Physics 284

Day 10: relativistic momentum,

relativistic mass,
relativistic forces

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A new de nition of momentum

Yesterday I went through a tedious book-keeping exercise involving an elastic collision of two balls.

The point: We have a new definition of momentum.

As hoped, when we define momentum this new way, it is conserved. (a key property we want)

Our new definition:

mu
p =
√ 1-u2/c2
where u is velocity in the observer’s frame
and u = √ ux2 + uy2 + uz2

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A new de nition of momentum

Our new definition:

Why didn’t we just write this as p = mu ?
mu
p = Answer: We use “ ” to talk about changes in frame.
√ 1-u2/c2
Here we are really just thinking about one frame…
where u is velocity in the observer’s frame “In MY frame, what is the momentum of that object
and u = √ ux2 + uy2 + uz2 moving at velocity u?”

(it’s a subtle point)

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A new de nition of momentum Now we have this behavior where momentum can
increase to infinity,

…even when velocity can’t.

Our new definition:

mu
p =
√ 1-u2/c2
where u is velocity in the observer’s frame
and u = √ ux2 + uy2 + uz2

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A new understanding of momentum… or of mass?

So far we have thought of this as a But we could equivalently

new “adjustment factor” in front of think of this as a new definition
our old definition of momentum: of mass instead:

1 m
p = mu = u
√ 1-u2/c2 √ 1-u2/c2

Can think of the red part here as the “mass of a moving object, as
measured in my stationary frame.”

This type of mass is always bigger than the ‘rest mass’ which we could
also call the ‘proper mass’.

Why is it so hard to accelerate something to faster than the speed of

light? New way to think of the answer: because the mass gets so large.
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A new understanding of momentum… or of mass?

So far we have thought of this as a But we could equivalently

new “adjustment factor” in front of think of this as a new definition
our old definition of momentum: of mass instead:

1 m
p = mu = u
√ 1-u2/c2 √ 1-u2/c2

Whiteboard question:
Let’s say the ‘rest mass’ of something is 1kg.

How fast will I need to throw it to make its relativistic mass twice as big, say 2kg?

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Force

Our new definition of momentum is conserved in the way we want.

Similarly, the time derivative of this new momentum is still proportional to the force.

dp
momentum changes proportional to force: F=
dt

Writing that out:

dp d mu
F =
dt
= [
dt √ 1-u2/c2 ]
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Circular Motion (in general)

Let’s think for a minute about a force that is applied perpendicular to the velocity u.
F
u
If F is always perpendicular to velocity, then we have circular motion.

One aspect of this motion: |u| is constant, not increasing or decreasing. F

(and so u is similarly constant)

dp d mu d
F =
dt
=
[
dt √ 1-u2/c2 ] =
dt
( u mu)

= um
d u
dt
(so… “F=ma” but
= u ma with a in front)
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 Circular Motion (magnetic eld case)

You may remember that magnetic forces are always

perpendicular to the velocity of the moving charge. FB = q u × B

(right hand)

q B

Let’s imagine a magnetic field pointing “down” in z, and a FB

positive charge moving in a circle counter-clockwise in xy.

B
B
non-relativistic version, straight from P182 new more precise version

F=qu×B = ma F=qu×B = u ma
Remember you can group the
m together if you want. Then
quB = m (u2/r) quB = u m (u 2 /r) the radius is larger because the
mass is larger, it has ‘more
inertia’.
m u
r = q B m u
r = u
q B
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fi
 Circular Motion (magnetic eld case)

F=qu×B = u ma

quB = u m (u 2 /r)

m u r = m u p
r = u
q B
u
q B r = qB p = [qB] r

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fi
 Circular Motion (magnetic eld case)

F=qu×B = u ma

quB = u m (u 2 /r)

m u r = m u p
r = u
q B
u
q B r = qB p = [qB] r

Assembling the enormous magnets for ATLAS Using that field to measure many values of p

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 Energy

Now that we have some understanding of momentum and forces… let’s see how that affects energy.

final

Work = change in energy = ∫ F ⋅ ds

initial

You might remember this equation from P182 when we But it also describes changes in kinetic energy.
thought about “pushing things to the top a mountain”.
Picture empty space, no ‘potential’ of any type.
That was a change in potential energy. We push with a force, the momentum increases, the kinetic
energy increases.

final

initial final
F ⋅ ds

initial F ⋅ ds
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 Energy

Now that we have some understanding of momentum and forces… let’s see how that affects energy.

final

Work = change in energy = ∫ F ⋅ ds

initial

The simplest case to consider: just 1D (force and motion are both in x) and starting state is at rest.
final final u u
dp d
KEfinal = ∫
initial
F dx = ∫ dt
u dt = ∫ dt
[ u m u] u dt = ∫
0
m u d( u u)
initial 0

u-substitution:
a u2/c2
Skipping something you
can read in the notes: a so u = c√a
u du = c da / 2√a u2/c2

[ ]
conversion from d( u u)
m u du udu = c2/2 da
mc2 1
u2/c2
to something times d(u)…
=
0
∫ (1 - u /c )
2 2 3/2 = m
2
c2
∫ da
(1 -a)3/2
=
2 √1-a 0
0

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 Energy

Tidying up that math from the previous slide…

KE = mc2 [1
√1-u2/c2
-1 ] =
mc2
√1-u2/c2
- mc2 = u mc2 - mc2

KE = ( u -1 ) mc2

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𝛄
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 Energy

Tidying up that math from the previous slide…

KE = mc2 [1
√1-u2/c2
-1 ] =
mc2
√1-u2/c2
- mc2 = u mc2 - mc2

KE = ( u -1 ) mc2

This looks totally bizarre and unfamiliar!

Is it even consistent with newton for small u?

KE = mc2 [1
√1-u2/c2
-1 ] u/c << 1 = mc2 [ u2
1+ 2
2c
-1 ]
u2 m u2
= mc2
2c2
=
2
✔
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 Picturing our new equations

p = u mu KE = ( u -1 ) mc2

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A comment on practicalities of particle physics

Particle physicists never talk about the speed or velocity of particles.

At relativistic velocities: E and p are the natural language.

(we’re not going to say this proton is 0.999999999c and this other one is 0.9999999998c. )

units:

energy: instead of Joules we use ‘electron volts’ [eV]

(energy it takes to move one electron up by one volt of potential)

momentum: [ eV / c ]

mass : [ eV / c2 ]

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