding with the
parting line of the mold. Split patterns are appropriate for complex part geometries and moderate
production quantities.
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3. In match-plate patterns, the two pieces of the split pattern are attached to opposite sides
of a wood or metal plate. Holes in the plate allow the top and bottom (cope and drag) sections of
the mold to be aligned accurately.

 pattern is split and the two portions are fixed on the opposite sides of a plate, called the
match plate.
 match plate confirms to the parting line of the mold
 size of the match plate corresponds to the size of the molding flask
 used for moderate to high-volume production of small- and medium-size castings
 considerable dimensional accuracy
4. Cope-and-drag patterns are similar to match-plate patterns except that split pattern halves
are attached to separate plates. For higher production quantities, match-plate patterns or cope-and-
drag patterns are used
 cope and drag portions of a split pattern are mounted or integrally cast on separate plates
 used for high-volume production or for the production of large castings
 Pattern cost is higher than for match plate patterns
 total molding cost per casting may be lower
 cope and drag impression is simultaneously made

Selection of Pattern materials

The selection of pattern materials depends on factors such as:
 Service requirements, e.g., quantity, quality and intricacy of castings, minimum thickness
desired, degree of accuracy and finish required;
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  Possibility of design changes;
 Type of production of casting, and type of moulding method and equipment to be used;
To be suitable for use, the pattern material should be
 Easily worked, shaped and joined;
 Light in weight for facilitating handling and working;
 Strong, hard and durable;
 Resistance to: wear and abrasion, corrosion, and to chemical action.
 Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variation in temperature and humidity.
 Available at low cost.
 Able to obtain a good surface finish

Pattern Material Types:

 Wood
 Metal (Al, CI, Brass, Bronze)
 Plastics (epoxy resins)
 Polyester resins & rubber
 Wax
The common materials of which the patterns are made are the following :
1) Wood : It is the most common material used for pattern making because of the following
Advantages
i. It is cheap and available in abundance.
ii. It can be easily shaped into different forms and intricate designs.
iii. Its manipulation is easy because of lightness in weight.
iv. Good surface finish can be easily obtained by only planning and sanding.
v. It can be preserved for a fairly long time by applying proper preservatives like shellac
varnish.
On the other hand, it has certain disadvantages also as follows:
i. It wears out quickly due to its low resistance to sand abrasion.
ii. It is very susceptible to moisture, which may lead to its warping or splitting. This needs its
careful storing in a dry place and the application of preservatives.
iii. Its life, owing to the above reasons, is short as compared to other pattern materials. This
confines its use to such cases only when a small number of castings are required.
2) Metals :
Metals are used with advantage, as pattern material, only
1. when the number of castings to be made is very high
2. closer dimensional accuracy is desired.
3. longer life than wooden patterns and
4. eliminate the inherent disadvantages of wood to a great extent.
Metal patterns has the following disadvantages :
1. They are costlier than wood and, therefore, cannot be used with advantage, where a smaller
number of castings is to be made.
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 2. For giving different shapes and fine surface finish they need machining. This again adds to
their cost.
3. Most of them are very heavy and in case of large castings the weight of the pattern always
poses a problem in its manipulation.
4. A large number of them have a tendency to get rusted.
3) Plaster :
Plaster of Paris or gypsum cement is advantageously used as a pattern material due to the
following:
i. it can be easily casted into intricate shapes and can be easily worked also.
ii. Its expansion can be easily controlled and
iii. it carries a very high compression strength.
iv. Its specific use is in making small patterns and core boxes involving intricate shapes and
v. closer dimensional control.
vi. contrary to the action of metals, it expands on being solidified. Thus, if a cement of proper
coefficient of expansion is selected, the effect of shrinkage of casting can be automatically
neutralized.

4) Plastics :
Plastics as pattern materials have the following specific characteristics :
1. Lightness in weight.
2. High strength.
3. High resistance to wear.
4. High resistance to corrosion due to moisture.
5. Fine surface finish.
6. Low solid shrinkage.
7. Very reasonable cost.
The plastics used as pattern materials are thermosetting resins. Phenolic resin plastic and foam
plastic suit best for this purpose.
For making the pattern, first the moulds are made, usually from plaster of Paris. The resin is then
poured into these moulds and the two heated. At a specific temperature, the resin solidifies to give
the plastic pattern.
5) Wax :
Wax patterns are exclusively used in investment casting. For this a die or metal mould is
made in two halves into which the heated wax is poured. The die is kept cool by circulating water
around it. As the wax sets on cooling, the die parts are separated and the wax pattern taken out

Pattern allowances
Pattern allowances are very important during the pattern design since it affects the dimensional
accuracy of the casting. Allowances are required to be provided on the dimensions of the pattern
for producing casting with the size as per the specifications of the customer. The pattern
allowances are generally the following:

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1. Shrinkage allowance: This is provided to take case of the shrinkage of the metal during
solidification as well as the solid contraction occurring while the solidified metal is cooled from
the melting temperature to room temperature. The pattern is required to be made slightly over size
compared to the actual casting size due to the shrinkage. Though the total contraction is
volumetric, the correction is expressed linearly (e.g mm / meter length). The shrinkage allowance
to be provided is dependent on the metal to be cast. Some metals may require a shrinkage
allowance of above 10 mm/m where as some alloys may require as low as 2.6 mm /m. Foundry
shops generally use the patternmaker‘s shrink rule which is a special scale and depends on the type
of alloys to be cast. Using this scale during manufacture avoids unnecessary calculation of the
shrinkage allowance.
Shrinkage: Shrinkage occurs in three steps: (1) liquid contraction during cooling prior to
solidification; (2) contraction during the phase change from liquid to solid, called solidification
shrinkage; and (3) thermal contraction of the solidified casting during cooling to room
temperature.

Liquid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state to solid state.
Riser which feed the liquid metal to the casting is provided in the mould to compensate for this.

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Solid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature in solid state.
Shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns to account for this.

2. Machining allowance.
This will take care of the extra material that will be removed to obtain a finished product. In this
the rough surface in the cast product will be removed. The machining allowance depends on the
size of the casting, material properties, material distortion, finishing accuracy and machining
method. For internal surfaces, the allowances should be negative.

3. Draft allowance:
This is the taper provided along the vertical faces of a patter to facilitate easy removal of the
pattern from the mold and reduce damage to the mold edges.

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4. Rap allowance
For removal of the pattern from the mold, usually the pattern is rapped so that it gets detached
from the mold. During this process, the mold cavity slightly enlarges compared to the size of the
pattern. To take care of this a small allowance is provided by making the pattern slightly under size
(i.e negative allowance).

5. Distortion allowance: Very large casting especially flat plates / dome shaped/U shaped
casting sometimes distort when produced from a perfect pattern. In such case the pattern is
distorted intentionally so that the distorted pattern produces a casting of the proper shape and size.
This allowance is generally provided by trial and error.

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(ii) Core making
- If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called ‗cores‘, are used to form these cavities. A
core is a full-scale model of the interior surfaces of the part.
Cores are placed into a mould cavity to form the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the void space
is filled with molten metal and eventually becomes the casting.
• So where coring is required, provision should be made to support the core inside the mould
cavity. Core prints are used to serve this purpose. The core print is an added projection on the
pattern and it forms a seat in the mould on which the sand core rests during pouring of the
mould.
• The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can support the weight of the core
during the casting operation.

(iii) Moulding
Moulding is nothing but the mould preparation activities for receiving molten metal.
Moulding usually involves: (i) preparing the consolidated sand mould around a pattern held within
a supporting metal frame, (ii) removing the pattern to leave the mould cavity with cores.
Mould cavity is the primary cavity.
The mould also contains secondary cavities for pouring and channeling the liquid material in to the
primary cavity and will act a reservoir, if required.
Ingredients of Green sand mold
• Sand
• Binder
• Moisture
• Additives ( cereals, ground pitch, sea coal, graphite, wood flour, fuel oil, silica flour, Iron
oxide)
Making a simple green sand mould
1) The drag flask is placed on a moulding board
2) Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board. Dry facing sand provides a non-sticky layer.
3) Drag half of the pattern is located on the mould board.
4) Molding sand is then poured in to cover the pattern with the fingers and then the drag is filled
completely

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5) Sand is then tightly packed in the drag by means of hand rammers. Peen hammers (used first
close to drag pattern) and butt hammers (used for surface ramming) are used.
6) The ramming must be proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft. Too soft ramming will
generate weak mould and imprint of the pattern will not be good. Too hard ramming will not allow
gases/air to escape and hence bubbles are created in casting resulting in defects called ‗blows‘.
Moreover, the making of runners and gates will be difficult.
7) After the ramming is finished, the excess sand is leveled/removed with a straight bar known as
strike rod.

8) The finished drag flask is now made upside down exposing the pattern.
9) Cope half of the pattern is then placed on the drag pattern using locating pins. The cope flask is
also located with the help of pins. The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag surface and
on the pattern.
10) A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at some distance from the pattern edge.
Riser pin is placed at an appropriate place.
11) Filling, and ramming of the cope is done in the same manner.
12) Vent holes are made in the cope to the full depth of the flask to facilitate the removal of gases
during pouring and solidification. This is done by using vent rod.
13) The sprue and riser are removed and a pouring basin is made at the top to pour the liquid
metal.
14) Pattern from the cope and drag is removed.

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15) Runners and gates are made by cutting the parting surface with a gate cutter. A gate cutter is a
piece of sheet metal bent to the desired radius.
16) The core for making a central hole is now placed into the mould cavity in the drag. Core is
rests in core prints.
17) Mould is now assembled and ready for pouring.

General properties of molding sand.

Several indicators are used to determine the quality of the sand mould:
1. Green strength: The green sand after water has been mixed into it, must have adequate
strength and plasticity for making and handling of the mold.
2. Dry strength: as the casting is poured the sand adjacent to the hot metal quickly loses water
as steam. The sand must have strength to resist erosion and metallostatic pressure of the
molten metal.
3. Hot strength: after moisture has evaporated, the sand may be required to possess strength at
some elevated temperature.
4. Permeability: capacity of the mould to allow hot air and gases from the casting operation to
pass through the voids in the sand.

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5. Thermal stability: heat from the casting causes rapid expansion of the sand surface at the
mold metal interface. The mold surface may then crack, buckle or flake off (scab) unless the
molding sand is relatively stable dimensionally under rapid heating
6. Refractoriness: higher pouring temperature such as ferrous alloys at 2400 to 3200 F, required
greater refractoriness of the sand.
7. Collapsibility: ability of the mould to give way and allow the casting to shrink without
cracking the casting; it also refers to the ability to remove the sand from the casting during
cleaning.
8. Flowability: the sand should response to molding processes.
9. Reusability: can the sand from the broken mould be reused to make other moulds?

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Ingredients of sand mold
1. Sand
2. Binder (Clay)
3. Moisture
4. Additives ( cereals, ground pitch, sea coal, graphite, wood flour, fuel oil, silica flour,
Iron oxide: Additives are sometimes combined with sand and binder to enhance
properties such as strength and/or permeability of the mold.

Sand Grains
Sand in the major component of molding sand. This can be either silica sand (SiO2), Zircon
(ZrSiO4) sand chromite sand (FeCr2O4) or Olivine sand. Silica sand, in the form of granular quartz,
is the chief constituent of moulding sands. Silica sand may contain up to 90% silicon dioxide. It is
the product of breaking up of quartz rocks or the decomposition of granite and mainly consists of
quartz and feldspar. Silica sand has high softening temperature and thermal stability.

Clay
The Clay is the binder which binds together the sand grains. Moulding sands contain 5% to 20%
clay. Water is added to provide the bond necessary to develop mould strength. Binders are of many
types such as:
 Clay binders,
 Organic binders and
 Inorganic binders
Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to provide the
strength. The most popular clay types are: Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and
Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O). The Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its bonding
power.

Water
Moulding sand may contain around 3% - 8% by weight of water. Moisture in the required
amount provides the bonding properties to the clay. When water is added to clay, it is held rigidly
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by the clay and is responsible for developing the strength in the sand. The bonding quality of clay
depends of the maximum thickness of water film it can maintain. The bonding action is considered
best if the water added is the exact quantity required to form the film. The water penetrates the clay
structure and forms a microfilm which coats the surface of each flake. The water molecules in the
required quantity are not in a fluid state, rather it is inside the clay structure. The permeability of
molding sand decreases with increasing clay and moisture content. The green compressive strength
first increases with the increase in clay content, but after a certain value, it starts decreasing.

Additives

#############################
2. Resin Shell moluding
The shell moulding process is a precision sand casting process capable of producing casting with a
superior surface finish and better dimensional accuracy than conventional sand casting. These
qualities of precision can be obtained in a wider range of alloy with greater flexibility in design
than die-casting and at a lower cost than investment casting.
The fundamental feature of the process is the use of synthetic resins as binder. The
development of thermosetting resins such as phenol formaldehyde (bakalite), provided the basis
for shell moulding. In shell moulding, fine sand about 100-150 mesh (150-100 μm sized) is coated
with a thermosetting resin such as phenol formaldehyde (bakalite) (4-6 wt.% of sand). To control
the hardening process hexamethyle tetramine (14-16% of amount of resin) is also added to the
resin and mixed. When this sand mixture is placed on a heated pattern (175-370°C), the resin
cures, causing sand grains to get bonded to each other and form a hard shell around the pattern.
The inside of the shell confirms exactly to the dimensions and shape of the pattern and constitute
only one half of the mold. Two halves so prepared are placed together to form the mold assembly.
The assembly is placed in a flask and back-up material is placed around it. The distinguishing
feature of the shell moulding process is that the mould is literally a shell, being in the region of
only 10 mm (0.4in) thick.

The mode of preparation of shell mold is illustrated in figure.

Shell preparation: First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370°C (350-700°F) and coated with a
lubricant to facilitate removal. In practice the pattern is heated under controlled conditions such
that it maintains its temperature within small permissible range. Next, the heated pattern is
clamped to a dump box, which contains a mixture of sand and resin binder. The dump box is
inverted, allowing this sand-resin mixture to coat the pattern. The heated pattern partially cures the
mixture, which forms a shell around the pattern. After a pre-set time, the pattern is turned over to
allow the unbonded sand to be removed, leaving the shell on the pattern. Each pattern half and
surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven and then the shell is ejected from the pattern.
Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined together and securely clamped to form the
complete shell mold. If any cores are required, they are inserted prior to closing the mold. The
shell mold is then placed into a flask and supported by a backing material.
Pouring - The mold is securely clamped together while the molten metal is poured from a ladle
into the gating system and fills the mold cavity.
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Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify into the
shape of the final casting.

Steps of Shell moulding process:

A metal pattern is heated and placed over a dump box
containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin such
as phenol formaldehyde (bakalite)

The box is inverted so that sand and resin mixture fall

on the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to
partially cure on the pattern surface to form a hard
shell

The box is repositioned so that loose, uncured

particles drop away

sand shell (pattern and surrounding shell ) is heated in

an oven for several minutes to complete curing

the shell is ejected from the pattern

two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported

by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is
accomplished

The part made by this method is shown in Fig.

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Advantages of shell molding
 Much superior finish, dimensional accuracy and consistency in producing quality casting
compared with even mechanized green sand moulding. Shell molding process can accurately
replicate even the fine pattern details and dimensions and hence can be used for precision casting
 Capital outlay on sand preparation plant is not essential.
 Good utilization of space
 Low sand to metal ratio
 The mould is separated from the pattern without the need to enlarge the cavity.
 Only a small quantity of sand is used hence cheaper process.
 Costly Zircon sand, which has better cooling characteristics and lower thermal expansion
than silica sand, can also be used since the sand consumption is less.
 Machining operations are reduced because of good surface finish.
 Can be mechanized for mass production and will be economical too.
 Mould coating are unnecessary
 Lightweight moulds are produced which are readily handled and have good storage
characteristics
 Skilled labor is not required
 Shells have excellent breakdown at the knockout stage
 Lower cleaning at fettling costs
Disadvantages
 The raw materials are relatively expensive. High cost of pattern equipment and resin
 Relative inflexibility in gating and risering as these have to be provided in the shell itself.
 The size and weight range of casting is limited
 The process generates noxious fumes which must be effectively extract

Examples of parts made using shell molding include gears, valve bodies, bushings, and camshafts.

3. Vacuum moulding

In this process, a sand mould is held together by vacuum pressure and not by a chemical binder.

The term vacuum in this process refers to the making of the mould, rather than the casting
operation. Casting operation is same as any other process.

1. A thin sheet of preheated plastic is drawn over a match-plate or cope-and-drag pattern by

vacuum—the pattern has small vent holes to facilitate vacuum forming;

2. A specially designed flask is placed over the pattern plate and filled with sand, and a sprue and
pouring cup are formed in the sand

3. Another thin plastic sheet is placed over the flask, and a vacuum is drawn that causes the sand
grains to be held together, forming a rigid mold

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4. the vacuum on the mold pattern is released to permit the pattern to be stripped from the mold

5. this mold is assembled with its matching half to form the cope and drag, and with vacuum
maintained on both halves, pouring is accomplished. The plastic sheet quickly burns away on
contacting the molten metal. After solidification, nearly all of the sand can be recovered for reuse

Advantages:
• No binders are used and hence sand is readily recovered in vacuum molding
• Mechanical ramming is not required
• Since no water is mixed with the sand, moisture related defects are absent from the product
Disadvantages:
• Relatively slow and not readily adaptable to mechanization

4. Investment casting Process

In this casting process, a pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to make the mold
surface, after which the wax is melted away before pouring the molten metal. The process is also
called as lost-wax process. The process is suitable for series production of high quality casting
particularly of aluminum, steel and special high performance alloys. The process is generally used
for small castings, often less than 500 gm, although steel casting up to 300 kg and aluminum
casting of 30 kg are being produced. Compared to others casting process such as sand or die
casting, though it is an expensive process, it has versatility which can be obtained in only few other
metal forming processes. Intricate or re-entrant contours can be incorporated so that good freedom
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of design is possible. In many cases components are cast near to net shape so that little or no
machining is necessary.

Process description

1. Master pattern: First a master pattern is prepared from wax.

2. Mould making: A mould (or master die), is made using the master pattern. The master mould
(or master die) may be made from a low-melting-point metal, steel or synthetic Rubber.
3. Producing wax patterns: The pattern is made from wax or frozen mercury. Molten wax is
poured in to the master mould and allowed to solidify. Patterns are also molded by injection of the
special wax into a metal die which give the shape to the pattern. If a core is required, pre-formed
ceramic cores are used which remain part of the wax pattern and are removed after the workpiece
is cast.
4. Wax pattern assembly: Multiple different wax patterns are made and then assembled into one
complex pattern. The patterns are attached to a wax sprue, with the result known as a pattern
cluster, or tree; as many as several hundred patterns may be assembled into a tree. The wax
patterns are attached to the sprue or each other by means of a heated metal tool. The wax pattern
may be chased, which means the parting line or flashing are rubbed out using the heated metal
tool. Finally it is dressed, which means any other imperfections are addressed so that the wax now
looks like the finished piece.
5. Investment: ―Investment‖ means ―to cover completely‖ which refers to the coating of the
refractory material around the wax pattern. The ceramic mould, known as the investment, is
produced by three repeating steps: coating, stuccoing, and hardening. Coating involves dipping the
cluster into a slurry of fine refractory material and then letting any excess drain off, so a uniform
surface is produced. This fine material is used first to give a smooth surface finish and reproduce
fine details. The cluster is then stuccoed with a coarse ceramic particle, by placing it in a rainfall-
sander, or by applying by hand. Finally, the coating is allowed to harden. These steps are repeated
until the investment is the required thickness, which is usually 5 to 15 mm. The first coatings are
known as prime coats. An alternative to multiple dips is to place the cluster upside-down in a flask
and then liquid investment material is poured into the flask. The flask is then vibrated to allow
entrapped air to escape and help the investment material fill in all of the details.

Common refractory materials used to create the investments are: fused silica, zircon, various
aluminium silicates, and alumina. Aluminium silicates are a mixture of alumina (42 -72 %) and
balance silica. During the primary coat(s), zircon-based refractories are commonly used, because
zirconium is less likely to react with the molten metal. Chamotte is another refractory material that
has been used. The binders used to hold the refractory material in place include: ethyl silicate
(alcohol-based and chemically set), colloidal silica (water-based, also known as silica sol, set by
drying) or sodium silicate.

When the primary coat has hardened or set, subsequent cycles of ‗wet‘ dipping and dry ‘stuccoing‘
build up the thickness of the invested material to provide a refractory shell that, when fully
hardened is sufficiently strong to hold the liquid metal during casting. Two types of investment are
usual. The solid investment and shell investment.
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In solid investment, a primary coat of binder mixed with fine refractory, such as silica flour and
zircon flour, is applied to the pattern which is then placed with gating system in a metal flask and
is then surrounded by refractory slurry. Though the method is fast, large amount of expensive
ceramic investment would be consumed. The binder used in primary coat and investment is ethyl
silicate. The chemical reaction gives rise to formation of silica get in a hydrolysed solution of
water imparting a permanent bond.

Si(OC2H5)4 + H2O ------------ 4 C2H5HO + Si(OH)4

In shell investment process, after applying a pre-coating as in the case of solid investment, the
pattern assembly is dipped in a coating of slurry and stuccoed with granulated refractory, either by
sprinkling or by suspending in a fludized bed, until a shell is built up to the desired shell ( 6mm to
20 mm). The grain size varies from 20 mesh to 100 mesh. Fine grained sand is used for the initial
coating , wheresas coarse grains are used as the coating thickness increases. After each coating, the
shell is dried before applying the next coating.

6. Dewax: The investment is then allowed to completely dry inside an overn. Drying usually
takes 16 to 48 hours. It is then turned upside-down and placed in a furnace or autoclave to melt out
and/or vaporize the wax. Most shell failures occur at this point because the waxes used have a
thermal expansion coefficient that is much greater than the investment material surrounding it, so
as the wax is heated it expands and induces great stresses. In order to minimize these stresses the
wax is heated as rapidly as possible so that the surface of the wax can melt into the surface of the
investment or run out of the mold, which makes room for the rest of the wax to expand. In certain
situations holes may be drilled into the mold beforehand to help reduce these stresses. Any wax
that runs out of the mold is usually recovered and reused. In general the temperature is raised from
room temperature to 350 °C in about 4 hours for dewaxing, then raised to 750 °C in another 4
hours for firing, again raised to 980 °C in another 3 hours. It is then held at that temperature of at
least 3-4 hours. The metal is poured in to the mold just after the mold is removed from the furnace
and are allowed to cool slowly and simultaneously.
7. Burnout & preheating: The mold is then subjected to a burnout. For this the mold is heated
between 870 °C and 1095 °C to remove any moisture and residual wax, and to sinter the mold.
Sometimes this heating is also used as the preheat, but other times the mold is allowed to cool so
that it can be tested. If any cracks are found they can be repaired with ceramic slurry. The mold is
preheated to allow the metal to stay liquid longer to fill any details and to increase dimensional
accuracy, because the mold and casting cool together.
8. Pouring: The investment mold is then placed cup-upwards inside a flask with sand. The metal
may be gravity poured. The molten metal is allowed to solidfy inside the shell and cooled to room
temperture.
9. Removal: The shell is hammered to release the casting. The sprue is cut off and recycled. The
casting is cleaned and taken up.

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Advantages of Investment castings
 High production rates, particularly for small components
 High dimensional accuracy and consistency
 High integrity castings
 Extremely good surface finish obtained
 Complex shapes can be cast
 Long or short runs can be accommodated
 Machining can be eliminated
 Minimum shot blast and grinding needed
 Almost any alloy can be cast
 Environmentally good

Disadvantages:
 Specialized equipment needed
 New technology must be learned and great attention to detail required
 The process is expensive because costly refractories and blinder are used and many
operation are needed to make a mould
 Because of exceptional surface finish possible and minute defects can cause rejection of
casting and scrap rates can be high.

The vast majority of investment castings weigh less than 2.5 kg, but there is a distinct trend to
produce larger castings in the 5-15 kg range. Castings weighing up to 400 kg have been also
produced.

5. PLASTER MOULDING
The plaster mould casting process is a specialized process used for the production of non-ferrous
alloy castings with smooth surface, more finely reproduced detail and greater dimensional
accuracy than can be obtained from sand moulds, including shell moulds, or gravity dies
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(permanent moulds). Although there are plaster based investment materials, which are used with
expandable patterns, they are best consider as a variation on the investment casting process. The
true plaster mould casting process is based on the use of a permanent pattern. In the commercial
production of castings three variants of the processes are used:
 The conventional plaster mould casting process.
 The foamed plaster process.
 The Antioch process
In the conventional process, plaster of paris is mixed with water to produce a slurry which is
poured over a permanent pattern contained within a moulding box. Upon setting a rigid mould is
produced which, after pattern stripping, is dried at an elevated temperature to remove free and
chemically combined water before the metal is cast into the mould. This method produces a strong,
dense, but inherently impermeable mould. Hence, metal casting must be conducted using vacuum
or pressure assistance to ensure complete filling of the mould by the metal. The insulating nature
of the plaster improves the fluid life of the metal that aids mould filling and thin section
production.
The foam plaster variant produces permeable moulds through the incorporation of air into the
slurry at the mixing stage. It is possible to produce a mould in which 50% of the volume consists
of air bubbles. This has the desired effect of increasing permeability from 1 or 2 units to between
15-30 units, as measured by the AFS permeability test. It also provides the more economical use of
the plaster. However, the inherent strength of the mould is reduced and if complex shapes are to be
produced than flexible patterns traditionally rubber may be required.
The Antioch process has, as its special feature, the requirement to process the moulds in a steam
autoclave. This produces a unique granular structure, which provides mould permeability. The
moulds produced by the Antioch process are denser than foamed plaster moulds and weaker than
conventional plaster moulds. However, this lower strength does not manifest itself until after
mould production, which enables permanent patterns to be used.
The advantages and disadvantages of the plaster mould casting process are summarized below:
Advantages:
 The ability to produce complex shapes.
 The ability to produce thin section castings.
 The excellent replication of pattern detail.
 The ability to produce castings which are dimensionally accurate.
 The ability to produce castings with good surface finish.
 The minimization of residual stresses and distortion in castings.
Disadvantages:
 Poor productivity due to lengthy processing problems.
 The need for multiple patterns to improve moulding productivity.
 The requirement for close control production process.
 The need for special procedure to overcome the problems of poor mould permeability.
 The possibility of impaired mechanical properties arising as a result of slow cooling of the
casting.
 The mould materials are not reclaimable.

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PERMANENT-MOULD CASTING PROCESSES
The economic disadvantage of any of the expendable-mould processes is that a new mould is
required for every casting. In permanent-mould casting, the mould is reused many times.
• Permanent-mould casting uses a metal mould constructed of two sections that are designed
for easy, precise opening and closing.
• Moulds are generally made of steel, CI
• materials that can be cast: Al, Mg, Cu based alloys
• cores are also made of metal, but if sand is used then called semi-permanent-mold casting
• Advantages: good surface finish, dimension tolerance, rapid solidification causes fine
grains to form stronger products
• limitations: restricted to simple part geometries, low melting point metals, mould cost is
high. Best suitable for small, large number of parts

6. DIE CASTING
The variety in die casting systems results from trade-offs in metal fluid flow, elimination of gas
from the cavity, reactivity between the molten metal and the hydraulic system, and heat loss during
injection. The process varieties have many features in common with regard to die mechanical
design, thermal control, and actuation. Four principal alloy families are commonly die cast:
aluminum, zinc, magnesium, and copper-base alloys. Lead, tin, and, to a lesser extent, ferrous
alloys can also be die cast. Up to 70% yield canbe obtained by high peressure die casting.

The following are the steps in die casting:

 The dies prepared and assembled in the die casting machine.

 Lubricant is sprayed on the mold cavity. This is for easy removal of the casting from the die
as well as for controlling the die temperature. Cores (if used) are inserted. The dies are then
closed.
 Molten metal is injected into the dies (till the mold cavity is filled) under high pressure (in
the range 10 and 175 MPa). The pressure injection leads to a quick filling of the die so that
the entire cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies. The pressure is maintained until
the casting solidifies.
 The dies are then opened and the shot solidified metal is ejected by the ejector pins.
 The casting is trimmed or sawed or ground to remove the scrap portion (like gate, runners,
sprue, etc).

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Advantages of die casting

 Excellent dimensional accuracy.

 Smooth cast surfaces with Ra values in the range 1–2.5 μm).
 Thinner walls of the order of even 0.75 mm thick can be cast as compared to sand and
permanent mold casting.
 Inserts such as threaded inserts, heating elements, high strength bearing surfaces, etc. can
be cast-in.
 Reduces or eliminates secondary machining operations.
 Rapid production rates.
 Due to pressure application, high solidification rate and absence of gas defects, high
strengths of the order of 400 MPa can be obtained for castings.
 Low fluidity metals can also be cast.

The three primary variations of the die casting process are the hot chamber process, the cold
chamber process, and direct injection

Low pressure casting: In the earlier casting process (sand casting processes), molten metal flow
in mould cavity is by gravity pull, but in low pressure casting, liquid metal is forced into the cavity
under low pressure, app. 0.1 MPa, from beneath the surface so that metal flow is upward.
• advantage: molten metal is not exposed to air; gas porosity and oxidation defects are minimized

26
 Figure : Low pressure casting process.
Vacuum permanent mould casting: in this process vacuum is used to draw the molten metal into
the mold cavity.
• There are several benefits of the vacuum technique relative to low-pressure casting: air
porosity and related defects are reduced, and greater strength is given to the cast product.

The hot chamber process is the original process invented by H.H. Doehler. It continues to be
used for lower-melting materials (zinc, lead, tin, and, more recently, magnesium alloys). Hot
chamber die casting places the hydraulic actuator in intimate contact with the molten metal (Fig.
1). The hot chamber process minimizes exposure of the molten alloy to turbulence, oxidizing air,
and heat loss during the transfer of the hydraulic energy. The prolonged intimate contact between
molten metal and system components presents severe materials problems in the production
process. A mould or die, having a horizontal parting line, is mounted on a holding furnace and is
connected to the molten metal by a feed tube or stalk. The furnace is pressurized by the
introduction of air above the surface of molten metal causing it to rise steadily in the stalk and
quietly fill the mould. The air in the mould cavity is expelled through suitable positioned vents in
the die and when the cavity is filled, solidification commences.

Hot-chamber machines, also known as gooseneck machines, rely upon a pool of molten metal to
feed the die. At the beginning of the cycle the piston of the machine is retracted, which allows the
molten metal to fill the "gooseneck". The pneumatic or hydraulic powered piston then forces this
metal out of the gooseneck into the die. Typical injection pressures are between 7 and 35 MPa.
The advantages of this system include fast cycle times (approximately 15 cycles a minute) and the
convenience of melting the metal in the casting machine. The disadvantages of this system are that
high-melting point metals cannot be utilized and aluminium cannot be used because it picks up
some of the iron while in the molten pool. Due to this, hot-chamber machines are primarily used
with zinc, tin, and lead based alloys.

27
 Figure 1. Schematic of the Hot-chamber process.

Directional solidification, commencing at the extremities and terminating at the sprue, is effected
by correct die design and eliminates the need for conventional feeding systems. When the metal
has solidified as far back into the sprue as is required, pressure is released in the furnace and the
molten metal left in the stalk return to the holding furnace.
A further short cooling period is allowed to ensure that all sections of the casting are solid, the
mould is opened and the casting removed. The molten metal is contained in a plumbago crucible
heated by resistance welding or by induction. The capacity of the furnace is usually sufficient to
make around 10 castings before refilling is necessary.

The cold chamber process solves the materials problem by separating the molten metal reservoir
from the actuator for most of the process cycle. Cold chamber die casting requires independent
metering of the metal and immediate injection into the die, exposing the hydraulic actuator for
only a few seconds. This minimal exposure allows the casting of higher-temperature alloys such as
aluminum, copper, and even some ferrous alloys.

In cold chamber die casting, the molten charge is ladled from a furnace in to the shot sleeve of the
machine. Normally more material than that required for filling the cavity is taken. This is to
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supplement shrinkage during solidification. A hydraulically or pneumatically operated plunger
pushes the metal in to the die under a pressure. Injection pressures used in these machines are
typically 14 to 140 MPa.

Advantages

 High volume cost-effective production with consistent quality

 Value engineered parts save money by eliminating costly post-casting operations
 Easily manufacture complex Net shaped parts with tight tolerances
 Lower tool cost and longer tool life
 Lowest total acquisition cost

Figure 2. Schematic of the cold-chamber process

Gravity Die casting

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The process is capable of producing castings in cast iron, copper based alloys, aluminium alloys
and others including zinc. It is used for medium to long runs of casting with weight ranges from ½
kg – 50 kg. It can be automated to a certain extent on the closing a pouring side. Much of the
production involves manual labor. Most of the output is aluminium casting.
The production of castings from a re-usable mould/die having two or more parts each located in
relation to other parts. Die contains an impression of the casting together with its running, feeding
and venting systems. Provision is made for the removal of the casting by some means. A die can
readily be cleared off debris such as hot metal splashes and sand, so that the castings accuracy is
maintained. The die is capable of a regular cycle and of (quickly) dissipating the heat of the metal
poured into it.
Low Pressure Die casting
The process is capable of producing high quality castings, usually of aluminium alloys although it
can also be used for magnesium and other low melting alloys. Sand cores can be used to produce
complex shapes. Castings from 2-150 kg (aluminium) can be made but around 10 kg is most
common. Long castings runs are needed to justify the cost of the dies.

7. Centrifugal casting
In this method, the mould is rotated at high speed so that the molten metal is distributed by the
centrifugal force to the outer regions of the die cavity. It includes true centrifugal casting and
semicentrifugal casting

True centrifugal casting : Centrifugal casting, sometimes called rotocasting, is a metal casting
process that uses centrifugal force to form cylindrical parts. This differs from most metal casting
processes, which use gravity or pressure to fill the mold. In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold
made from steel, cast iron, or graphite is typically used. However, the use of expendable sand
molds is also possible. The casting process is usually performed on a horizontal centrifugal casting
machine (vertical machines are also available) and includes the following steps:

1. Mold preparation - The walls of a cylindrical mold are first coated with a refractory ceramic
coating, which involves a few steps (application, rotation, drying, and baking). Once prepared
and secured, the mold is rotated about its axis at high speeds (300-3000 RPM), typically
around 1000 RPM.
2. Pouring - Molten metal is poured directly into the rotating mold, without the use of runners or
a gating system. The centrifugal force drives the material towards the mold walls as the mold
fills.
3. Cooling - With all of the molten metal in the mold, the mold remains spinning as the metal
cools. Cooling begins quickly at the mold walls and proceeds inwards.
4. Casting removal - After the casting has cooled and solidified, the rotation is stopped and the
casting can be removed.
5. Finishing - While the centrifugal force drives the dense metal to the mold walls, any less dense
impurities or bubbles flow to the inner surface of the casting. As a result, secondary processes
such as machining, grinding, or sand-blasting, are required to clean and smooth the inner
diameter of the part.
30
Centrifugal casting is used to produce axi-symmetric parts, such as cylinders or disks, which are
typically hollow. Due to the high centrifugal forces, these parts have a very fine grain on the outer
surface and possess mechanical properties approximately 30% greater than parts formed with static
casting methods. These parts may be cast from ferrous metals such as low alloy steel, stainless
steel, and iron, or from non-ferrous alloys such as aluminum, bronze, copper, magnesium, and
nickel. Centrifugal casting is performed in wide variety of industries, including aerospace,
industrial, marine, and power transmission. Typical parts include bearings, bushings, coils,
cylinder liners, nozzles, pipes/tubes, pressure vessels, pulleys, rings, and wheels.

Figure: True centrifugal casting process

Semicentrifugal Casting : Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular
parts

• Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal

• Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at center of rotation
• Axes of parts and rotational axis does not match exactly
31
 • Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined away, thus eliminating the
portion where quality is lowest
• Examples: wheels and pulleys.

• Characteristics of Centrifugal Casting:

1) The casting is relatively free from defects.
2) Non metallic impurities which segregate toward the bore can be machined off.
3) Less loss of metal in tundish compared to that in gating and riser in conventional sand casting.
4) Better mechanical properties.
5) Production rate is high.
6) Can be employed to manufacture bimetallic pipes.
7) Centrifugal casting process can be used for fabricating functionally gradient metal matrix
composite material.

8. Continuous casting

Molten metal from the furnace is transferred in to ladle where ladle treatments such as alloying and
degassing are carried out. After arriving at the correct temperature and molten metal composition,
it is transported to the top of the continuous casting machine. From the ladle, the hot metal is
transferred via a refractory shroud (pipe) to a tundish (or holding bath). Molten metal from the
tundish is fed continuously from the top into a water cooled copper mold where it solidifies while
in contact with the mold (this is the primary cooling stage) and subsequently pulled out of the mold
from the bottom at a specified velocity called the pull velocity or casting velocity. The depth of the
mold can range from 0.5 to 2 metres, depending on the casting speed and section size. The mold
also oscillates vertically (or in a near vertical curved path) to prevent the metal sticking to the mold
walls. As the liquid metal comes in contact with the water cooled mold, a thin shell of the
solidified metal is formed at the casting surface due to the extraction of heat from the mold
surface. The partially solidified metal at the mold exit is allowed to solidify while moving through
a series of water sprays and finally through a radiation cooling zone. The uninterrupted supply of
the molten metal at the mold inlet and subsequent solidification taking place inside the mold as
well as after exiting the mold leads to a continuous production of slabs or billets.

32
In the mold, a thin shell of metal next to the mold walls solidifies before the middle section, now
called a strand, exits the base of the mold into a spray chamber. The bulk of metal within the walls
of the strand is still molten. The strand during the exit from the mold is supported by closely
spaced, water-cooled rollers which support the walls of the strand against the ferrostatic pressure
of the still-solidifying liquid within the strand. The strand while exiting from the mold passes
through a spray chamber where it is cooled with large quantity of water sprays. Final solidification
may take place after the strand has exited the spray chamber. After exiting the spray-chamber, the
strand passes through straightening rolls and withdrawal rolls. There may be a hot rolling stand
after withdrawal to take advantage of the metal's hot condition to pre-shape the final strand.
Finally, the strand is cut into predetermined lengths by mechanical shears or by travelling
oxyacetylene torches, is marked for identification, and is taken either to a stockpile or to the next
forming process.

Figure shows the schematic of a continuous casting setup.(

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_casting)

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