GCSE Edexcel (9-1) Chemistry: Paper 2

SC3a Structure of an atom

Atomic theory (1805) John Dalton:
All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
Atoms are tiny hard spheres that cannot be broken down into smaller parts.
Atoms can’t be created or destroyed.
The atoms in an element are all identical (each element has its own type of atom).
JJ Thomson (1897) measured the mass of the particles in the Cathode rays and
discovered the electron as it was 1800x lighter than the lightest atom (hydrogen).

Subatomic particle Relative charge Relative mass

Proton +1 1

Electron -1 1
(negligible)
1835

Neutron 0 1

Nuclei contain nucleons (protons and neutrons) and have electrons orbiting around in
electron shells at different distances from the nucleus. Atoms have an equal number of
protons and electrons so have no overall charge.

SC3b Atomic number and mass number

Gold-foil Experiment (1909) Ernest Rutherford
Tiny positive particles were fired at the thin gold foil. Most particles passed straight through
with a few deflecting and a very small amount bouncing back.
Conclusion: Atoms are mostly empty space with a small positive central nucleus that
contains most of the mass.

The Periodic table

Originally, elements were placed in terms of their masses, which caused them to be
grouped with other elements with different properties. The modern periodic table places
the element in order of the number of protons in their atom (atomic number) all the atoms
in a single element have the same atomic number.

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SC3c Isotopes
The Neutron
Discovered by James Chadwick (1932) who found out why some atoms of the same
elements have different masses.
These atoms are known as isotopes (same number of protons but different number of
neutrons).
This led to the discovery of nuclear energy. By firing neutrons at a uranium isotope, it was
discovered that a nucleus can be split (nuclear fission). This produces new elements and
emits large amounts of energy. Nuclear power stations use the energy from nuclear fission
to produce electricity.

Relative atomic mass

The mass of an atom is incredibly small, so their masses are measured relative to an atom
of carbon-12.
Example: the mass of helium-4 is one-third of that of carbon-12. So its relative mass is 4.

The relative mass of an isotope is its mass number. Chlorine has two isotopes, 3517 Cl
and 3717Cl and their relative masses are 35 and 37 respectively.
.H.
This formula can be used to calculate the abundances (overall proportions) of two or more
isotopes. It can also be used to find the Ar of an atom.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

SC4a Elements and the periodic table

.H.
Organising elements: Dimitri Mendeleev (1869)
Believed to be the creator of the periodic table.
Only 63 elements were discovered at the time. It was arranged in increasing Ar and left
gaps in his table.
The vertical columns contained elements with increasing relative atomic mass and
horizontal rows contained elements with similar chemical properties.

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 Series Group1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 H1

2 Li 7 Be 9.4 B 11 C 12 N 14 O 16 F 19

3 Na 23 Mg 24 Al 27.3 Si 28 P 31 S 32 Cl 35.5

4 K 39 Ca 40 ? 44 Ti 48 V 51 Cr 52 Mn 55 Fe 56

5 (Cu 63) Zn 65 ? 68 ? 72 As 75 Se 78 Br 80

6 Rb 85 Sr 87 Y 88 Zr 90 Nb 94 Mo 96 ? 100 Ru 104

7 (Ag 108) Cd 112 In 133 Sn 118 Sb 122 Te 125 I 127

8 Cs 133 Ba 137 Di 138 Ce 140

10 Er 178 La 180 Ta 182 W 184 Os 195

11 (Au 199) Hg 200 Tl 204 Pb 207 Bi 208

12 Th 231 U 240

Mendeleev used the gaps to make predictions about the properties of undiscovered
elements.

SC4b Atomic number and the periodic table

Pair reversals
The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, Z.
When this is done: Elements in a row (period) are in order of increasing atomic number.
Elements with similar chemical properties are in the same column (group).
Non-metals are on the right of the table. The iodine-tellurium pair reversal is explained.

SC4c Electronic configurations and the periodic table

Working out configurations
Each shell can contain a different number of electrons. For the first 20 elements (Hydrogen
to Calcium): The first shell can contain up to two electrons. The second and third shells

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can contain up to eight electrons. The number of electrons in an atom is its atomic
number.

Connections with the periodic table

The number of occupied shells is equal to the period number. The number of electrons in
the outer shell is equal to the group number, except for group 0 elements which all have
full outer shells.

SC5a Ionic Bonds

Bonds are forces of attraction that hold atoms together. When bonds are formed, energy is
released, making them less reactive (more stable).Metal atoms tend to lose electrons to
form positive ions called cations. Cations have more protons than electrons. Non-metal
atoms tend to gain electrons to form negative ions called anions. Anions have more
electrons than protons.
The forces between the atoms are called electrostatic forces, these forces hold the
oppositely charged ions together, forming an ionic bond between them.

SC5b Ionic lattices

Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions allow ‘billions’ of
ions to be packed together in a regular repeating arrangement called a lattice structure.
Note that in two-element computes the name ending of the non-metal is changed to –ide.
(Phosphide → Phosphide + Oxygen)

Positive ion Ionic formula Negative ion Ionic formula

Sodium Na+ Fluoride F-

Lithium Li+ Chloride Cl-

Potassium K+ Bromide Br-

Magnesium Mg2+ Oxide O2-

Calcium Ca2+ Sulphide S2-

Aluminium Al3+ Phosphide P3-

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Some ions contain more than one atom. A sulphate ion contains one sulphur atom bonded
to four oxygen atoms with two added electrons. These are called polyatomic ions. An ion
ending with ‘-ate’ or ‘-ite’ shows that the ions contains oxygen as well as another element.

Polyatomic ion Ionic formula

Ammonium NH4+

Nitrate NO3-

Hydroxide OH-

Carbonate CO32-

Sulphate SO42-

Sulphite SO32-

SC5c Properties of ionic compounds

Electrical conductivity
Ionic compounds conduct electricity only in molten state or when dissolved in water. They
do not conduct electricity in solid state. The two conditions required to be met for a
substance to conduct electricity:
● It must contain charged particles.
● These particles must be free to move.
When an ionic compound conducts electricity, it is the charged ions that carry the current.
Most ionic compounds are soluble in water and form an aqueous solution.

SC6a Covalent bonds

Molecular bonding
Molecular substances contain groups of atoms that are held together by strong bonds
called covalent bonds. The number of atoms of each element bonded together in a simple
molecule is shown by its molecular formula.
Covalent bonds are usually formed between non-metals. Sometimes atoms share more
than one pair of electrons to fill their outer shell of electrons.
The atoms in molecules are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between the positive nuclei and the negative electrons in the bonded atoms. There are
also some forces of attraction between molecules but these are very weak. (Intermolecular
forces).

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Working out molecular formulae
The number of covalent bonds formed by atoms of different elements are shown in the
table. This is called the valency of the element: The number of electrons needed to obtain
a complete outer shell.

.H.

Molecular formula Structural formula (stick bonds)

CH4

Full dot and cross diagram Dot and cross (outer shell only)

3D space filling Ball and stick

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SC7a Molecular compounds
All compounds contain atoms of more than one element, chemically joined together by
bonds. The properties of a compound are influenced by its atoms and by its type of
bonding.
Some compounds exist as molecules – distinct groups of atoms joined by covalent bonds.
They have covalent, simple molecular structures.

Melting and boiling points

The covalent bonds in a water molecule are strong forces of attraction. However there are
also weak intermolecular forces of attraction which hold water molecules together and
must be overcome when turning liquid water into gas. Small, simple molecules such as
water often have low melting and boiling points because it doesn’t take much energy to
overcome the weak intermolecular forces.

Conduction of electricity
Simple molecules have no overall charge and so cannot carry an electric current. In a
covalent bond, the positively charged nuclei and the negatively charged electrons hold the
electrons in place, so there is no electron flow / current flow.

Polymers
Monomers are small simple molecules that can be joined in a chain to form a polymer.
Carbon atoms have a valency of four, so monomers are usually linked together by covalent
bonds between carbon atoms. Most polymers contain a chain of carbon atoms.
Polymer molecules can have different lengths. Longer polymers have more intermolecular
forces between them. The longer chains also tend to get tangled up with one another. For
these reasons, longer polymers have higher melting and boiling points than shorter ones.

SC7b Allotropes of carbon

Different structural forms of the same elements are called allotropes.
Fullerenes
● Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms.
● Often tubular (nanotubes) or spherical.
● Buckminsterfullerene C60.
● Weak intermolecular forces: low melting points, soft and slippery. However,
molecules themselves are very strong due to their covalent bonding.

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Graphene
● Similar to fullerene but not a simple molecule.
● A sheet of carbon atoms (no fixed formula) sheet is one atom thick.
● Lightest known material.
● Covalent bonds make it extremely strong.
● Allows free electrons to move (good electrical conductor).

Giant structures of carbon

Diamond and graphite (not simple molecules)
● Covalent giant molecular structures. Huge three-dimensional networks of carbon
atoms linked by covalent bonds.
● High melting points
● Graphite has three covalent bonds; diamond has four.
○ Therefore, graphite can conduct electricity as it has a free electron.
● The sheets of carbon atoms in graphite are held together by weak intermolecular
forces of attraction. The layers slide past each other, which makes graphite useful
as a lubricant.
● Diamond is very hard due to the rigid network and tetrahedral arrangement joined
by covalent bonds. Diamond cannot conduct electricity.

SC7c Properties of metals

Common properties
● Solids with high melting points
● Shiny when polished
● Malleable
● High density
● Good conductors of electricity

Metallic structure and bonding

Atoms in a metal are all the same size and are packed closely together in layers to form a
giant lattice. Metal atoms have one, two or three electrons in the outer shell. These are lost
from each atom and become free to move randomly in all directions through the metal (sea
of delocalised electrons).
Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and the
negative delocalised electrons. This attraction is extremely strong: high melting and boiling
points.

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Metals conduct electricity
Electrons flow from the negative side to the positive side in a metal when a potential
difference is applied. The flow of electrons transfers energy and forms an electrical current.
The electrical conductivity increases as the number of delocalised electrons increases.
Each sodium ion has one positive charge, Na+ , and contributes 1 electron to the ‘sea’.
Each magnesium ion has two positive charges, Mg2+, and contributes two electrons to the
‘sea’. This means magnesium has a higher electrical conductivity than sodium.

SC7d Bonding models

Strengths and weaknesses of different models (48-49)
Ionic Simple molecular (covalent)
Where: most compounds containing metal Where: most non-metal elements and
and non-metal atoms. compounds
Bonding: ionic bonds formed by the loss Bonding: formed when atoms share pairs
and gain of electrons to produce oppositely of electrons.
charged ions that attract one another. Structure: small, distinct group of atoms.
Structure: billions of ions held together in a Properties:
lattice structure. ● Low melting point
Properties: ● Few soluble in water
● High melting points ● Most do not conduct electricity.
● Many soluble in water
● Conducts electricity only when
molten or in solution.

Giant covalent Metallic

Where: few elements and compounds of Where: all metals
non-metals. Bonding: electrostatic attraction between
Bonding: covalent bonding cations and delocalised electrons.
Structure: billions of atoms held together in Structure: billions of ions held together in a
a lattice structure. giant lattice structure, positive ions in a
Properties: ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons.
● High melting points Properties:
● Insoluble in water High melting points
● Most do not conduct (except in Insoluble in water
carbon as graphite) Conducts electricity when solid or liquid

SC9a Masses and empirical formulae

Simplest whole number ratio of atoms or ions of each element in a substance.

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.E. Calculate the Mr of calcium nitrate.

Ca(NO3)2
= Ar of Ca + 2(Ar of N) + 6(Ar of O)
= 40 + 28 + 96
= 164

Finding empirical formulae

.E. 10.0g of calcium reacts with 17.8g of chlorine. Find the empirical formula of the
compound formed.

symbol Ca Cl

mass (g) 10.0 17.8

Ar 40 35.5

Mass / Ar 10.0
= 0.25
17.8
= 0.50
40 35.5

smallest answer 0.25

= 1
0.5
= 2
0.25 0.25

empirical formula CaCl2

SC9b Conservation of mass

Calculating the reactants and masses of the products
Concentration of solutions
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝑚3)

SC9c Moles
Avogadro’s constant 6.02 x 1023 (76-77)
Mole calculation
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝐴𝑟) × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

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Reactions
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
In chemical reactions, one of the reactants is often added in excess and is not completely
used up in the reaction. The amount of product formed is determined by the reactant that
is not in excess. This is called the limiting reactant.

SC17a Group 1
Group 1 elements are metals and are also known as Alkali Metals. These metals are
placed in the same group because they all have one electron in the outermost shell.
They are called alkali metals because they react with water, forming alkaline solutions.

Properties
● Low densities (lithium, sodium and potassium float on water)
● Soft when cut
● Low melting points
● Rapidly tarnishes in air
● Form ions with a +1 charge
● Have similar chemical properties because they all share the same number of
electrons in the outer shell (1).

.E. The reactivity of alkali metals increases going down the group. Explain why this
happens.
The atoms of each element get larger going down the group; the outermost
electron gets further away from the nucleus, this causes the nuclear attraction
to decrease, so it is easier to lose the electron in reactions.

All group 1 metals react violently with water, forming hydrogen gas and hydroxides (pH 7+)

alkali metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas

lithium + water → lithium hydroxide + hydrogen

Common observations
● Metal becomes smaller and eventually disappears
● It floats and moves around the surface
● Fizzing

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Differences
● Sodium melts into a sphere. It melts faster compared to lithium. This indicates that
sodium reacts more vigorously. However, potassium reacts faster.
● Potassium goes off as a lilac flame. The flame is due to the hydrogen gas in the
solution and the lilac colour is due to the K+ ions.

Universal indicator turns blue when added to the resulting solution which indicates that the
solution has become alkaline due to the formation of OH– ions.

Prediction of Caesium and Rubidium

● Reaction is violent and explosive.

Storage
Group 1 metals need to be kept submerged in oil so as to assure that it won’t react with
oxygen and water present in the air.

When we cut them, they are shiny. However, as they begin to react with oxygen in the air,
they begin to dull, forming a metal oxide.
metal + oxygen → metal oxide
4Li + O2 → 2Li2O
We can also react these oxides by burning them to form colourful flames.

SC17b Group 7
Group 7 elements are non-metals and are also known as the Halogens. All Halogens form
salts with sodium and other alkali metals (Group 1). They have seven electrons in the
outermost shell. This means they gain an electron in reactions to form negative ions with a
–1 charge.
Fluorine F All halogens are non-metals which means that they are poor
Chlorine Cl conductors of heat and electricity. Halogens are also toxic
Bromine Br (inhalation could lead to death) and highly corrosive (can eat up
flesh and cause serious damage to skin and eyes). In order to
Iodine I
handle these elements with precaution, we must wear a gas
Astatine At
mask to prevent the inhalation of toxic fumes. It is also importa-
nt that we conduct the experiment in a fume cupboard. Wear gloves to prevent contact
with skin and a pair of safety goggles to prevent the halogens from splashing into your
eyes.

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Appearance

Halogen Symbol State Colour Vapour

Fluorine F gas Pale yellow Yellow

Chlorine Cl gas Pale green Green

Bromine Br liquid Orange/brown Orange

Iodine I solid Grey-black crystals Purple

.E. Why does chlorine have a low boiling point? (Why is chlorine a gas at room
temperature?)
Cl2 has a simple molecular structure. These are weak intermolecular forces of
attraction. Less heat energy is needed to overcome the weak forces of
attraction.

SC17c Halogen Reactivity

Reactions of Halogens with metals
● React with metals forming ionic compounds called ‘salt’ which contain halide ions.
halogen + metal → metal halide (ionic salt)

chlorine + sodium → sodium chloride

Cl2(g) + 2Na(s) → 2NaCl(aq)__

Reactions of halogens with hydrogen

Forms halides which dissolve in water forming acidic solutions. When hydrogen chloride
dissolves in water, the molecules dissolve into two ions, H+ & Cl–. The formation of H+ ions
makes the solution acidic.
Aqueous chlorine is yellow in colour.

Detecting chlorine gas

Test Hold a damp blue litmus paper in the gas.
Observation Blue litmus first turns red and then gets bleached white.

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Detecting chlorine ions
Test Add nitric acid (HNO3) to remove carbonate (CO32-) ions. Then, add silver nitrate
solution (AgNO3).
Observation White precipitate form if Cl– ions are present.

.E. Why does the reactivity of halogens decrease going down the group?
This is because the atoms of each element get larger going down the group due to
the increase in the number of electron shells. This means that the outermost shell
gets further and further away from the nucleus and is shielded by more electron
shells. The further the outer shell is from the field of attraction from the
nucleus, the weaker the ability to accept incoming electrons, so it is more difficult
for the atom to gain an electron going down group 7.

In a halogen displacement reaction, a more reactive halogen displaces and less reactive
halogen to form a halide compound.

Displacement reactions of Halogens

Fluorine displaces chlorine from potassium chloride.
F2 (g) + 2KCl(aq) → Cl2 (aq) + 2KF(aq)
Fluorine is more reactive than chlorine.
F2 + 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2F–
F2 + 2e– → 2F– (reduction) 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e– (oxidation)
*do not split the halogen

Colour change Reaction Displacement Conclusion

Yellow F2 + KCl ✓ F2 > Cl2

Orange Cl2 + KBr ✓ Cl2 > Br2

Brown Br2 + KI ✓ Br2 > I2

No change I2 + KBr ✗ Br2 > I2

Observations
Cl2 (aq) colourless → yellow solution
Br2 (aq) colourless → orange solution
I2 (aq) colourless → brown solution

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SC17d Group 0
Group 0 elements are gases. These gases are inert (unreactive) which means they have
complete outer shells. They are stable and don’t share, give or take any electrons. Hence,
they have been named the Noble gases.
Properties
● Colourless gases
● Very low melting points
● Poor conductors of heat and electricity
● Monoatomic (the only gases that consist of a single atom; oxygen and like gases
are diatomic)
Uses
Krypton is used in photography lighting. It produces a brilliant white light when electricity is
passed through it.
Argon is denser than air. It is added to the space above the wine in wine barrels to stop
oxygen in the air reacting with the wine.
Helium has a very low density and is non-flammable, so it is used in airships and weather
balloons.
Neon produces a distinctive red-orange light when electricity is passed through it. This
property makes it useful for making long-lasting illuminated signs.

SC18a Rates of reaction

The speed at which reactants are turned into products.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Methods of measuring the rate of a reaction

● The gas syringe method
● Downward displacement of water

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SC18b Factors affecting reactions rates

Concentration and reaction rate Surface area and reaction rate

Change: increasing the concentration of Change: increasing the surface area to
solutions increases the rate of reaction. volume ratio, by decreasing the size of
Explanation: there are more reacting solid particles while keeping the total
particles in the same volume so collisions volume of the solid same increases the rate
occur more often. of the reaction.
Explanation: There is more surface for
collisions to occur on, so collisions occur
more often.

Pressure of gases and reaction rate Temperature and reaction rate

Change: increasing the pressure of gases Change: Increasing the temperature
increases the rate of reaction. increases the rate of the reaction.
Explanation: The reactant particles are Explanation: The reactant particles speed
squeezed closer together so collisions up and have more energy. They therefore
occur more often collide more often and more particles will
gain energy greater than equal to activation
energy to react when they collide.

The collision theory: for a reaction to occur, the reactant particles must collide with enough
energy. (Enough energy: energy greater than or equal to activation energy.)
Eparticle >= Eactivation
Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy needed for a reaction to take place
when particles collide.

Factors
● Temperature of the solution
● Surface area of the solid
● Concentration of the reactant
● Gas pressure
● Catalysts

Increasing the temperature has a double-effect:

↑ frequency of collisions
↑ number of particles that have energy greater than or equal to activation energy

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SC18b Investigating reaction rates: 140

SC18c Catalysts and activation energy

Refer to graph of catalytic reaction (142-143)
Catalysts are substances that speed up chemical reactions without permanently being
changed themselves and without altering the products of the reaction.
Industrial catalysts Platinum – used in the manufacture of nitric acid from ammonia.
Biological catalyst: Enzymes – speeds up biological reactions. Used in the manufacture of
alcoholic drinks in yeast.

Effect of adding a catalyst on the rate of a reaction

● A catalyst provides an alternative route with lower reaction time.
● More particles will have energy greater than or equal to activation energy.
● The frequency of collisions increases.

An enzyme reacts because its shape (active site) fits the reactant molecules (substrate) like
a key in a lock. The active site would not fit in other substrates which means they would
not work in other reactants.

SC19a Exothermic and endothermic reactions

An exothermic reaction is when heat energy is transferred from the stores of energy in
chemical bonds to surroundings.
● Neutralisation of acids with alkalis
● Combustion
● Respiration
● Displacement reactions
● Reactions of metals with acids (also a displacement reaction)
The products have less energy than the reactants; therefore in the reaction profile diagram,
the arrow will be pointing downwards.

An endothermic reaction is when heat energy is absorbed from the surroundings to stores
of energy in chemical bonds.
● Thermal decomposition (calcium carbonate in a blast furnace)
● Photosynthesis
● Dissolving of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) in water

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The products have more energy than the reactants; therefore in the reaction profile
diagram, the arrow will be pointing upwards.

.E. Draw a full reaction profile diagram for the reaction below, labelling the horizontal lines
with the formulae of the reactants and products.
HCL + NaOH → NaCl + H2O

.E. Draw a full reaction profile diagram for the thermal decomposition of calcium
carbonate.

SC19b Energy changes in reactions

Breaking and making bonds
During a chemical reaction, covalent bonds in the molecules of the reactant break and new
bonds are made in the molecules of the product
Energy is transferred to the reactants to break their bonds. The breaking of bonds is
endothermic. The energy absorbed is greater than the energy released.
The making of bonds is exothermic. The energy released is greater than the energy
absorbed.

A reaction is exothermic overall if more energy is given out when making bonds in the
products than is needed when breaking bonds in the reactants.

A reaction is endothermic overall if more energy is absorbed when breaking bonds in the
reactants than is needed when making bonds in the products.

.H. Bond energy calculations

The energy needed to break one mole of a particular covalent bond is known as its bond
energy. Energy is measured in kilojoules and bond energy is measured in kilojoules per
mole (KJ mol-1).
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡

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If the answer is negative, the reaction is exothermic overall. If the answer is positive, the
reaction is an endothermic reaction overall.

SC20a Hydrocarbons in crude oil and natural gas

Crude oil
● A complex mixture of hydrocarbons
● Natural resources from the ancient remains of microscopic animals and plants that
once lived in the sea.
● Finite resources: they are not made any more or are being made very slowly, which
limits the amount available to us.
● Liquid at room temperature.

It is an important source of useful substances

● Fuels for vehicles, aircraft, ships, heating and power stations.
● Feedstock or raw materials for the petrochemical industry.

Fuels
● Natural gas is a mixture of Hydrocarbons in the gas state. Methane, the main
hydrocarbon in natural gas, is useful for cooking.
● Liquids and gases extracted from crude oil are fossil fuels.
● Non-renewable resources: they’re being used up faster than they’re being formed.
They will run out one day.

SC20b Fractional distillation of crude oil

Fractionating column (152-153)
In the fractionating column
Crude oil is a finite resource. Crude oil contains many useful compounds and they are
separated by a process called fractional distillation, as hydrocarbons have different boiling
points.
A fractionating tower is used which is a tall column in which the temperature decreases
from the bottom to the top.
● Crude oil is heated strongly until it evaporates.
● The vapours pass into the column near the bottom.
● The vapours rise through the column and cool down.
● The vapours condense when they reach a part of the column that is below their
boiling point.

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 ● The liquid falls into a tray and is piped away.
● The vapours with the lowest boiling points do not condense and leave the top as a
mixture of gases. Bitumen has the highest boiling point and leaves the bottom as
hot liquid.

Properties of fractions
Fractions C atoms Boiling point Ease of ignition Viscosity

Gases least lowest easiest flows best

Petrol

Kerosene

Diesel oil

Fuel oil

Bitumen greatest highest difficult difficult

Uses of fractions
Fractions Uses

Gases Domestic heating and cooking

Petrol Fuel for cars

Kerosene Fuel for aircraft

Domestic oil Fuel for vehicles and trains

Fuel oil Fuel for large ships and power stations

Bitumen Surfacing roads and roofs

As the number of carbon atoms increase

● The boiling point increases.
● The fractions become more difficult to ignite.
● The colours become darker.
● The fractions become more viscous.

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SC20c The alkane homologous series + SC22a Alkanes and alkenes
IUPAC regulations for naming alkanes and alkenes
1. Select the longest continuous carbon chain (parent chain).
2. Assign the root word based on the number of carbon atoms in the parent chain.

Number of C atoms Root word Number of C atoms Root word

1 meth 6 hex

2 eth 7 hept

3 prop 8 oct

4 but 9 non

5 pent 10 dec

3. If there are all single bonds between carbon atoms, then the suffix is ane. If there is
a double bond between two carbon atoms, then the suffix is ene.
4. If there are substitutions on the parent chain, then give the position of the
substituent.
5. While writing the name, include a hyphen between a number and a letter. Separate
the numbers using a comma. 070 200 0400

Substituents (side-chain) Prefix

CH3 methyl

C2H5 ethyl

C3H7 propyl

Isomers
Compounds which have the same molecular formula but a different structural formula.
Molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule of a
compound.

The general formula for an alkane is CnH2n+2

The general formula for an alkene is CnH2n

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A homologous series is a series of related compounds that have the same general formula,
the same functional group and similar chemical properties

The alkane homologous series.

Characteristics
● Same functional group (C–C)
● Molecular formula of adjacent members differ by a CH2
● Same general formula (CnH2n+2)
● Shows regular gradation in physical properties
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons.

The alkene homologous series

Characteristics
● Same functional group (C=C)
● Similar chemical properties
● Molecular formula of adjacent members differ by a CH2
● Same general formula (CnH2n)
● Shows regular gradation in physical properties
● Similar chemical properties

SC20d Complete and incomplete combustion

Problems of incomplete combustion (156-157)
Hydrocarbon fuels react with oxygen in the air when they burn. This is an example of an
oxidation reaction and is called combustion.
Complete combustion
● Only carbon dioxide and water are produced.
● Energy is given out.
Incomplete combustion
● Water is produced.
● Less energy given out.
● Carbon monoxide and carbon are produced.

Incomplete combustion of alkanes

When an alkane burns in an insufficient supply of oxygen, the products formed are carbon
monoxide (CO) and water.
propane + oxygen → carbon monoxide + water
2C3H8 + 7O2 → 6CO + 8H2O

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Harmful effects of combustion
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. It traps the infrared radiation reflected by the earth’s
surface and is remitted back to earth which causes a rise in global temperature.
● The melting of polar ice caps.
● Rise in sea-levels causing low lying areas to flood.
Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas. It reduces the ability of haemoglobin to carry oxygen to
the cells of the body.

SC20e Combustible fuels and pollution

Oxides of sulphur
A small amount of sulphur is present as an impurity in the fuel when the fuel burns, sulphur
gets oxidised to SO2 and SO3.
S + O2 → SO2
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
The oxidised sulphur reacts with rainwater to form sulphurous acid and sulfuric acid
respectively.
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
Catalytic converters in cars convert harmful gases into less harmful gases.
2NO + 2CO → N2 + 2CO2

SC20f Breaking down hydrocarbons

Fuels for cars (160-161)
Cracking
A chemical reaction in which large alkane molecules are split into two or more smaller
alkane or alkene molecules. This method is used to match the global supply and demand.
This involves breaking strong covalent bonds. This process needs a high temperature and
a catalyst. Decane can be cracked to form octane and ethene.
● Breaking covalent bonds into hydrocarbon molecules.
● Smaller the molecules, the more useful they are.
● Breaking down larger alkanes may form smaller alkanes and alkenes.

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Cracking experiment
A small-scale version of cracking can be reproduced in a school laboratory.
1. Paraffin oil is the hydrocarbon to be cracked. It is absorbed by the mineral wool to
stop it flowing along the boiling tube.
2. The broken pot is heated strongly.
3. The paraffin oil is then heated.
4. Bubbles of gas escape from the delivery tube (the first few bubbles are allowed to
escape).
5. A test tube filled with water is placed over to collect the gas.
6. When the paraffin oil is heated, it evaporates to form a gas.
7. This gas is passed over the hot pieces of pot.
8. The heat causes some of the covalent bonds in paraffin to break so it begins to
crack.
9. An alkane with a shorter carbon chain is formed. Ethene is also formed as a gas.

.E. Why is it important to remove the delivery tube from water just before you stop heating
the boiling tube?
When the heat is removed, the gas left in the apparatus will contract. If the end of
the delivery tube is still underwater, the water will be forced up into the hot tube,
which causes it to crack. This is called a suck-back.

SC21a The early atmosphere

Earth’s early atmosphere
● Lots of volcanic activity.
● Mainly carbon dioxide, little or no oxygen.
● Evidence from Venus and Mars.

Oceans
About 4 billion years ago, the Earth cooled down. This caused water vapour in the
atmosphere to condense to liquid water, which formed the oceans.
Oxygen
● Early composition uncertain.
● Not produced by volcanoes.Iron pyrite formed in ancient rock, which only forms
when there is no oxygen.
● About 2.4 billion years ago, rocks containing bands of iron oxide started to form.
● Oxidation suggests that oxygen levels increased at the time.

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 ● Fossil evidence of microorganisms that may have produced this oxygen.

SC21b The changing atmosphere

Graph of Oxygen levels billions of year ago (164-165)
Oceans
● As cooling began, water vapour in the atmosphere condensed to form the oceans.
● Carbon dioxide dissolved in the ocean, reducing the amount in the atmosphere.
● Sea creatures used the dissolved carbon dioxide to form shells made of calcium
carbonate, CaCO3. This then allowed more carbon dioxide to dissolve in the
oceans.
Oxygen
● Some organisms use energy from the sun to make food by photosynthesis.
● These organisms can change the atmosphere because the process uses up carbon
dioxide and releases oxygen.
● One of the earliest photosynthetic organisms, cyanobacteria, which live in shallow
water grow in huge colonies and produce sticky mucus. This traps a layer of sand
grains and other sediments. The organisms need to move above the sediment layer
in order to get sunlight. Over time, the sediment layers build up to form rocky
shapes, called stromatolites.
● Today, oxygen makes up about 21% of the atmosphere (pure oxygen relights a
glowing splint test).

SC21c The atmosphere today

The greenhouse effect (166-167)
A causal link is when one thing can be shown to be causing the other.
Correlation and climate change
● Evidence that human activity has led to an increase in the greenhouse effect and
causing global warming.
● Climate change: changes to average weather conditions around the world).
● Since about 1850, there has been a steady increase in the burning of fossil fuels for
industry.
● Rise in CO2.
● The average temperature has increased. There is a strong correlation between CO2
levels and surface temperature.

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Evaluating the evidence
The amount of carbon dioxide in the air today is measured at monitoring stations around
the world. Evidence for historical carbon dioxide levels comes from measuring
concentrations of the gas trapped in ice cores.
● The oldest ice cores come from Antarctica and give data going back 800 000
years.
● The oldest continuous temperature records are for central England and go back to
1659. Continuous temperature measurements from around the world exist from
about 1800

SC21d Climate change

Effects of climate change
● Rise in average global temperature.
○ Ice glaciers melt.
○ Extra water raises sea levels (flooding).
○ Loss of sea ice at the poles.
● Some animals and plants will be extinct if unable to adapt.
● Weather patterns change
○ Some areas become drier, others wetter.
○ Extreme weather conditions
● As more CO2 is released, more will dissolve in seawater, lowering its pH.
○ Organisms will be harmed.
○ Temperatures in the oceans rise (causes coral to push out the
photosynthetic algae that live in their tissues: coral bleaching).

Limiting the effects

● Using renewable resources
○ Reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
● Global engineering solutions
○ Reflect sunlight back into space or CarbonCaptureTM and bury it
underground.
○ Requires effort from all countries and pays for large-scale engineering.
● Help local people adapt to new conditions (may destroy important habitats).
○ Flood defences (Dams)
○ Irrigation(may destroy important habitats

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SC22a Alkanes and alkenes

SC22b Reactions of alkanes and alkenes

Trend in the boiling point of alkanes
As the number of carbon atoms increases, the boiling point increases. The increase in
boiling points is smaller in the larger alkanes.

Chemical properties of alkanes

All alkanes undergo combustion to produce CO2 and H2O.
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

Alkenes have a double bond between carbon atoms. One of the bonds in the double bond
is weaker and so is broken easily. Hence, alkenes can undergo addition reactions.

A reaction in which the reactants combine to form one larger product molecule and no
other product is called an addition reaction.

Test to distinguish between an alkane and an alkene

● Alkanes do not react with bromine water at room temperature.
● Alkenes undergo additional reactions with bromine water.

The following test is carried out:

TEST
Add bromine water to the test tube containing the test sample and shake
well.
OBSERVATION
If the bromine water changes colour from orange to colourless, then the test
sample is an alkene.
If the bromine water remains orange, then the test sample is an alkane.

SC23a Ethanol Production

Ethanol is a member of the group of organic compounds called the alcohols (C2H5OH).
C2H4 + H2O → CH3CH2OH
It is often called alcohol. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles and as a raw material
for the chemical industry. The ethanol in alcoholic drinks are made from sugars.

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Fermentation
1. Extract sugars from crops.
2. Add yeast to glucose.
3. Fermentation (anaerobic respiration)
○ Enzymes in yeast act as catalysts.
○ Low temperatures (30oC - 40oC)
○ CO2 released.
○ Batch process (stop and start)
Advantages Disadvantages

● Sugars are renewable ● Slow and impure

● Cheap equipment ● Expensive to maintain
● Ethanol is toxic to yeast above a
certain concentration.
● Ethanol boils at a lower temperature
than water, so it leaves water
behind.

Hydration of ethanol
1. Extract crude oil from the ground.
2. Oil refinery - fractional distillation or cracking
3. Hydration (with steam)
○ Phosphoric acid (catalyst) H3PO4
○ High temperatures (300oC)
○ High pressure (60 - 70 atm)
○ Continuous process
Advantages Disadvantages

● Fast reaction ● Expensive technology

● Pure product ● Expensive to maintain
● 95% yield ● Ethene is non-renewable
● Continuous process

SC23b Alcohols + SC23c Carboxylic acids

A family of organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms
(homologous series). They are not hydrocarbons as they contain oxygen. The defining
feature of alcohols is the functional group –OH.

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Characteristics
● Same functional group (–OH)
● Same general formula (CnH2n+1OH)
● Shows regular gradation in physical properties

Chemical properties
Combustion of alcohols
Alcohols contain hydrocarbon atoms, so they react similarly to alkanes. For example,
ethanol burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.
Oxidation of alcohols
Carboxylic acids can be made by oxidising alcohols. C2H5OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O
Ethanol is oxidised to form ethanoic acid

Reaction of alcohols with sodium

Because alcohols contain OH, they often react similar to water.
ethanol + sodium → sodium ethoxide + hydrogen
2C2H5OH + 2Na → 2C2H5ONa + H2
Uses of ethanol
● To make alcoholic drinks
● Antibiotic properties (Hand wipes)
● Solvent
● Paint (evaporates quickly)
● Fuel

.E. Evaluate the use of bioethanol fuel.

Advantages Disadvantages

● Less greenhouse emissions ● Loss of habitat

● Alternate source of fossil fuel ● Takes up crop space
● Might not produce particulates ● High production cost
● Carbon neutral ● Doesn’t release a lot of energy
● Not all countries are able to harvest

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 The functional group of carboxylic acids
O
॥
–C–O–H

The general formula for carboxylic acids Cn-1H2n-1COOH

Chemical properties
● Form solutions with a pH less than 7 (if soluble).
● React with metals to form a salt and hydrogen.
● React with bases (alkalis) to form a salt and water.
● React with carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide.

Carboxylic acids can be made by oxidising alcohols using oxidising agents such as hot
copper (ii) oxide. Weak acids like carboxylic acids do not dissociate fully as some of their
H+ ions stay attached to the acid molecule. This is a reversible reaction in water.
CH3COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3COO–

pH is the measure of H+ ions in a solution with a lower pH meaning higher H+ ions.

Weak acids partially dissociate, therefore containing fewer H+ ions per molecule of acid.
● Have higher pH values
● Poor conductors of electricity
● React less quickly

Identifying strong and weak acids

1. HCl turns pH paper red while CH3COOH turns pH paper orange.
2. Measure the current produced by connecting an ammeter in a circuit with the acid
taken in a beaker. Graphite electrodes (inert) are to be used. A strong acid will
produce a greater current compared to a weaker acid.
3. Compare reactivity by adding a piece of Mg metal of the same mass and surface
area into separate beakers. More effervescence is produced by the strong acid.

strong acid weak acid

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SC24b The combustion of alcohols: 180

SC24a Addition polymerisation

A reaction where lots of small alkene molecules (monomers) join together to form a long
chain called a polymer.

Natural polymers
Protein (polymer) are made up of amino acids (monomers)
DNA is made up of nucleotides.
Starch is made up of glucose.

Some synthetic polymers are made by additional polymerisation, such as poly(ethene).

Refer to repeating units and how to draw them (185-186)

Monomer Polymer

Ethene poly(ethene)

Propene poly(propene)

Styrene poly(styrene)

Ethylene terephthalate poly(ethylene terephthalate) PET

SC24b Polymer properties and uses

Polymer poly(ethene) poly(propene) poly(chloroethene) poly(tetrafluoroethene)

Common name polythene polypropylene PVC TeflonTM

Properties Flexible, cheap, Flexible, does Tough, good Tough, slippery

good insulator not shatter insulator

Uses Bags, bottles Ropes, carpets Pipes, wires Kitchen utensils

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SC24c Condensation polymerisation
Polyesters are synthetic polymers made from condensation polymerisation in which the
monomers join together and remove a small molecule such as water.

Esterification
Esters are formed when a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol in the presence of
sulphuric acid (catalyst). Esters are volatile and have a distinct taste and smell and so is
therefore used in perfumes and flavourings. Esterification is also a condensation reaction
as water is produced. These also contain an ester link ( – COO – )
carboxylic acid + alcohol → ester + water

Condensation polymerisation is the formation of a polyester. The carboxylic acid and

alcohol join up and form a polyester and some water molecules.

Uses of condensation polymers (PET)

● Plastic bottles (light weight, unreactive, shatter-resistant)
● Fabrics for clothes and sheets (nylon)
● Bulletproof clothing (kevlar)

SC24d Problems with polymers

Plastics are non-biodegradable.
Biodegradable: can be decomposed when microbes feed on them and break them down.

Incineration of plastic releases energy which can be used for electricity. However, all
plastics produce carbon dioxide and other toxic substances when they burn. Most of
these toxic gases can be removed easily, but this forms toxic ash, which must be
disposed of safely.

Alternate method (recycling)

There are certain steps involved when recycling.
1. Collection of plastic waste.
2. Sorting the waste according to the type of polymer.
3. Cut into small pieces and wash with disinfectant.
4. Manufacture new products.

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