Instructor In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other engineering structures, loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit weights. Soil Compaction Soil Compaction is a process of densification of a soil with mechanical equipment in order to ✓ increase the density, ✓ improve the strength, ✓ reduce the compressibility, ✓ reduce the permeability and flow characteristics of the soil. Soil Compaction ▪ Field compaction is accomplished by passing a roller of a certain weight at a certain number of passes over a soil with certain lift thickness.
▪ Laboratory compaction (Quality
control/assurance) is accomplished by dropping a hammer several times on a soil sample in a mold of known volume. The soil is placed in several layers and each layer is impacted with a hammer of known weight falling a prescribe height. Applications (few examples)
Airport Construction Pavement Construction
Applications (few examples)
Offshore Reclamation Land Reclamation Project
Project General Principle Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by removal of air, which requires mechanical energy. The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry unit weight.
When water is added to the soil during compaction, it
acts as a softening agent on the soil particles. The soil particles slip over each other and move into a densely packed position. The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight (MDD) is attained is generally referred to as the optimum moisture content (OMC). ➢ OMC and MDD are extracted from the Compaction Curve obtained from Laboratory Compaction Test.
➢ In the field, compaction can be conducted with a water
content either on the dry side of OMC or on the wet side of OMC , depending on the type of structure to be constructed. Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D-698) The laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum moisture content is called the Proctor compaction test (Proctor, 1933). 𝟏 𝟑 𝑽𝒎 = 𝟗𝟒𝟒 𝒄𝒎𝟑 𝟑𝟎 𝒇𝒕 The soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then compacted in three equal layers by a hammer that delivers 25 blows to each layer. 𝑾 𝜸= 𝑽𝒎 Manual Compaction
Automated Compaction Level off compacted soil
Ramming Pattern
Determine wet weight of soil
Zero-Air-Void Curve For a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is obtained when no air is in the void spaces—that is, when the degree of saturation equals 100%. Factors Affecting Compaction The preceding section showed that moisture content has a strong influence on the degree of compaction achieved by a given soil.
Besides moisture content, other important factors
that affect compaction are ✓ soil type and ✓ compaction effort (energy per unit volume). Effect of Soil Type The soil type—that is, ✓ grain-size distribution, ✓ shape of the soil grains, ✓ specific gravity of soil solids, and ✓ amount and type of clay minerals present —has a great influence on the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content. Lee and Suedkamp (1972) studied compaction curves for 𝐿𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡. 30 𝑡𝑜 70 𝐿𝐿 𝑖𝑠 < 30 35 soil samples. They observed that four types of compaction curves can be found.
𝐿𝐿 𝑖𝑠 < 30 𝑎𝑛𝑑 > 70 𝐿𝐿 𝑖𝑠 > 70
Effect of Compaction Effort The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor test can be given as
=CE
Compaction Effort (CE)
for Standard Proctor Test If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed, the moisture–unit weight curve also changes.
1. As the compaction effort is
increased, the maximum dry unit weight of compaction is also increased. 2. As the compaction effort is increased, the optimum moisture content is decreased to some extent. Modified Proctor Test (ASTM D-1557) With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the standard Proctor test was modified to better represent field conditions.
For conducting the modified Proctor test, the same
mold is used as in the case of the standard Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in five layers by a hammer that has a mass of 4.54 kg (10 lb). Modified Proctor Test (ASTM D-1557) The drop of the hammer is 457 mm (18 in.). The number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor test. The compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated as 2700 kN-m/m3 (56,000 ft- lb/lb3). Modified Proctor Test (ASTM D-1557) The drop of the hammer is 457 mm (18 in.). The number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor test. The compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated as 2700 kN-m/m3 (56,000 ft- lb/lb3). Types of Compaction 1. Impact Compaction - a ram is repeatedly raised and dropped to compact a lift of soil into a mold. 2. Static Compaction - a piston compacts a lift of soil with constant stress. 3. Kneading Compaction - a “foot” kneads the soil. 4. Vibratory Compaction - The soil is vibrated to densify. Field Compaction Compaction Equipment Most of the compaction in the field is done with rollers. The four most common types of rollers are 1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers) 2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers 3. Sheepsfoot rollers 4. Vibratory rollers Smooth-wheel roller ✓ are suitable for proof rolling subgrades and for finishing operation of fills with sandy and clayey soils. ✓ 100% coverage ✓ ground contact pressures as high as 310 to 380 kN/m2 (45 to 55 lb/in2) Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers ✓ are better in many respects than the smooth- wheel rollers. ✓ contact pressure under the tires can range from 600 to 700 kN/m2 (85 to 100 lb/in2) ✓ 70 to 80% coverage ✓ can be used for sandy and clayey soil compaction ✓ combination of pressure and kneading action Sheepsfoot rollers ✓ drums with a large number of projections ✓ most effective in compacting clayey soils ✓ each projection may range from 25 to 85 cm2 (4 to 13 in2) ✓ contact pressure under the projections can range from 1400 to 7000 kN/m2 (200 to 1000 lb/in2) Vibratory rollers ✓ are extremely efficient in compacting granular soils. ✓ Vibrators can be attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic rubber- tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory effects to the soil. ✓ The vibration is produced by rotating off-center weights. ✓ Handheld vibrating plates can be used for effective compaction of granular soils over a limited area. Field Compaction and Factors affecting FC Factors affecting Field Compaction
✓ Soil type ✓ Moisture content ✓ Thickness of lift ✓ Intensity of pressure applied by the compacting equipment ✓ The area over which the pressure is applied ✓ The number of passes per compaction lift Growth Curve Specifications for Field Compaction
In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is
instructed to achieve a compacted field dry unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight determined in the laboratory by either the standard or modified Proctor test. This is a specification for relative compaction, which can be expressed as Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction When the compaction work is progressing in the field, knowing whether the specified unit weight has been achieved is useful. The standard procedures for determining the field unit weight of compaction include
1. Sand cone method (ASTM Designation D-1556)
2. Rubber balloon method (ASTM Designation D-2167) 3. Nuclear method Structure of Compacted Clay Soil Effect of Compaction on the Hydraulic Conductivity (Permeability of Soil) Effect of Compaction on the Compressibility of Soil Effect of Compaction on the Strength of Soil End of Lecture 7
