CHAPTER- 12

ATOMS

RUTHERFORD’S ALPHA PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT: On the suggestion of

Rutherford, his two associates H. Geiger and E. Marsden, in 1911, performed experiments on the scattering
of α-particles from thin foils and obtained an important insight into the structure of the atom.

In this experiment a beam of α-particles is made to fall on a thin gold foil. The α-particles scattered in
different directions and on the basis of number of particles scattered in different directions following
conclusions are noted:
(i) Most of the α-particles pass straight or suffer very less deflection. This shows that most of the part of an
atom is empty or free space.
(ii) A few α-particles get deflected through 900 or more. This shows that all positive charge and maximum
mass of the atom is concentrated at the centre of the atom.
(iii) A very few α-particles get rebounded from the gold foil. This shows that positive charge is concentrated
in a very small region, called nucleus of the atom.
DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH: Suppose a α-particle of mass m and initial velocity v moves
directly towards the centre of the nucleus.

As, nucleus is positively charged, α-particle experiences a repulsive force and its velocity keeps on
decreasing. At a certain distance from r0, from the nucleus, α-particle stops for a moment and then retraces
its path. This distance r0 is called distance of closest approach. At this distance the initial kinetic energy of
the α-particle completely converted to electrostatic potential energy.
Initial kinetic energy of the α-particle,
1
Kα = m v2
2
The electrostatic potential energy of the α-particle at r0 will be given as,
2e x Ze 2 Z e2
Uα = k =k
r0 r0
By law of conservation of energy,
1 2 Z e2
m v2 = k
2 r0
𝟒𝐤𝐙 𝐞𝟐
𝐎𝐫, 𝐫𝟎 = 𝐦 𝐯𝟐
This is the expression of ‘distance of closest approach’.

PROBLEM: In one of the Rutherford’s experiment, α-particle of energy 5.5 MeV is made to fall on a gold
foil (Z = 79). Calculate the distance of closest approach.
PROBLEM: A beam of α-particles of velocity 2.1 x 107 m/s is scattered by a gold foil (Z = 79). Find the
distance of closest approach of the α-particles to the gold nucleus. The value of charge/mass for α-particle is
4.8 x 107 C kg-1. (5 x 10-14 m)

IMPACT PARAMETER: It is defined as the perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of the α-particle
from the centre of the nucleus, when it is far away from the atom.

It is denoted by b and is given as,

𝜽 𝜽
𝐤𝐙 𝐞𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝟐𝐤𝐙 𝐞𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
𝐛 = =
𝑲 𝐦 𝐯𝟐
The shape of the trajectory scattered α-particle depends on the impact parameter.
From different experiments, following points may be concluded:
1. If the impact parameter is more, then repulsive force acting on α-particle will be less and the α-particle
passes almost undeviated.
2. If the impact parameter is less, then repulsive force acting on α-particle will be more and the α-particle
deflects through large angle.
3. For a head-on collision, impact parameter b = 0 and scattered angle is 1800.
RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL: On the basis of α-particle scattering experiment, Rutherford gave
following atomic model,
1. An atom consists of a small central core (nucleus), where total positive charge and maximum mass of the
atom is concentrated.
2. The size of the nucleus is very small (≈ 10-15 m) as compared to the size of the atom (≈ 10-10 m)
3. The nucleus is surrounded by a negatively charged electrons and total negative charge of the electrons is
equal to the total positive charge inside the nucleus i.e. atom is electrically neutral.
4. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in different orbits and the required centripetal force is provided
by the force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons.
LIMITATIONS OF RUTHERFORD’S MODEL:
There are following limitations of Rutherford’s atomic model:
1. According to electromagnetic theory, an accelerated charge radiates electromagnetic energy. Therefore an
electron revolving around the nucleus should continuously lose energy and move in orbits of gradually
decreasing radii. Thus, this model couldn’t explain the stability of an atom.
2. As the electron spiral inwards, their angular velocities and frequencies would change continuously, and so
frequency of emitted light will also change. They would emit a continuous spectrum instead of the actually
observed line spectrum. Thus, this model could not explain the origin of line spectra.
BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL: This is the modified form of Rutherford’s atomic model. This model is
based on the following postulates:
1. An atom consists of a small and massive central core, called nucleus around which planetary electrons
revolve.The required centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction between the
electrons and nucleus.
2. The electrons revolve only in those orbits in which the angular momentum of the electron is integral
multiple of h/2π; h being Planck’s constant. Therefore, for any permitted orbit,
nh
L = mvr = L
2
Where L, ma and v are the angular momentum, mass and speed of the electron, r is the radius of the
permitted orbit and n is the principle quantum number. This is called Bohr’s quantum condition.
3. An electron revolving in a permitted orbit does not radiate energy. These non-radiating orbits are called
stationary orbits.
4. An electron can emit or absorb radiation in the form of discrete energy photons only when it jumps from a
higher orbit level to a lower energy orbit or lower orbit to the higher orbit. If E1 and E2 be the energies of
these permitted orbits, then the frequency of of the emitted or absorbed radiation is given by:
hν = E2 - E1
This is called Bohr’s frequency condition.
BOHR’S THEORY OF HYDROGEN ATOM: RADII OF PERMITTED ORBITS: The force of
attraction between nucleus and electron is
F = k Ze2/r2
Therefore, required centripetal force will be given as,
mv2/r = k Ze2/r2
or, r = k Ze2/mv2 …………..(i)
But, according to Bohr’s quantisation condition,
L = mvr = n(h/2π)
Or, r = nh/2πmv ……………(ii)
Using equation (i) and (ii) we have,
k Ze2/mv2 = nh/2πmv
Or, v = (2πkZe2/nh) …………….(iii)
Substituting the value of v in equation (ii), we get
r = (nh/2πm) (nh/2πkZe2)
Or, r = (n2 h2/ 4 π2 m k Ze2) ………. (iv)
Therefore, r α n2. Hence, radii of permitted orbits in the ratio of 1 : 4 : 9 : 16…………..
The radius of innermost orbit (n = 1) of hydrogen atom (Z = 1) will be given as,
r0 = (h2/ 4 π2 m k e2)
This is called Bohr’s radii. The value of Bohr’s radii is 0.53 Å
Speed of electron: from equation, the speed of the electron will be given as,
v = (2πkZe2/nh)
For hydrogen atom, Z = 1, therefore,
v = (2πke2/ch) (c/n)
Or, v = α (c/n)
Where α is a dimensionless constant and is called fine structure constant. Its value is 1/137. Therefore,
v = (1/137) (c/n)
If n= 1 then v = (1/137) c
Therefore, speed of the electron in innermost orbit is 1/137 times the speed of light in vacuum while
the speed in outer orbit varies inversely with principal quantum number n.
Energy of the electron:
The electron has kinetic energy and electrostatic potential energy. Therefore,
Kinetic energy of the electron in nth orbit,
K = (1/2) mv2 = kZe2/2r
Potential energy of the electron,
U = (kq1 q2/r) = k Ze (-e)/r = (-kZe2/r)
Total energy of the electron in nth orbit will be given as,
En = K + U
= (kZe2/2r) + (-kZe2/2r)
En = (-kZe2/2r)
= (-kZe2/2) (4 π2 m k Ze2/n2 h2)
Therefore, En = - (2 π2 m k2 Z2e4/n2 h2)
The negative value of kinetic energy of the total energy indicates that the electron is bound to the
nucleus.
Putting known values for hydrogen atom we have,

En = - (13.6/n2) eV
PROBLEM: It is found experimentally that 13.6 eV energy is required to separate a hydrogen atom into a
proton and electron. Compute the orbital radius and velocity of the electron in a hydrogen atom.
PROBLEM: In the ground state of hydrogen atom, its Bohr’s radius is given as 5.3 x 10-11 m. The atom is
excited such that the radius becomes 21.2 x 10-11 m. Find (i) the value of the principal quantum number and
(ii) the total energy of the atom in this excited state.
PROBLEM: The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV.
(i) What is the kinetic energy of an electron in the 2nd excited state?
(ii) What is the potential energy of an electron in the 3rd excited state?
(iii) If the electron jumps to the state from 3rd excited state, calculate the wavelength of the photon emitted.
SPECTRAL SERIES OF HYDROGEN ATOM: The energy of an electron in nth orbit in hydrogen atom
is given as,
En = - (2 π2 m k2 Z2e4/n2 h2)
Suppose an electron jumps from higher energy level n2 to lower energy level n1. Therefore,
hν = E2 - E1
Or, hν = (2 π2 m k2 Z2e4/ h2) (1/n12 - 1/n22)
Or, ν = (2 π2 m k2 Z2e4/ h3) (1/n12 - 1/n22)
The wave number (reciprocal of wavelength) will be given as,
2 2 mk 2 e 4  1 1
 = 3  2 − 2
ch  n1 n2 
1 1
Or , = R  2 − 2 
 n1 n2 
2 2 mk 2 e 4
Where , R =
ch 3
R is called Rydberg’s constant and its value is 1.097 x 107 m-1. The above equation is called Rydberg’s
formula.
The origin of various spectral series in hydrogen atom can be explained as,
Lyman series: If an electron jumps from any higher energy level n2 = 2, 3, 4…………., to a lower energy
level n1 = 1, we get a set of spectral lines called Lyman series which belong to the ultraviolet region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. This series is given by,
1 1 1 
 = = R 2 − 2 
 1 n2 
Where, n2 = 2, 3, 4………..

Balmer series: If an electron jumps from any higher energy level n2 = 3, 4, 5,…………., to a lower energy
level n1 = 2, we get a set of spectral lines called Balmer series which belong to the visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. This series is given by,
1 1 1
 = = R 2 − 2 
 2 n2 
Where, n2 = 3, 4, 5………..
Paschen series: If an electron jumps from any higher energy level n2 = 4, 5, 6,…………., to a lower energy
level n1 = 3, we get a set of spectral lines called Paschen series which belong to the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. This series is given by,
1 1 1
 = = R 2 − 2 
  3 n2 
Where, n2 = 4, 5, 6………..
Brackett series: If an electron jumps from any higher energy level n2 = 5, 6, 7…………., to a lower energy
level n1 = 4, we get a set of spectral lines called Paschen series which belong to the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. This series is given by,
1 1 1
 = = R 2 − 2 
 4 n2 
Where, n2 = 5, 6, 7………..
Pfund series: If an electron jumps from any higher energy level n2 = 6, 7, 8…………., to a lower energy
level n1 = 4, we get a set of spectral lines called Paschen series which belong to the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. This series is given by,
1 1 1
 = = R 2 − 2 
  5 n2 
Where, n2 = 6, 7, 8………..
PROBLEM: Calculate the shortest wavelength of Lyman series. Given Rydberg constant, R = 10967700 m-
1
.
PROBLEM: Using Rydberg formula, calculate the longest wavelength belonging to Lyman and Balmer
series. In which region of hydrogen spectrum do these transitions lie? Given: R = 1.1 x 107 m-1.

ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM OF HYDROGEN ATOM: The energy of an electron in nth orbit in
hydrogen atom is given as,
En = - (13.6/n2) eV
Energy of the electron in first orbit,
E1 = - 13.6 eV
Putting n = 2, 3, 4………, we get the energy of the electron in higher orbits as follows,
13 .6 13 .6
E2 = − 2 = − = −3.4 eV
2 4
13 .6 13 .6
E3 = − 2 = − = −1.51 eV
3 9
13 .6 13 .6
E4 = − 2 = − = −0.85 eV
4 16
13 .6 13 .6
E5 = − 2 = − = −0.54 eV
5 25
13 .6 13 .6
E6 = − 2 = − = −0.38 eV
6 36
Therefore, an electron will have only definite values of energy in an orbit. This is called energy
quantisation.
The diagram showing these discrete energy levels is known as energy level diagram, shown in figure.

PROBLEM: The energy level diagram of an element is given in figure. Identify, by doing necessary
calculations which transition corresponds to the emission of a spectral line of wavelength 102.7 nm.
PROBLEM: Figure shows energy level diagram of hydrogen atom.
(i) Find out the transition which results in the emission of a photon of wavelength 496 nm.
(ii) Which transition corresponds to the emission of radiation of maximum wavelength? Justify your answer.