1

2
The reaction between sodium and chlorine

Sodium and chlorine The result is a white ▲Neon: the

are both elements. solid that has to be unreactive gas used
When sodium is heated scraped from the sides in light tubes for
and placed in a jar of of the jar. It looks advertising.
chlorine, it burns with a completely different
bright flame. from the sodium and
chlorine.

3
Why do atoms form bonds?
 Like sodium and chlorine, atoms of most elements form bonds.
Why? We get a clue by looking at the elements of Group VIII/0, the
noble gases. Their atoms do not form bonds.
 This is because the atoms have a very stable arrangement of
electrons in the outer shell. This makes the noble gases unreactive.
helium atom: full neon atom: full argon atom: outer
outer shell of 2 outer shell of 8 shell of 8 electrons
electrons – stable electrons – stable – stable

2 2+8 2+8+8
 Atoms bond with each other to gain a stable arrangement of outer-shell
electrons, like the atoms of Group VIII.
 Atoms bond to gain 8 electrons in their outer shell (or 2, if they have only
one shell).

4
Ions – Charged particles made from an atom, or
group of atoms, by the loss or gain of electrons.

Cation - an ion with a positive charge

Anion - an ion with a negative charge

Positive and negative ions form when electrons are

transferred between atoms

5
 - e- Ne

2,8,1 2,8 2,8

11 p
10 e

6
 + e-
Ar

2,8,7 2,8,8 2,8,8

Gain electron 17 p
18 e

7
Valence electrons are the electrons in the highest
occupied energy level of an element’s atom.

Number of valence electrons the group number

valence electrons are usually the only electrons used

in chemical bonds.

8
  Electron Dot structure (Lewis structure)

Valence
electrons 1 7 6

Na Cl O
Electron dot structures are diagrams that show
valence electrons as dots.

9
10
 When a sodium atom and a chlorine atom react together, the
sodium atom loses its electron to the chlorine atom, and two
ions are formed.
 The two ions have opposite charges, so they attract each
other.
Ionic bonding: a strong electrostatic force of attraction
between oppositely charged ions.

11
 Loss of valence electrons

Cations / positively charged ions

Designation:
Name of a cation = Name of the element

Same names Different properties

12
Name of monatomic ions (a single atom)
- Cation (+) Group 1A, 2A, 3A
[Ion name] = [element name] + ion/cation

Atom Atom name Ion Ion name

Na Sodium Na+ Sodium (ion)
Ca Calcium Ca2+ Calcium (ion)
Al Aluminum Al3+ Aluminum (ion)

13
Transition metals (Group 1B – 8B) form more
than one cation (+) with different charges.
Fe Fe2+ Fe3+

Iron Iron(II) ion Iron(III) ion

No space

[Ion name] = [Element name]+(Roman numeral)

Ag+ - Silver ion Charge number

Zn2+ - Zinc ion

The charges of the cations of many transition metal ions
must be determined from the number of electrons lost
14
 Gain of electrons

Anions / negatively charged ions

Designation:
Name of an anion ≠ Name of the element

Anion: ~ide
E.g. Chloride, fluoride, oxide, sulfide, etc.

15
Name of monatomic ions
-Anion (-) Group 5A, 6A, 7A
[Ion name]: start with the stem of element name
end in -ide

Atom Atom name Ion Ion name

Cl Chlorine Cl- Chloride ion
O Oxygen O2- Oxide ion
N Nitrogen N3- Nitride ion

16
How solid sodium chloride is formed

sodium chloride – a lattice of alternating positive and

negative ions, held together by strong ionic bonds

sodium ion

chloride ion

The lattice grows to form a giant 3-D structure. It is

called ‘giant’ - it contains a very large number of ions.
This giant structure is the compound sodium chloride, or
common salt.
It is made of ions, sodium chloride is called an ionic
compound. It contains one Na+ ion for each Cl- ion, so
its formula is NaCl.
Ionic compounds: compounds composed of positive ions
and negative ions.
18
Other ionic compounds
 Sodium is a metal. Chlorine is a non-metal. They react together to
form an ionic compound.
 A metal reacts with a non-metal to form an ionic compound
 metal atoms lose electrons
 non-metal atoms gain electrons
 The ions form a lattice.
 The compound has no overall charge

19
A chemical formula shows the kinds and numbers of
atoms in the smallest representative unit of a substance.
A Formula unit is the lowest whole-number ratio of ions
in an ionic compound.

Na+ : Cl- = 1 : 1 Mg2+ : Cl- = 1 : 2

NaCl MgCl2

21
Formula for binary ionic compounds
− Ion symbol
− Balance the charge (crisscross method)

K+ + Cl- → KCl
Ca2+ + Br - → CaBr2
Fe3+ + O2- → Fe2O3

22
23
24
Name for binary ionic compounds (composed of 2 elements)

[cation name] [anion name] (+) (-)

Cs2O Cu2O
cesium oxide copper(I) oxide

NaBr CuO

sodium bromide copper(II) oxide

25
1. Crystalline solids at room temperature

Crystal lattice
(Giant structure)

 Regular arrangement of the ions in a lattice.

26
2. High melting points and boiling points
 Ions are attracted by strong electrostatic force
 Large amounts of energy are needed to
separate them

27
3. Soluble in water (MOSTLY)
 Water is attracted to charged ions
 Ionic solids often dissolve

28
4. Conduct electric current when melted or
dissolved in water (not when solid)

29
30
32
33
 Contents in Textbook (ionic compound)
◦ P 57-59
◦ P 76 – rules for naming (left side - 3 points)
◦ P 79-80 (ignore compound ions)

 Worksheet (no part B Q3bc)

 Workbook P33-34 Q 9,10
 10/14

 Read P 49-55

34
Why atoms bond: a reminder
 Atoms bond in order to gain a
stable outer shell of electrons,
like the noble gas atoms.
▲ Atoms of non-metals do not give
So when sodium and chlorine react up electrons to gain a full shell,
together, each sodium atom gives because they would have to lose so
up an electron to a chlorine atom. many. It would take too much
energy to overcome the pull of the
positive nucleus.
Sharing electrons
 When two non-metal atoms react together?
 both need to gain electrons to achieve stable outer shells.
They manage this by sharing electrons.
 We will look at non-metal elements and non-metal
compounds
Textbook P 49-55
35
Metals Nonmetals Nonmetals Nonmetals
-e +e Share electrons

Ionic bond Covalent bond

36
Covalent bonding –
The force combining atoms together by sharing electrons.
Molecule –
A group of atoms joined together by covalent bonding.

Atoms Molecules

Covalent bond
2 H atoms  H2O molecule
1 O atom

37
Lewis structure Displayed formula

38
Chlorine
 A chlorine atom needs a share in one more electron, to
obtain a stable outer shell of eight electrons. So two
chlorine atoms bond covalently like this:

 Since only one pair of electrons is shared,

the bond between the atoms is called a
single covalent bond, or just a single bond.
You can show it in a short way: Cl Cl.

▲ A model of the chlorine molecule.

39
Oxygen
 An oxygen atom has six outer electrons, so needs a share in two
more. So two oxygen atoms share two electrons each, giving
molecules with the formula O2. Each atom now has a stable outer
shell of eight electrons:

 Since the oxygen atoms share two pairs of

electrons, the bond between them is called a
double bond. You can show it like this: O=O.

▲ A model of the
oxygen molecule.

40
Nitrogen
 A nitrogen atom has five outer electrons, so needs a share in
three more. So two nitrogen atoms share three electrons each,
giving molecules with the formula N2. Each atom now has a stable
outer shell of eight electrons:

 Since the nitrogen atoms share three

pairs of electrons, the bond between them
is called a triple bond. You can show it like
this: N N.
▲ A model of the
nitrogen molecule.
41
Diatomic molecule - a molecule consisting of two atoms.

O2

Seven elements are always found as diatomic molecules

(same atoms)
Iodine, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Bromine, Oxygen, Chlorine, Fluorine
I2 H2 N2 Br2 O2 Cl2 F2

I Have No Bright Or Clever Friends.

42
Single covalent bond Double covalent bond

H2 – colorless gas O2 – colorless gas

F2 – green-yellow gas

Cl2 – green-yellow gas Triple covalent bond

Br2 – red-brown liquid N2 – colorless gas

I2 – gray-black solid

43
Molecular compound
(Covalent compound) –
H2O
A compound composed of
molecules.

Molecular
Atoms Molecules compound

Covalent bond ?
2 H atoms  H2O molecule  Water
1 O atom

44
45
CH4 (Show lone pairs – unshared pairs)

NH3

H2O

CO2

HCl

46
Draw Lewis structures for the following molecules
H2O (only single covalent bonds)
PH3 (only single covalent bonds)
ClF (only single covalent bonds)
MgCl2

47
 Worksheet – covalent bond (due Mon, 10/21)
◦ All “diagram”  Lewis structure with all LONE pairs
(Displayed structure)

48
 At room temperature, H2O, O2, P2O5
 H2O - liquid
 O2 - gas
 P2O5 - solid
1. Mostly gases or liquids at room temperature.
2. Lower melting & boiling points than ionic compounds.

49
1. Often liquids or gases at room temperature
2. Have low melting and boiling points
Compound Melting point /°C Boiling point / °C
carbon monoxide, CO -199 -191
hexane, C6H14 -95 69

• They are made of simple molecules.

• The force between the molecules
(intermolecular forces) are weak.

3. Molecular compounds do not conduct

electricity.
• There are no free electrons or ions, so they
cannot conduct.
▲ The covalent compound
carbon monoxide is formed
when petrol burns in the limited
supply of air in a car engine.
And it is poisonous.
50
Which is expected to be a molecular compound?
 CaO & CO
 A substance only containing F
 A substance only containing Fe
 A compound with a melting point of 800 °C
 A compound with a boiling point of 100 °C

51
NaCl H2O

 Elements?
 Component? Which kind of particles?
 Arrangement of particles?
 Chemical formula?
 …

52
How many atoms of each element in a molecule.
A water molecule –
2 hydrogen atoms & 1 oxygen atom.
Molecular formula - H2O.
A molecule contains
• 1 carbon atom and 2 oxygen atoms
• 1 nitrogen atom and 3 hydrogen atoms
• 2 carbon atoms, 6 hydrogen atoms, and 1 oxygen atom

53
The actual number of atoms in each molecule (not lowest
whole-number ratios).
C2H6 (Ethane) - contains 2 carbon atoms and 6 hydrogen
atoms.
Cl2 C6H12O6 C4H10
A molecular formula does not show
• Molecule’s structure.
• Arrangement of atoms in space
• Which atoms are covalently bonded to one another

54
 Binary molecular compounds
◦ composed of two elements
◦ two nonmetals (not ions)

 CO CO2?
 Names of all binary molecular compounds
end in -ide.
 Prefix - the number of each atom

55
Prefix Number  Tips:
◦ Name the elements in order
mono- 1
◦ Prefix: number of each kind
di- 2 of atom
tri- 3 ◦ Ending of the second element
tetra- 4 name is –ide
 If only one atom for the first
penta- 5
element, omit the prefix mono-
hexa- 6  The name of the second element
hepta- 7 ALWAYS has the prefix.
octa- 8  CO – Carbon monoxide
nona- 9  CO2 – Carbon dioxide

deca- 10
56
Prefix Number
 N 2O Dinitrogen monoxide
mono- 1
di- 2  NO Nitrogen monoxide
tri- 3  NO2 Nitrogen dioxide
tetra- 4  N 2O 3 Dinitrogen trioxide
penta- 5  N 2O 4 Dinitrogen tetroxide
hexa- 6
 N 2O 5 Dinitrogen pentoxide
hepta- 7
 H2O Water
octa- 8
nona- 9
 H2O 2 Hydrogen peroxide
deca- 10
57
Prefixes - subscript of each element.
 Write the correct symbols
 Add the appropriate subscripts.

 Dinitrogen tetroxide N2O4

 Diphosphorus trioxide P2O3
 Silicon tetrachloride SiCl4

58
 This shows the structure
of an ionic compound.
a Name the compound.
b What is the simplest
formula for it?

 This shows the structure

of a molecular compound.
a Name the compound.
b What is the simplest
formula for it?

59
 Workbook
 P 30 Q 6
 P 31-32 Q 7-8 (ONLY displayed formula)
 P 39-40 Q 3,4,5,6
 P 43-44 Q 12a, 13a, 14

 Worksheet – ionic or covalent

 Worksheet – covalent bond (assigned 10/16)

 Read P 65, 286-288

60
The structure of metals
 In metals, atoms are packed tightly together in a regular lattice.
 The tight packing allows outer electrons to separate from their atoms.
 The result is a lattice of ions in a ‘sea’ of electrons that are free to
move.

The copper ions are held The regular arrangement of The copper crystals are
together by their attraction ions results in crystals of called grains. A lump of
to the free electrons copper. This shows the copper like this one
between them. The strong crystals in a piece of copper, consists of millions of
forces of attraction are magnified 1000 times. (They grains joined together.
called metallic bonds. are all at different angles.) You need a microscope
to see them.

61
Metallic bonding
– the electrostatic force of attraction between the
mobile ‘sea’ of electrons / free-moving electrons and
the positive metal ions.

Metal ions

Sea of electrons

62
1. Metals usually have high melting points.
It takes a lot of heat energy to break up the lattice (break strong metallic
bonds).
2. Metals are malleable and ductile.
Malleable means they can be bent and pressed into shape.
Ductile means they can be drawn out into wires.
This is because the layers can slide over each other.

The layers can slide without breaking the metallic bond, because the electrons
are free to move too.

63
3. Metals are good conductors of heat.
That is because the free electrons take in heat energy, which
makes them move faster. They quickly transfer the heat through
the metal structure:

4. Metals are good conductors of electricity.

That is because the free electrons can move through the lattice
carrying charge, when a voltage is applied across the metal.

Silver is the best conductor of all the metals.

Copper is next – but it is used much more than silver because it
is cheaper.

64
65
• Alloys
– Mixtures containing two or more elements
– At least one is a metal
• Better properties than each component
• Improved strength
• Prevent corrosion
Stainless steel – Fe, Cr, C, Ni
925 silver – Ag, Cu
Brass – copper and zinc

66
interstitial alloy – smaller atoms fit into the spaces between larger atoms
Substitutional alloy – replace each other in the crystal

67
Aluminum alloy
 Pure Aluminum Composition of
◦ Low density duralumin
◦ Low strength Al 94%
 Duralumin
◦ Low density Cu 4%
◦ High strength
Used for aircraft Mg 1%

68
 Workbook
 P 35 Q 11
 P 166 Q7
 P 168 Q 9acd

69
 Forms of matter in nature:
Chemical Component
Matter State* Bonding
formula /Particles

Ionic
NaCl Mostly solid ions Ionic bonds
compounds

Metal ions
Metals Cu, Fe Mostly solid Metallic bonds
electrons

Noble gases He, Ar, Ne Gas Single atoms /

Molecular
HCl, H2O, Covalent
compounds / ? Molecules
O2 bonds
elements
* At room temperature

70
Ionic bond
Metallic bond
Covalent bond
 The electrostatic forces between oppositely charged ions in ionic
compounds
 The attraction between the free-floating valence electrons and the
positively charged metal ions
 The atoms held together by sharing electrons / The attraction
between the nuclei of atoms and the shared pair of electrons

 Giant ionic lattice

 Giant metallic lattice
 Simple molecules
 ……(Giant covalent structure)

71
 Diamond – a giant covalent structure
 Diamond is made of carbon atoms, held in a strong lattice:

A carbon atom forms covalent Eventually billions of carbon The result is a single crystal
bonds to four others. atoms are bonded together, in of diamond. This one has
Each outer atom then bonds to a giant covalent structure. This been cut, shaped, and
three more, and so on. shows just a very tiny part of it. polished, to make it sparkle.
 Diamond has these properties:
1. It is very hard, because each atom is held in place by four strong
covalent bonds. In fact it is the hardest substance on Earth.
2. For the same reason it has a very high melting point, 35500C.
3. It can’t conduct electricity because there are no ions or free
electrons to carry the charge.
Graphite – a very different giant structure
 Graphite is made only of carbon atoms.
 Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon – two different forms of the
same element in the same state.
 Diamond is the hardest solid on Earth. But graphite is one of the
softest! This difference is a result of their very different structures:

In graphite, each carbon atom Under a microscope, you

forms covalent bonds to three The rings form flat sheets that can see the layered
others. This gives rings of six lie on top of each other, held structure of graphite quite
atoms. together by weak forces. clearly.
 Graphite has these properties:
1. Unlike diamond, it is soft and slippery. That is because the sheets can slide
over each other easily.
2. Unlike diamond, it is a good conductor of electricity. That is because each
carbon atom has four outer electrons, but forms only three bonds. So the
fourth electron is free to move through the graphite, carrying charge.
 Allotropes:
 two or more different  Atoms of same element
molecular forms of the  Different properties
same element in the  –different structure
same physical state.
Example: Diamond, graphite are
allotropes of carbon.  O2, O3

 Isotope  Chlorine-35
 Chlorine-37

75
 Boiling point Conducts electricity Conducts electricity
Substance
(°C) when solid when melted
A above 500 yes yes
B below 500 no no
C above 500 no no
D above 500 no yes

(a) State which substance is most likely to be:

(i) Diamond
(ii) Iodine
(iii) Copper

76
 Boiling point Conducts electricity Conducts electricity
Substance
(°C) when solid when melted
A above 500 yes yes
B below 500 no no
C above 500 no no
D above 500 no yes
(b) The four substances are diamond, copper, iodine and sodium
chloride. Which of these substances best fits the following
descriptions?
(i) Atoms bonded by sharing electrons to form small molecules.
(ii) Atoms bonded by sharing electrons to form giant covalent structures.
(iii) Atoms bonded by electron transfer to form giant ionic structures.

77
 Workbook
 P 35 Q 11
 P 166 Q7
 P 168 Q 9acd

 P 36-37 Q 12, 13, 14, 15

 Test bonding - Oct 31, Thu

78