BASIC MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES (BMP)

Dr. Trupti Ranjan Mahapatra

Associate Professor
Dept. of Production Engineering
VSSUT, Burla
Module -I [06]
Foundry Process/ Casting, Patterns, Pattern Materials, Pattern Allowances, Moulding Materials,
Composition of Moulding Sand, Properties of Moulding Sand, Sand Testing.

Module -II [06]

Solidification of Casting, Types of Solidification, Special Casting Technique, Advantages of special
casting over Sand Casting, Special Casting Processes: Die Casting and Centrifugal Casting, Casting
Defects.

Module -III [06]

Welding: Introduction, Classification of Welding Processes, Gas Welding, Arc Welding: SMAW, TIG,
MIG, Resistance Welding: Resistance Spot Welding, Resistance Seam Welding and Resistance
Projection Welding. Friction Welding and Ultrasonic Welding.

Module -IV [06]

Metal Forming Process: Cold & hot working of metals, Extrusion: Classification, Advantages,
Limitations and applications, Rolling: Terminology used in Rolling, Types of rolling Mills & rolling
defects.

Module -V [06]
Digital manufacturing: Numerical control- The NC procedure, Elements of NC systems, Classification of
NC systems, Functions of CNC, Features of CNC, CNC programming in APT (PTP drilling, milling),
Additive manufacturing- The generic additive manufacturing process, Classification of AM processes,
Fused deposition modeling, Material jetting, Binder jetting, Sheet lamination process. Applications of
robots in manufacturing.
Essential Reading:
Manufacturing Technology (Foundry Forming & Welding)- P.N. Rao, Tata McGraw Hill.
CAD/CAM by Groover and Zimmers, TMH.

Supplementary Reading:
Additive Manufacturing Technologies by Gibson, Rosen and Stucker, Springer.
Manufacturing Science- Amitabha Ghosh and A K Mallik, East-West Press Pvt. Ltd

COURSE OUTCOMES: At the end of this course, students will demonstrate the ability
to
Understand the basic foundry process.
Acquire the brief overview of casting processes.
Recognize various welding processes.
Comprehend metal forming processes.
Understand basics of digital manufacturing.
Introduction
 Introduction
What is manufacturing?

Manufacturing is a process which converts a raw

material into a product suitable to use. The
product must have:
– Structural appeal
– Functional appeal
– Aesthetic appeal
– Competitive economics
– Environmental acceptability
Introduction cont.
Introduction cont.
Introduction cont.
Introduction cont.
Introduction cont.
 Introduction cont.

What are manufacturing

processes?
There are large number of manufacturing
processes; can be broadly classified into four
categories:
– Casting processes: Sand casting is the principal process.
Others are:
• Shell mould casting • Permanent mould casting
• Precision-investment C. • Die-casting
• Plaster-mould casting • Centrifugal casting
– Forming processes:
• Rolling • Extrusion • Wire drawing
• Drop/Press/Upset Forging • Sheet metal operations
– Fabrication processes:
• Brazing • Soldering • Gas/Cold welding
• Electric arc/Electric resistance/thermit welding
– Material removal processes:
• Turning • Grinding • Drilling • Milling
Introduction cont.
Foundry Process
 Foundry process
What is foundry process?

The term ‘Foundry’ is derived from Latin word “ fundere”

meaning melting and pouring.
Foundry process is also known as ‘casting process’.
Casting means pouring molten metal into a refractory mould
with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify;
when solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the
refractory mould either by breaking the mould or by taking the
mould apart – this solidified object is called casting.

Metal casting processes are the primary manufacturing

processes that are used to make complex parts utilizing
liquid metals.
Metal casting is one of the oldest manufacturing
processes invented and practiced over the last 5000
years; though, the major developments have taken place
in the last 100 years in adopting it as a major primary
 Foundry process
The history of casting cont.
process
– Probably discovered around 3500 BC in Mesopotamia.
During that period in many parts of the world copper axes and flat
objects were turned out in open moulds made of stone or baked
clay. Later on round objects were also cast in split moulds.
– The Bronze age (2000 BC) brought far more
refinement; core was used to make hollow objects, and, the cire
perdue or lost wax process was used to make ornaments and fine
works.
– Around 1500 BC, casting was greatly improved in China
with multi-piece mould for intricate jobs, sometimes, the pieces
numbering 30 or more.
– Indus valley civilization was also having castings of
copper, bronze for ornaments, weapons, tools, utensils etc
– Though India could be credited with the invention of
crucible steel, iron casting was first developed in Syria and
Persia around 1000 BC. It was in use in India around 300 BC.

The iron pillar near Qutb minar in Delhi (7.2 m long and
made of malleable iron) is assumed to be made during the
period of Chandragupta II (375-413 AD), must have been
 Foundry process
cont.
Advantages and
disadvantages
Advantages:
– Flow of molten metal is smooth, hence, objects with very
intricate shapes can be conveniently cast.
– It is possible to cast practically any material, be it ferrous
or non-ferrous.
– The tools required for casting are very simple and
inexpensive, as a result, for trial production or production of a
small lot, it is an ideal method.
– Weight reduction in design can be achieved, since, it is
possible to place the amount of material exactly required.
– Castings are generally uniformly cooled from all sides,
therefore, uniform properties in all directions.
- There are certain metals and alloys which can be
processed only by casting, not by other methods, because of
metallurgical considerations.
 Foundry process
Advantages and cont.
disadvantages cont.
Disadvantages:
– The dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieved by
normal sand-casting process may not be adequate for final
application in many cases. To take care of this some special casting
processes such as die-casting have been developed.
– The sand-casting process is labor intensive to some
extent, and hence, machine moulding and foundry mechanization
are attempted.
– With some materials it is often difficult to remove defects
arising out of the moisture present in sand casting.

Typical applications of the sand-casting process are

cylinder blocks, liners, machine tool beds, pistons, piston
rings, mill rolls, wheels, housings, water supply pipes and
specials, and bells.
 Foundry process
cont.
Classification of casting Casting processes can be
process classified into following FOUR
categories:
1.Conventional Moulding
Sand mould Processes
making Green Sand
Moulding
procedure Dry Sand Moulding
Flask less Moulding
2. Chemical Sand Moulding
Processes
Shell Moulding
Sodium Silicate Moulding
No-Bake Moulding
3. Permanent Mould Processes
Gravity Die casting
Low and High Pressure
Die- -Casting
4. Special Casting Processes
Lost Wax
Ceramics Shell Moulding
 Foundry process
cont.
Casting terminologies
Pouring basin(cup)
Open riser Vent

Core Sprue
Sand

Flask

Blind
Cope Sand
Riser

Parting
line

choke
Mold
Drag Sand
Cavity
Runner
• Flask- It holds the sand mould intact. It is made up of wood for temporary application and
metal for long term use.
• Drag- Lower moulding flask
• Cope – Upper moulding flask
• Cheek – Intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.
• Pattern - Replica of final object to be made with some modifications. Mould cavity is made
with the help of pattern.
• Parting line – Dividing line between two moulding flasks.
• Bottom board – Board used to start mould making (wood)
• Facing sand - Small amount of carboneous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the
mould cavity to give better surface finish to casting.
• Moulding sand – Freshly prepared refractory material used for making the mould cavity.
(Mixture of silica, clay & moisture)
• Backing sand – used and burnt sand
• Core – Used for making hollow cavities in the casting
• Pouring basin – Funnel shaped cavity on the top of the mould into which molten metal is
poured
• Sprue – Passage from pouring basin to the mould cavity. It controls the flow of molten
metal into the mould.
• Runner – Passage ways in the parting plane through which molten metal flow is regulated
before they reach the mould cavity
• Gate – Actual entry point through which molten metal enters the mould cavity
• Chaplet – Used to support the core to take of its own weight to overcome the
metallostatic force.
• Chill – Metallic objects to increase cooling rate of casting
• Riser – Reservoir of molten metal in the casting so that hot metal can flow back into the
 Foundry process
cont.
Casting terminologies
cont.

• A core is made up sand that

is
inserted into the mold to
produce
internal features of a casting,
such
 Foundry process
cont.
Casting terminologies cont.
 Foundry process
cont.
Casting terminologies cont.
 Foundry process
cont.
Casting terminologies cont.
 Foundry process
Flow chart for sandcont.
casting
process
1. Make the pattern ( Pattern may be metal/wood/plastic)
2. Prepare the mould and necessary core
3. Clamp the core properly with proper placing of cores
4. Melt the metal/alloys
5. Pour the molten metal into the molud
6. Allow the molten metal to cool and solidify
(Typically ½ to 1 Hr).
7. Remove the casting from the mould is called “shake
out”
8. Clean and finish the casting ( Fettling)
9. Test and inspect the casting
10. Remove the defects if any and possible
( Salvaging the Casting)
11. Stress relieve the casting by heat-tratment
12. Again inspect the Casting
13. Now the Casting is ready to use
 Foundry process
Flow chart for sandcont.
casting
process cont.
Core Making
Pattern Making
(if Needed)

MELTING AND
Sand
Preparation of
Mold making
POURING
sand
PROCEDURE

Raw
Meltin Pouring
Material
g

Solidification
and cooling

Removal of Cleaning and

Finished Casting
Sand Mold Inspection
MELTING
 Foundry process
cont.
Sand mould
making
procedure cont.
There are six steps in
this process:
1: Place a pattern in sand
to
create a mould.
2: Incorporate the pattern
and
sand in a gating
system.
3: Remove the pattern.
4: Fill the mould cavity
with
molten metal.
5: Allow the metal to cool.
6: Break away the sand
mould and remove
 Sand mould making
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=szOwGvYO
_Tc
 Foundry process
Patterns cont.
A pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the
casting process, with some modifications. The main
modifications are:
1.The addition of pattern allowances: The dimensions
of the pattern are different from the final dimensions of
the casting required. This is required because of various
reasons. These are detailed as follows:
Allowance for shrinkage
Finish, or, machining allowance
Allowance for draft
Shake allowance
Distortion allowance
2. The provision of core prints: Wherever coring is
required, provision must be made to support the core inside
the mould cavity. One of the methods that is universally
followed is to provide core prints where possible; the size of
the core prints to be provided is to be estimated based on the
specific casting.
3. Elimination of fine details, which can not be obtained
 Foundry process
Pattern allowances: cont.
Pattern dimensions are different from final dimension of
casting.
Allowance for shrinkage: All metals shrink during cooling except
perhaps bismuth; which is because of the inter-atomic vibrations which
is amplified with increase in temperature. Shrinkage may be:
(a) liquid shrinkage (reduction in volume when the metal changes
from liquid to solid at solidus temperature – risers take care of this
shrinkage), and
(b) solid shrinkage (reduction in volume in solid state with
decrease in temperature – shrinkage allowance must be provided).
Shrinkage is dependent on:
(a) material – steel contracts to a greater degree than aluminum,
(b) metallurgical transformation taking place during solidification:
(i) white cast iron shrinks by about 21.0 mm/m during casting,
however, regains about 10.5 mm/m during heat-treatment – net
shrinkage is 10.5 mm/m,
(ii) similarly in grey cast iron and spheroidal cast iron, the amount of
graphitization controls shrinkage; when graphitization is more, the
 Foundry process
Pattern allowancescont.
Allowance for shrinkage: Shrinkage may be:
(a) liquid shrinkage: Reduction in volume when metal
changes from liquid to solid at solidus temperature.
(b) solid shrinkage: Reduction in volume when a metal
loses temperature in solid state.
Shrinkage is dependent on: (a) material, (b) metallurgical
transformation

Volume change during

the cooling of a 0.35
percent carbon steel.
 Foundry process
cont.
Pattern allowances cont.
Shrinkage allowance for various metals:
Material Pattern dimension, Section thickness, Shr. Allowance,
mm mm mm/m
Grey cast iron Up to 600 - 10.5
-do- 600 to 1200 - 8.5
-do- Over 1200 - 7.0
White cast - - 16.0 to 23.0
iron
Ductile iron - - 8.3 to 10.4
Malleable iron - 6 11.8
-do- - 9 10.5
-do- - 12 9.2
-do- - 15 7.9
-do- - 18 6.6
-do- - 22 4.0
-do- - 25 2.6
Plain carbon Up to 600 - 21.0
steel
-do- 600 to 1800 - 16.0
 Foundry process
cont.
Pattern allowances cont.
Shrinkage allowance for various metals cont.:

Material Shr. Allowance, Material Shr. Allowance,

mm/m mm/m
Chromium 20.0 Silicon 10.4
steel bronze
Manganese 25.0 to 38.0 Tin bronze 10.4
steel
Aluminum 13.0 Chromium Cu 20.8
Aluminum 20.0 to 23.0 Lead 26.0
bronze
Copper 16.0 Monel 20.0
Brass 15.5 Magnesium 13.0
Bronze 15.5 to 22.0 Mg alloys 16.0
Gun metal 10.0 to 16.0 White metal 6.0
Mn. bronze 15.6 Zinc 10.0 to 15.0
 Foundry process
Pattern allowances cont.
cont.

Allowance for shrinkage: As a rule, all the dimensions are going to

be altered uniformly unless they are restrained in some way; for
example, a dry sand core at the centre of the casting may restrain the
casting from contracting but the edges are not contracted.
The actual value of shrinkage depends on various factors specific to a
particular casting:
(a) actual composition of the alloy cast, (b) mould materials used, (c)
mould design, complexity of the pattern and (d) the component size (e)
Metallic pattern casting – double shrinkage.
It is also possible to obtain shrink rulers (nothing but special scales where
dimensions shown are actually longer taking care of the shrinkage
allowance) for specific metals such as steel.

Problem: A casting of size lxwxh : 200x150x100 (mm each) with a

cylindrical core of 80 mm diameter at the centre is to be made
in plain carbon steel. Assuming only shrinkage allowance
calculate the dimensions of the pattern.
 Foundry process
Pattern allowancescont.
cont.
Problem: A casting of size lxwxh : 200x150x100 (mm each)
with a cylindrical core of 80 mm diameter at the centre
is to be made in plain carbon steel. Assuming only
shrinkage allowance calculate the dimensions of the
pattern.

Solution: Shrinkage allowance for steel is 21.0 mm/m

For dimension 200, allowance is 200 x 21.0 / 1000 = 4.20 mm
For dimension 150, allowance is 150 x 21.0 / 1000 = 3.15 ~
3.20 mm
For dimension 100, allowance is 100 x 21.0 / 1000 = 2.10 mm
For dimension 80, allowance is 80 x 21.0 / 1000 = 1.68 ~
1.70 mm

When metallic pattern is used (for large number of

castings), one wooden master pattern is used to cast
the metal pattern. In that case double allowance is
provided in the master wooden pattern.
 Foundry process
Pattern allowancescont.
cont.
Finish, or, machining allowance: The finish and accuracy
achieved in sand casting generally fall short of that is required
functionally; thus final machining is necessary. Further, ferrous
materials will have scales on the skin which is removed by
machining. Hence extra material (allowance) is needed which
depends on:
dimensions
Machining allowancestype of casting
on patterns formaterials the finish
required
sand castings
Dimension, mm Allowance, mm: : : Cope
Bore Surface side
Cast iron: up to 3.0 3.0 5.5
300
301 5.0 4.0 6.0
to 500
501 6.0 5.0 6.0
to 900
Cast steel: up to 3.0 3.0 6.0
150
151 6.0 5.5 7.0
to 500
 Foundry process
Pattern allowancescont.
cont.
Draft allowance: At the time of withdrawal of the pattern from
the sand mould cavity, the vertical faces which are in continuous
contact with the sand, may cause damage to the mould cavity.
Hence tapering of the pattern is provided which is called draft
allowance and depends on complexity of the job.
Inner details of the patterns need higher draft than the
outer surfaces, and hand moulding requires more draft
than machine moulding.

Mould broken due to a lack Clean pattern draw with

of taper. correct taper.
 Foundry process
Pattern allowancescont.
cont.: Suggested draft values for
patterns:
Pattern Ht. of the Draft angle, 0,: ext. : int.
material surface, mm surface surface
Wood: 20 3.00 3.00
21 to 50 1.50 2.50
51 to 100 1.00 1.50
101 to 200 0.75 1,00
201 to 300 0.50 1.00
301 to 800 0.50 0.75
801 to 2000 0.35 0.50
Over 2000 - 0.25
Metal and 20 1.50 3.00
plastic
21 to 50 1.00 2.00
51 to 100 0.75 1.00
101 to 200 0.50 0.75
201 to 300 0.50 0.75
301 to 800 0.35 0.50
 Foundry process
Pattern allowancescont.
cont.

Pattern draft.

Shake allowance: To facilitate withdrawal of the pattern, the

pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge the
mould cavity slightly. This enlarges the final casting for which
(negative) allowance is to be provided which is known as shake
allowance.
Distortion allowance: Weaker sections such as long flat
portions, V, U sections, or long thin sections in a complicated
casting are prone to distortion since the metal just after
solidification may be very weak and may not hold to the
dimensions. An allowance may be given by trial and error basis.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEpfpHsF9PA
 Foundry process
Patterns cont.
cont.
2. The provision of core prints: Wherever coring is
required, provision must be made to support the core inside
the mould cavity. One of the methods that is universally
followed is to provide core prints where possible; the size of
the core prints to be provided is to be estimated based on the
specific casting.
ore prints:-
• Core prints are required for casting where coring is required.
Elimination of fine details:-
• Type of details to be eliminated depends on
• Required accuracy
• Capability of the chosen casting process
• Moulding method employed
 Foundry process
Patterns materialscont.
Patterns should be made of materials which should be:
1. Able to make the desired shape of the casting
2. Cheap and readily available
3. Simple in design for ease manufacturing
4. Light weight
5. High strength and durability
6. Definite service life ( Dimension should not change with use)
7. Good wear resistance and surface finish
8. Able to withstand rough handling
The usual pattern materials are wood, metal and
plastic.
Wood: pine, mahogany, teak, walnut and deodar. Wood is cheap,
easily available, light weight, can be easily shaped, suitable for
large castings. The main disadvantage is absorption of water.
Metal: Cast iron, steel, brass, aluminum, white metal etc. Durable –
so suitable for large scale castings, smooth surface finish and
good dimension control. Some of these metals are prone to
corrosion.
Plastics: Cold-setting epoxy resins, polyurethane. Light, durable,
 Foundry process
Patterns materialscont.
Comparative characteristics of metallic pattern
materials:
Pattern metal Advantages Disadvantages
Aluminum Good machinability Low strength
alloys
High corrosion resistance High cost
Low density. Good
surface finish
Grey cast iron Good machinability Corrosion prone
High strength High density
Low cost
Steel Good surface finish Corrosion prone
High strength High density
Brass and Good surface finish High cost
bronze
High strength High density
High corrosion resistance
Lead Good machinability High cost
 Foundry process
Patterns materialscont.
Pattern materials based on expected life: (Number of
castings produced before pattern equipment repair

Pattern Core Pattern

material
Small castings (under 600 mm): 2000 Hard wood
2000
: 6000 Aluminum,
6000 plastic
: 100000 Cast iron
100000
Medium castings (600 – 1800 750 Hard wood
mm): 1000
3000 Aluminum,
: 3000 plastic
Large castings (above 1800 mm): 150 Soft wood
200
500 Hard wood
 Foundry process
Type of patterns cont.
There are various types of pattern depending upon (a) the complexity
of the job,
(b) the number of castings required and (c) the moulding procedure
adopted.
Foundry process
cont.

A Typical One Piece Pattern

 Foundry process
Type of patterns cont.
cont.

The Details of a The Split Piece or Two

Cast Iron Piece Pattern of a Cast
Wheel Iron Wheel
Foundry process
cont.
Foundry process
cont.
Foundry process
cont.
 Foundry process
Type of patterns cont.
cont.
Foundry process
cont.
Foundry process
cont.
Foundry process
cont.
Spru
e

In gates
Foundry process
cont.
 Foundry process
cont.
Pattern colour code
The patterns are normally painted with contrasting colours
such that the mould maker would be able to understand
the functions clearly. The colour code used is as follows:
1. Red or orange on surfaces not to be finished and left as
cast
2. Yellow on surfaces to be machined
3. Black on core prints for un-machined openings
4. Yellow stripes on black on core prints for machined
openings
5. Green on sheets of and for loose pieces and loose core
prints
6. Diagonal black stripes with clear varnish on to strengthen
the weak patterns or to shorten a casting
 Foundry process
Moulding materialscont.
A large number of moulding materials are used in foundries
for
manufacturing moulds and cores. They are:
1. Moulding sand, 2. System sand (black sand), 3. Re-
bonded sand,
4. Facing sand, 5. Parting sand and, 6. Core sand.
The choice of moulding materials is based on their processing
properties. The
properties that are generally required in moulding materials are the
following:
Material MP,
A: Refractoriness:Coeff.
It isLin.
the ability Material
of the mouldingMP, Coeff.
material to Lin.
0
C Expn, x 0
C Expn, x
withstand the
106/0C 106/0C
high temperatures of the molten metal so that it does not cause
Silicafusion.
(SiO2) 171 16.2 Zirconia (ZrO2) 2700 6.5
0
Properties of Some Refractory Materials
Alumina 202 8.0 Zircon (ZrO2.SiO2) 2650 4.5
(Al2O3) 0
 Foundry process
cont.
Moulding materials cont.

B: Green Strngth: The moulding sand that contains moisture is

termed as green sand; the green sand should have enough strength
so that the constructed mould retains its shape.
C: Dry Strength: When the moisture in the moulding sand is
completely expelled, it is called dry sand. When the molten metal is
poured into the mould, the sand gets dried very quickly and at this
stage, it should retain the mould cavity and also withstand the
metallostatic forces.
D: Hot Strength: After all the moisture is expelled, the mould, being in
contact with hot metal, will attain very high temperature; it should
retain its shape and this strength is known as hot strength.
E: Permeability: During casting a lot of gases (absorbed by metal in
the furnace, air absorbed from the atmosphere, and steam and other
gases generated from the sand) are escaped from mould through the
pores of the sand mould. This gas evolution capability of the moulding
sand is termed as permeability.
Besides, the moulding sand should also have good collapsibility,
re-usability, and thermal conductivity characters.
 Foundry process
cont.
Moulding sand composition
The main ingredients of any moulding sand are the (a) silica
grains (SiO2), (b)
the clay as binder, and (c) moisture to activate the clay and
provide plasticity.
Silica sand
Besides, some other additives are also added to provide specific
Theproperties.
sand which forms the major portion of the moulding sand (up
to 96%) is essentially silica grains, the rest being other oxides
(Na2O, K2O, MgO + CaO), should be limited to 2%. The main source
is the river sand, which is used with or without washing.
The shape of the grains are in granular form and grain size
vary in size from few micrometers to millimeters.
It has very good refractoriness (should be ~ 14500C for cast
irons and ~ 15500C for steels), chemical resistivity and
permeability.
MOULDING SAND COMPOSITION-

(b) Zircon sand- The main composition is zirconium silicate

(ZrSiO2).
Composition- ZrO2- 66.25%
SiO2-30.96%
Al2O3-1.92%
Fe2O3-0.74%
Other - oxides
It is very expensive. In India, it is available at quilon beach, kerela.
The fusion point of the sand is 2400oC.
Advantage - High thermal conductivity
High chilling power
Use - High density
Requires very small amount of binder (3%)
Precision steel casting
Precision investment casting
(c) Chromite sand –

The sand is crushed from the chrome ore. The fusion point of the
sand is 18000C. It requires very small amount of binder (3%).

Composition- Cr2O3- 44%

Fe2O3 -28%
SiO2 -2.5%
CaO -0.5%
Al2O3 +MgO -25%

Use – heavy steel castings

Austenitic manganese steel castings

(d) Olivine sand-

This sand composed of the minerals of fosterite (Mg2SiO4) and

fayalite (Fe2SiO4). It is versatile in nature.
 Foundry process
Types of mouldingcont.
sand
 Foundry process
cont.cont.
Types of moulding sand
 Foundry process
Types of mouldingcont.
sand cont.
 Foundry process
Types of mouldingcont.
sand cont.
 Foundry process
Types of mouldingcont.
sand cont.
CLAY :–
• Clay is a binding agent mixed to the moulding sand to provide strength. Popular types of
clay used are kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3.2 SiO2.2H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3.4 SiO2.H2O
nH2O). Kaolinite has a melting point from 1750 to 1787 0C where as Bentonite has a melting
temperature range of 1250 to 1300 0C. Bentonite clay absorbs more water and has
increased bonding power. To reduce refractoriness, extra mixtures like lime, alkalis and
other oxides are added.
• Bentonite is further of two types. (a) Western bentonite and (b) southern bentonite
• Western bentonite – It is rich with sodium ion
It has better swelling properties
When it mixes with sand, the volume increases 10 to 20
times.
High dry strength, so lower risk of erosion
Better tolerance of variation in water content
Low green strength
High resistance to burn out
• Southern Bentonite - It is rich with calcium ion
It has low dry strength and high green strength
Its properties can be improved by treating it with soda ash
(sodium carbonate)
• Water:- Used to activate the clay
Generally 2 to 8% of water is required
• Other materials added:- Cereal binder – (2%) – to increase the strength
Pitch (by product of coke) – (3%) – to improve hot strength
 Foundry process
Types of mouldingcont.
sand cont.

Sand mould binders

1. Fire clay – It is a refractory clay usually found in the coal
measures
2. Kaolinite - (Al2O3.2 SiO2.2H2O) - decaying of granites
Melting point is 1750-1785 oC
3. Illite - (K2O.Al2O3.SiO2.H2O) – decaying of mica rocks
4. Bentonite - MgO.Al2O3.SiO2.H2O melting point – 1250-
1300 oC
5. Portland Cement and Sodium Silicate.
There are basically two types of bentonite: (a) sodium as
adsorbed ion called
western bentonite) which has better swelling properties (10-20
times volume
 Foundry process
cont.
Moulding sand composition cont.
 Foundry process
cont.
Moulding sand composition cont.
 Foundry process
Characterization ofcont.
sand mould
1. Permeability or Porosity
2. Plasticity and flow ability
3. Adhesiveness
4. Cohesiveness
5. Green strength
6. Dry Strength
7. Hot strength
8. Refractoriness
9. Collapsibility
10.Co-efficient of thermal
expansion
11.Fineness
12.Bench life
13.Chemical Reactivity
Foundry process
cont.
 Foundry process
cont. sand
Properties of moulding cont.
 Foundry process
cont. sand
Properties of moulding cont.
 Foundry process
cont.base sand properties
Comparison of foundry
Property Silica Olivin Chromit Zircon
e
Colour White-light Greenish Black White-
brown grey brown
Hardness 6.0 – 7.0 6.5 – 7.0 5.5 – 7.0 – 7.5
7.0
Dry bulk density 85 - 100 100 - 125 155 - 160 - 185
(lb/ft3) 165
Specific gravity 2.2 – 2.6 3.2 – 3.6 4.3 – 4.4 – 4.7
4.5
Grain-shape Angular/ Angular Angular Rounded/
Angular
Rounded
Thermal Expn 0.018 0.0083 0.005 0.003
(mm/mm/0C)
Apparent heat Average Low Very High
transfer high
Fusion Point (0C) 1427 - 1760 1538 - 1760- 2038 -
1760 1982 2204
High Temperature Acid Basic Basic Acid
 Foundry process
cont.sand properties with
Comparison of foundry
various clays
Property Sodium Fire Calcium
bentonite clay bentonite
Silica sand, AFS GFN 60 95 88 95
(wt%)
Clay bond (wt%) 5 12 5
Moisture (wt%) 2.5 3 2.5
Permeability 110 60 108
Green compression 76.53 63.43 97.22
strength (kPa)
Dry compression strength 675.70 468.84 372.32
(kPa)
 Foundry process
cont.
Testing sand properties
The moulding sand after it is prepared, should be properly
tested to see that the
requisite properties are achieved. There are standard tests, specified
by relevant
Indian Standards and other foundry societies are to be used.
Sample Preparation: The moulding sand should be prepared
exactly as is done in the
shop on the standard equipment and then carefully enclosed in a
closed container to
safeguard its moisture content.
Test for moisture content:
Test I: Take a carefully weighed test sample of 50 g
and dry it in an oven at 105 – 1100C for 2 hours. The sample is then
cooled and
weighed; the weight difference in grams when multiplied with 2
gives the % of
moisture contained by the moulding sand.
Test II: Alternately, a ‘moisture teller’ can also be used for
 Foundry process
cont.
Testing sand properties cont.

Test for moisture content cont.:

Test III: Alternately, another ‘moisture teller’ which uses ‘calcium

carbide’ to dry the sand, is utilized. Here, a measured amount (little
more than that required for the reaction) of ‘calcium carbide’ in a
container along with a separate cap consisting of measured quantities of
moulding sand, is kept in the moisture teller. Care has to be taken
before closing the apparatus that carbide and sand do not come
into contact. The apparatus is then shaken vigorously such that the
following reaction takes place:
CaC2 + 2H2O = C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
The acetylene (C2H2) coming out will be collected in the space above the
sand raising the pressure, which can be measured by a calibrated
pressure gauge (or, manometer) to directly read as the amount of
moisture.
 Foundry process
cont.
Testing sand properties cont.

Test for clay content:

The clay content of moulding sand is determined by dissolving or
washing it off
the sand. For doing this, take a 50 g sample, dry it at 105 – 1100C,
put the
dried sample in a 1 liter glass flask, add 475 ml of distilled water and
25 ml of
a 1% solution of caustic soda (NaOH 25 g/l), stir it thoroughly for 5
minutes,
dilute with fresh water up to 150 mm graduation and then leave it
fro 10
minutes to settle.
The sand, free of the clay material, settles down at the bottom with
the clay
particles floating with water. 125 mm of this water is siphoned out
and same
amount of fresh water is added, stirred and allowed to settle for 5
minutes.
The water is siphoned out and fresh water added again. This process
Foundry process
cont.
 Foundry process
cont.
Testing sand properties cont. - Grain fineness or
grain size
Foundry process
cont.
 Foundry process
cont.
Testing sand properties cont. - Grain fineness or
grain size

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AM-NrQoRIYY
Foundry process
cont.
 Foundry process
cont.
Specimen preparation: Since the permeability of sand is
dependent to a great extent, on the degree of ramming, it is
necessary that the specimen be prepared under standard
conditions.
For this purpose, a laboratory sand rammer is used along with
a specimen tube.
The measured amount of sand is filled in the specimen tube,
and a fixed weight of 6.35 to 7.25 kg is allowed to fall on the
sand three times from a height of 50.8 + 0.125 mm. The
specimen thus produced should have a height of 50.8 + 0.8
mm. To produce this size of specimen, usually sand of 145 to
V =175
Volume of Air
g would be = 2000cc,
required. h= Height of the sand specimen =
5.08 cm
P = Air Pressure = gm/cm2 a = Cross- sectional area of the
specimen = 20.268 cm2
Permeability Number, tp==Time taken to pass the
2000cc air in minutes
501.28/(Pxt)
Problem: Calculate the permeability number of sand if it
takes 1 min 25 sec to pass 2000 cm3 of air at a pressure of 5
g/cm2 through the standard sample.
 Foundry process
cont.

Problem: Calculate the permeability number of sand if it

takes 1 min 25 sec to pass 2000 cm3 of air at a pressure of 5
g/cm2 through the standard sample.

Solution: Here, p = 5.0 g/cm2,

t = 1 min 25 sec = 1 + 25/60 = 1.417 min

Permeability number, p = [501.28/(5X1.417)] =

70.75

The permeability test is conducted for two types of sands:

(a)Green permeability is the permeability of the green sand.

(b)Dry permeability is the permeability of the moulding sand,
dried at 105 to 1100C to remove the moisture completely.
Foundry process
cont.
 Foundry process
Typical moulding sandcont.
composition ( by wt.) for
steel casting
Constituent Green Backin Dry sand Light
sand g sand moulding facing section
moulding sand (heavy casting
facing section casting)
sand
Silica sand (%) 95 - 70 70
Floor sand (FS) / - FS: 95 SF: 23 SF: 20
Silica floor (SF)
(%)
Bentonite 4 5 5.5 4
Cereal type 1 - - -
binder (%)
Molases (%) - - 1.5 1
Water (%) 3-4 2.5 - 4 6-7 6-7
Strength:-
• Measurement of strength of moulding sand is carried out on the universal
sand- strength testing M/C. The strength can be measured in
compression, shear & tension. The types of sand that can be tested are
green, dry, core sands.
Green compressive strength:-
• Stress required to rupture the sand specimen under compressive loading
refers to the green compressive strength. It is generally in the range of 30
to 160KPa.
Green shear strength:-
• The stress required to shear the specimen along the axis is represented as
green shear strength. The range is 10 to 50 KPa.
Dry strength:-
• The test is carried out with a standard specimen dried between 105 to
110°C for 2 hours. The range found is from 140 to 1800KPa.
Mould hardness:-
• A spring-loaded steel ball (0.9kg) is indented into a standard sand
specimen prepared. If no penetration occurs, then the hardness will be
100. And when it sinks completely, the hardness will be 0 indicating a very
soft mold.
The properties of moulding sand depends upon the variables like –
• sand grain shape and size
• Clay types and amount
• moisture content
• method of preparing sand mould
Sand grains:-
• The grain shape could be round or angular. Angular sand grains require high amount of
binder, where as round sand grains have low permeability.
• Similarly the grain size could be of coarse or fine. Coarse grains have more void space
which increases the permeability. Fine grains have low permeability, but provide better
surface finish to the casting produced. The higher the grain size of the sand, higher will
be the refractoriness.
Clay and water:-
• Optimum amount water is used for a clay content to obtain maximum green strength.
During sand preparation, clay is uniformly coated around sand grains. Water reacts
with the clay to form a linkage of silica - water – clay- water- silica throughout the
moulding sand. Amount of water required depends on the type and amount of clay
present. Additional water increases the plasticity and dry strength, but decreases the
green strength. There is a maximum limit of green compression strength. This type of
sand is known as clay saturated sand and used for cast iron and heavy non ferrous
metal casting. This type of sand reduces some of the casting defects like erosion, sand
expansion, cuts & washes. These sands have green compression strength in a range of
100 to 250 KPa.
Foundry process
cont.
 Foundry process
cont. preparation: Sand
Sand conditioning / sand
mixer / Mueller
Foundry process
cont.
 Foundry process
cont.
Factors affecting moulding sand
The properties
properties of moulding sand are dependent to a great extent
on a number of variables. The important among them are:
1.Sand grain shape and size: The shape and size of the sand grain
would greatly affect the various moulding sand properties.
Grain size could be coarse (coarse grain means more
void and higher permeability) and fine (lower permeability, but
provide better surface finish). Further, distribution of grain size
plays an important role; ‘widely distributed sand would result in
higher permeability in comparison to the sand with the same
fineness number’.
Grain shape could be round (lower permeability) or angular
(higher permeability and require higher amount of binder).
Grain size also affects the refractoriness; the higher the
grain size,
the higher would be the refractoriness. The purity of sand
grains also
improve refractoriness (impurity having adverse effect are: iron
oxide,
feldspar and limestone).
 Foundry process
cont.
Factors affecting moulding sand
properties cont.
The properties of moulding sand are dependent to a great
extent on a number of variables. The important among
them are:
2.The Clay type and amount and 3. Moisture
content: Clay and water have large influence on major
properties of the moulding sand. There is an optimum amount
of water to be used for a given clay content to obtain
maximum green compression strength. A linkage like ‘silica-
water-clay-water-silica’ forms throughout the moulding sand.
For this, a specific amount of water is needed; any additional
water in creases the plasticity and dry strength, but reduces the
green compression strength.
4. Method of preparing sand mould (Moulding
Procedure): The moulding procedure also affects the
properties of the moulding sand. The degree of ramming
increases the bulk density or the mould hardness of the
sand, i.e., increased ramming increases the strength and
the permeability of green sand decreases with the degree
 Foundry process
cont.
Factors affecting moulding sand
properties cont.

The effect of sand grain shape,

fineness and moisture on strength
and permeability.
 Foundry process
cont.
Factors affecting moulding sand
properties cont.

The effect of clay content, bentonite and

moisture on strength.
 Foundry process
cont.
Factors affecting moulding sand
properties cont.

Relationship between moisture content, bentonite content,

green compressive strength, and permeability for an all-
purpose sand of 63 AFS fineness number.
 Foundry process
Indian sands cont.
The normal practice in Indian Foundries is to use local sands
(natural) listed:
Location Moist GPN GCS, Clay GFN Sint. T, Grain Usag
ure kPa 0
C Type e
Londha 3-6 25-48 140- 16- 80- 1100- SA CI
240 26 130 1300
Bhavana 2.5-6 6-35 100- 13- 90- 1050- SA NF
gar 250 30 140 1150
Goriali 1-4 70-85 40-120 6-11 90 1050- SA CI
1100
Rajkot 2-6 20- 100- 19 75 1150- A,SA NF
125 160 1200
Jabalpur 4.5-6 165- 60-80 6-8 40-70 1250- A,R Stee
205 1350 l
Kanpur 4.8-8 4-6 50-60 40 247 1050- SA NF
1100
Guntur 5.5- 30-32 70 13 80 1150- SA CI,N
6.8
GPN: Green Permeability 1200 GFN: Grain Fineness
No, GCS: Green Compression Strength, F
No, Sint. T: Sintering
Oyaria 3.8- Temperature,
210- A: Angular,
70-90 11.6 SA: 47
Sub-angular,
1250-R: Round,
SA,RCI: Cast
CI
Iron, NF: Non-ferrous
5.6 220 1300
 Foundry process
Indian sands cont. cont.
High silica Indian sands (synthetic)
Location Moist GPN GCS, Clay GFN Sint. T, Grain Usag
ure kPa 0
C Type e
Rajkot 1.5- 160- 40-60 3 53 1350 - CI,St
3.4 190 .
Hardwar 3-6 85 30-50 1 57 1250- SA,R Stee
1300 ls
Brahmani 2.5- 150- 20-50 0.4- 28-78 1250- SA,R CI
4.5 500 3 1350
Gidni 2.4- 175- 80-120 5.7 27 1150- A,SA Stee
3.4 335 1200 ls
Adjoy 2.2-4 155 30-40 1.4 48.6 1200- SA,R CI
river 1250
Yadgiri 1.3- 130- 40-70 3.2 78 1100- SA NF
3.3 180 1150
Rajmahal 3.4 200 60 1.02 52 - SA Stee
ls
GPN: Green Permeability
Durgapur 3 No, GCS:30
250 Green Compression
0.55 34.69Strength,
›1400GFN:SA,RS
Grain Fineness
Stee
No, Sint. T: Sintering Temperature, A: Angular, SA: Sub-angular, R: Round, CI: Cast
ls
Iron, NF: Non-ferrous
 Foundry process
cont.
Fluid Flow / Fluidity
• Capability of molten metal to fill mould
cavities
• Factors influencing fluidity
Characteristics of molten metal
o Viscosity and heat content of the melt
(Lower is the viscosity coefficient, higher will be
the fluidity)
o Surface tension (Lower surface tension promotes
wetting and hence, the mould will be filled quickly)
o Inclusions
o Freezing range and specific weight of the
liquid metal (in wide freezing-range alloys
dendrites form)
o Solidification pattern of alloy
Casting parameters
o Mould design
o Mould material and its surface characteristics
o Degree of superheat
o Rate of pouring
 Foundry process
Test method for fluidity cont.using spiral
mould
Fluidity index is the length of solidified metal in spiral passage (greater
the length of solidified metal, greater is its fluidity). Grey cast iron is the
most fluid of all the ferrous alloys. The fluidity of grey cast iron is
affected by the composition factor, (CF) which can be expressed as:
CF = %C + 0.25 X %Si + 0.5 X %P

Then the fluidity spiral length in cm can be estimated by means of

the following empirical relation:
Fluidity, cm = 37.846 X CF + 0.228 X T – 389.6
 Foundry process
cont.
Metal pouring temperature
Since the fluidity is affected by the pouring temperature, and to
effect the completion of the mould filling in a reasonable time, the
pouring temperature of the moulds are accordingly
controlled. The pouring temperature should be a little above the
melting temperature of the alloy along with a sufficient enough
superheat to account for the cooling between tapping and pouring
time.
Metal/Alloy Casting wall Pouring
METAL POURING TEMPERATURE
thickness, mm IN 0
C
temperature, 0C
Grey and high- ‹4 1450 – 1360
strength iron
4 – 10 1430 – 1340
10 – 20 1400 – 1320
20 – 50 1380 – 1300
50 – 100 1340 – 1250
100 – 150 1300 – 1230
› 150 1280 – 1220
Malleable iron ‹4 1480 – 1450
4 – 10 1450 – 1380
 Foundry process
cont.
Types of sand moulds
In order to produce sound castings, moulds are required to
have some specific properties:
-It must be strong enough to withstand the temperature
and weight of the molten metal.
-It must resist the erosive action of the flowing hot metal.
-It should generate minimum amount of gases due to the T
of molten metal.
-It should have good venting capacity to allow the
Sand moulds gas
generated areescape.
broadly classified as:
1. Green Sand Mould
[Silica Sand( SiO2), Clay(Binder), Water- because of its wetness]
2. Dry Sand Mould
[Green sand + Additives (1-2% cereal floor and 1-2%pitch)+ baked
in an oven at 110 to 260 oC for 5-6 hrs) It has better strength than
green sand mold and used for larger casting]
3. Skin-Dry Sand Mould Casting
(Surface of the mould is dry sand mold and rest of the mold is
green sand)
 Foundry process
cont.
Types of sand moulds cont.
Sand moulds are broadly classified as:
4. Loam Sand Mould Casting
[ Fine Sand + Finely ground clay ( 50 %)+ Graphite +
reinforcement)- Gives very good strength and used for very heavy
and large parts like Engine bodies, machine tool beds]
5. Cemented –bonded Moulds
Sand + cement (10-15%) as binder- It is also called pit moulding
and used for large steel casting.
6. CO2 Moulding
( Sodium silicate ( Na2O.xSiO2) as binder instead of clay. CO2 has
passed through the mould to achive the strength of the mold)
Na2O.xSiO2 + n H2O + CO2 = Na2CO3 + x SiO2.n(H2O)
This reaction is very rapid even within 2 minutes the sand mold
gets proper strength
7. Resin- Bonded Sand Mould
[ Green Sand Mold + Thermosetting Resin(Polymers) or
oils( Soybean)]
 Foundry process
Cores cont.
Cores are the materials used for making cavities and hollow portions,
which cannot normally be produced by pattern alone.
Any complicated contour or cavity can be made by means of cores so
that really intricate shapes can be easily obtained.
Cores are generally made of sand and are even used in permanent
moulds.
In general, cores are surrounded on all sides by the molten metal
and are therefore subjected to much more severe thermal and
mechanical conditions, and as a result, the core sand should be of
higher strength than the moulding sand and confirm to the following
characteristics:
 Foundry process
Cores cont. cont.
Cores must confirm to the following characteristics: (cont.)

Friability: After the casting is completely cooled, the core should be

removed from the casting before it is processed further. Hence, the
friability (the ability to crumble) should also be a very important
consideration.
Low gas emission: Because of the high temperatures to which a core
is subjected to, it should allow only a minimal amount of gas to be
evolved such that voids in the castings can be eliminated.
 Foundry process
Cores cont. cont.
 Foundry process
Cores cont. cont.
Sand for cores requires better properties and for this purpose, special
binders are used.
 Foundry process
Types of cores cont.
The cores are essentially of two types, based on the sand used:
Green sand core: These cores are obtained by the pattern itself
during moulding. Though this is the most economic way of preparing a
core, the green sand being low in strength cannot be used for fairly
deep holes. Also a large amount of draft is to be provided so that the
pattern can be withdrawn.
Dry sand cores: These are made by means of special core sands in a
separate core box, baked and then placed in the mould before pouring.
 Foundry process
Types of cores cont.
Dry sand cores: These are made by means of special core sands in a
separate core box, baked and then placed in the mould before pouring
– shown below:
Foundry process
cont.
Foundry process
cont.
Foundry process
cont.
Foundry process
cont.
 Foundry process
cont.
Carbon dioxide moulding
Carbon dioxide moulding is widely used in making cores.
Procedure: (a) a mould is prepared with a mixture of sodium silicate
and sand.
(b) treated with carbon dioxide for 2-3 minutes – results in ›1.4
MPa compressive strength.
Mechanism: (i) Carbon dioxide forms weak acid, which hydrolyzes the
sodium silicate resulting in amorphous silica, which forms the bond.
(ii) The introduction of CO2 gas starts the reaction by forming
hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3 + H2O). This gelling reaction
increases the viscosity of the binder till it becomes solid.
(iii) The compressive strength of the bonding increases with
standing time due to dehydration.
Advantages: (i) It is a quick process, (ii) no other reinforcement is
needed, since the bond is strong, (iii) equipments needed are simple,
(iv) does not involve distortions due to baking.
Disadvantages: (i) slightly expensive, (ii) shelf life is not so good –
should be used immediately, (iii) shake-out properties are also
poor, (iv) core sand should be completely free from clay and
moisture, otherwise more binder would be needed.
 Foundry process
Core print design cont.
The design of core print is such as to take care of the weight of the
core before pouring and the upward metallostatic pressure of the metal
after pouring. The core print should also ensure that the core is not
shifted during the entry of the metal into the mould cavity.
The main force acting on the core when metal is poured into the
mould cavity, is due to buoyancy; the buoyant force can be calculated
as the difference in the weight of the liquid metal to that of the core
material of the same volume as that of the exposed core:
P = V(ρ – d) (where, P = buoyant force, N; V =
volume of the core in the mould cavity, cm3; ρ = weight density of the
liquid metal, N/cm3; d = weight density of the core material, 0.0165
N/cm3).
For a horizontal core of horizontal length, H, and diameter, D, V is given
by:
V = 0.25D2H
The volume for vertical cores can be formulated according to
dimensions.
However, in order to keep the core in position, it is empirically
suggested that the core print will be able to support a load of 3.5
2
 Foundry process
Chaplets cont.
To fully support the buoyant force, it is necessary that the following
condition is satisfied: P ≤ 350A (where, A =
core print area, mm ).2

If the above condition is not satisfied, then it would be necessary to

provide additional support by way of chaplets. Chaplets are metallic
supports often kept inside the mould cavity to support the
cores; it’s a is to be calculated from the unsupported load, i.e.,
P – 350A.
These are of the same composition as that of the pouring metal
so that the molten metal would provide enough heat to
completely melt them and thus fuse with it during
solidification.
Problems with chaplets:
(a) Chaplets may not melt completely and may form a weak
link.
(b) The other problem with chaplets is the condensation of
moisture, which finally ends up as blow holes.
Generally, the chaplets before they are placed in the mould,
should be thoroughly cleaned of any dirt, oil or grease.
Because of the problems associated with chaplets, it is
Foundry process
cont.
Foundry process
cont.
 Foundry process
Chaplets – placed incont.
the mould alongwith
the core

Chaplet location with pads.