Chapter 1

Units and Measurement

Introduction
Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain
basic, internationally accepted reference standard called unit.
The result of a measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a
number accompanied by a unit.

Fundamental and Derived Quantities.

The quantities ,which can be measured directly or indirectly are called
physical quantities. There are two types of physical quantities-
Fundamental quantities(Base quantities) and Derived quantities.

▪ The physical quantities, which are independent of each other and

cannot be expressed in terms of other physical qualities are called
fundamental quantities.
Eg: length, mass, time.
▪ The physical quantities , which can be expressed in terms of
fundamental qualities are called derived quantities.
Eg: volume, velocity, force

Fundamental and Derived Units

▪ The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called
fundamental or base units. The units of all other physical quantities
can be expressed as combinations of the base units.
▪ The units of the derived quantities are called derived units.
Systems of Units
A complete set of both the base and derived units, is known as the system
of units. Three such systems, the CGS, the FPS (or British) system and the
MKS system were in use extensively till recently.
The base units for length, mass and time in these systems were as follows :
▪ CGS system - centimetre, gram and second.
▪ FPS system - foot, pound and second.
▪ MKS system - metre, kilogram and second.

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The International System of Units
▪ In 1971 the General Conference on Weights and Measures
developed an internationally accepted system of units for
measurement with standard scheme of symbols, units and
abbreviations.
▪ This is the Système Internationale d’ Unites (French for International
System of Units), abbreviated as SI system.
▪ SI system is now for international usage in scientific, technical,
industrial and commercial work.
In SI system there are seven base units and two supplementary units.

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Multiples and Sub multiples of Units

Unit of density =kg 𝒎−𝟑 PONPANDIAN PHYSICS

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Since dimensions of all terms are the same for Equations (b) and (d) ,
these equations can be considered as the equation for kinetic energy.

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9.The Van der waals equation of 'n' moles of a real gas is
𝒂
(P+ 𝟐 )(V−b)=nRT. Where P is the pressure, V is the volume, T is absolute
𝑽
temperature, R is molar gas constant and a, b, c are Van der
waal constants. Find the dimensional formula for a and b.
a
(P+ 2 )(V−b)=nRT.
V
By principle of homegeneity, the quantities with same dimensions can be
added or subtracted.
a
[P] =[ 2 ]
V
[a] =[PV 2 ]
=ML−1 T −2 x L6
[a] = M𝐋𝟓 𝐓 −𝟐

[b] = [V]
[b] =𝐋𝟑

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Rule 6:The power of 10, in scientific notation is irrelevant to the determination of
significant figures.

4.700 m
= 4.700 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 cm
= 4.700 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 mm
= 4.700 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 km
All these numbers have 4 significant namaste figures.

Rounding off the Uncertain Digits

1) If the insignificant digit to be dropped is more than 5, the preceding
digit is raised by 1
A number 2.746 rounded off to three significant figures is 2.75
Here the insignificant digit , 6 > 5 and hence 1 is added to the
preceeding digit 4 .(4+1=5)

2) If the insignificant digit to be dropped less than 5, the preceding digit

is left unchanged .
A number 2.743 rounded off to three significant figures is be
2.74.
Here the insignificant digit , 3< 5 and hence the preceeding
number 4 does not change.
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3) If the insignificant digit to be dropped is 5,
Case i) If the preceding digit is even, the insignificant digit is simply
dropped.
A number 2.745 rounded off to three significant figures is 2.74.
Here the preceding digit 4 is even and hence 5 is simply dropped.
Case ii- ) If the preceding digit is odd, the preceding digit is raised by 1.
A number 2.735 rounded off to three significant figures is 2.74
Here the preceding digit 3 ,is odd and hence 1 is added to
It. (3+1=5)
Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures
(1)In multiplication or division, the final result should retain as many
significant figures as are there in the original number with the least
significant figures.
Eg:If mass of an object is measured to be, 4.237 g (four significant figures)
and its volume is measured to be 2.51cm3(3 significant figures), then find
its density in appropriate significant figures.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 4.237 𝑔
Density = = = 1.688047
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2.51𝑐𝑚3
As per rule the final result should be rounded to 3 significant figures .
So the answer is 1.69 g/ 𝒄𝒎𝟑

(2) In addition or subtraction, the final result should retain as many

decimal places as are there in the number with the least decimal places.
Eg:Find the sum of the numbers 436.32 g, 227.2 g and 0.301 g to
appropriate significant figures.
436.32 g + (2 decimal places)
227.2 g + (1 decimal place)
0.301 g (3 decimal places)
_______________
663.821 g
As per rule ,the final result should be rounded to 1 decimal place.
So the answer 663.8 g

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 Chapter 2
Motion in a Straight Line
The study of motion of objects along a straight line is also known as
rectilinear motion .
Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
Instantaneous velocity
The average velocity tells us how fast an object has been moving over a
given time interval but does not tell us how fast it moves at different
instants of time during that interval. For this, we define instantaneous
velocity or simply velocity v at an instant t.
The velocity at an instant is called instantaneous velocity and is defined as
the limit of the average velocity as the time interval Δt becomes
infinitesimally small
𝚫𝐱 𝐝𝐱
v = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
𝚫𝐭→𝟎 𝚫𝐭 𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐱
v = 𝐝𝐭
dx
is the differential coefficient of x with respect to t .It is the rate of
dt
change of position with respect to time.
Determining velocity from position-time graph. Velocity at t = 4 s is the
slope of the tangent to the graph at that instant.

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We see from Table 2.1 that as we decrease the value of ∆t from 2.0 s to
0.010 s, the value of the average velocity approaches the limiting value
𝐝𝐱
3.84 m s–1 which is the value of velocity at t = 4.0 s, i.e. the value of
𝐝𝐭

at t = 4.0 s.
Instantaneous speed
Instantaneous speed or simply speed is the magnitude of velocity.
For example, a velocity of 24 m s –1 and a velocity of – 24 m s –1 — both
have an associated speed of 24.0 m s -1 .
Example
The position of an object moving along x-axis is given by x = a + bt2 where
a = 8.5 m, b = 2.5 m s–2 and t is measured in seconds.
(a)What is its velocity at t = 0 s and t = 2.0 s.
(b) What is the average velocity between t = 2.0 s and t = 4.0 s ?

(a) x = a + bt 2
𝐝𝐱 𝐝
v= = (a + bt 2 ) = 2bt
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭
At t = 0 , v = 0
At t = 2 , v = 2 x 2.5 x 2 = 10 m s-1

x2 −x1 x4 −x2
(b) v̅ = =
t2 −t1 4−2
a+16b−a−4b
=
2
12b 12 x 2.5
= = =15 m s-1
2 2

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Acceleration
Suppose the velocity itself is changing with time. In order to describe its
effect on the motion of the particle, we require another physical quantity
called acceleration. The rate of change of velocity of an object is called
acceleration.

Average Acceleration
The average acceleration a over a time interval is defined as the change of
velocity divided by the time interval .

𝐯𝟐 −𝐯𝟏 ∆𝐯
𝐚̅ = =
𝐭 𝟐 −𝐭 𝟏 ∆𝐭

▪ Unit of acceleration is ms-2 , [a] =LT-2

▪ Acceleration is a vector quantity.
▪ If velocity is increasing with time, acceleration is +ve.
▪ If velocity is decreasing with time, acceleration is -ve.
▪ -ve acceleration is called retardation or deceleration.
Uniform acceleration
If the velocity of an object changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of
time, it has uniform acceleration.
Instantaneous acceleration
The acceleration of a particle at any instant of its motion is called
instantaneous acceleration.

Position-time graph for motion with

(a)positive acceleration (b) negative acceleration c)zero acceleration

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Velocity–time graph for motions with constant acceleration
(a)Motion in positive direction with positive acceleration

(b) Motion in positive direction with negative acceleration

(c)Motion in negative direction with negative acceleration

(d)Motion of an object with negative acceleration that changes direction at

time t1.
(Between times 0 to t1, its moves in positive x - direction and between t1 and t2 it
moves in the opposite direction.)

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Importance of Velocity - time graph for a moving objct
An interesting feature of velocity - time graph for any moving objct is that
the area under the velocity - time graph is equal to the displacement of the
particle.

Proof for this statement :-

In uniform motion, velocity is the same at any instant of motion. Therefore,
the velocity - time graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis.

Area =uT = Displacement

i.e.,the area under the velocity - time graph is equal to the displacement of
the particle.

Kinematic Equations for Uniformly Accelerated Motion

Consider a body moving with uniform acceleration . The velocity – time
graph is as shown in figure

(1) Velocity – time relation

From the graph , acceleration = slope
BC
a=
AC
v−u
a=
t
v-u = at
v = u +at -------------------- (1)
or (v = v0 +at)

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(2) Position-time relation
Displacement = Area under the graph
s = Area of + Area of
s = ut + ½ (v-u) t
But from equation (1)
v -u = at
s = ut + ½ at x t
s = ut + ½ at2 ------------------(2)
or (s=v0 t +½ at2)

(3)Position – velocity relation

Displacement = Average velocity x time
v+u
Average velocity =
2
From equation (1) , v-u = at
v−u
t=
a
Substituting the values,
v+u v−u
s=( ) ( )
2 a
v2 −u2
s=( )
2a
v 2 − u2 = 2as
𝐯 𝟐 = 𝐮𝟐 + 2as ----------------(3)
Or (𝐯 𝟐 = 𝐯𝟎 𝟐 + 2as )
Stopping distance of vehicles
When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the distance it travels before
stopping is called stopping distance.
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2as
0 = 𝑢2 + 2as
−𝑢2 = 2as
−𝒖𝟐
s= 𝟐𝒂

Motion of an object under Free Fall

Free fall is a case of motion with uniform acceleration.
Since the acceleration due to gravity is always downward,
a = – g = – 9.8 ms–2
The object is released from rest at y = 0. Therefore, u = 0

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Then the equations of motion become
v=0–gt = -9.8 t
y = 0 – ½ g t2 = -4.9 t2
v 2 = 0 – 2 g y = -19.6 y

(a)Variation of acceleration with time

(b)Variation of velocity with time

(c)Variation of distance with time

Example
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20 m s–1 from the top
of a multistorey building. The height of the point from where the ball is
thrown is 25.0 m from the ground.
(a) How high will the ball rise ? and
(b) how long will it be before the ball hits the ground? Take g = 10 m s–2

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Example
Galileo’s law of odd numbers :“The distances traversed, during equal
intervals of time, by a body falling from rest, stand to one another in the
same ratio as the odd numbers beginning with unity [namely, 1: 3: 5:
7…...].” Prove it.
Answer Let us divide the time interval of motion of an object under free
fall into many equal intervals τ and find out the distances traversed during
successive intervals of time. Since initial velocity is zero, we have
y = - ½ t2

We find that the distances are in the simple ratio 1: 3: 5: 7: 9: 11… as

shown in the last column. This law was established by Galileo Galilei.

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 Chapter 3
Motion in a Plane
Scalars and Vectors
A scalar quantity has only magnitude and no direction. It is specified
completely by a single number, along with the proper unit.
Eg. distance ,mass , temperature, time .

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction and obeys the
triangle law of addition or the parallelogram law of addition. A vector is
specified by giving its magnitude by a number and its direction.
Eg.displacement, velocity, acceleration and force.

Representation of a Vector
A vector is representedby a bold letter say A or an arrow by an arrow
placed over a letter, say Ā .
The magnitude of a vector is called its absolute value, indicated by
|Ā|=A

Graphically a vector is represented by a line segment with an arrow head.

Q Q is the head of the vector
Ā P is the tail of the vector

The length of line segment gives the magnitude of the vector and arrow
mark gives its direction.
Position and Displacement Vectors

Let P and P′ be the positions of the object at time t and t′ , respectively .

OP is the position vector of the object at time t. OP = r.
OP’ is the position vector of the object at time t’. OP’= r’
If the object moves from P to P′ , the vector PP′ is called the displacement
vector.
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Displacement vector is the straight line joining the initial and final
positions and does not depend on the actual path undertaken by the object
between the two positions.

Equality of Vectors
Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if, and only if, they have the
same magnitude and the same direction.
(a) Two equal vectors A and B.

(b) Two vectors A ′ and B ′ are unequal eventhough they are of same
length

Multiplication of Vectors by Real Numbers

▪ Multiplying a vector Ā with a positive number λ gives a vector whose
magnitude is changed by the factor λ but direction is the same as that
of Ā
λxĀ =λĀ, if λ > 0

For example, if Ā is multiplied by 2, the resultant vector 2 Ā is in

the same direction as Ā and has a magnitude twice of | Ā |

▪ Multiplying a vector Ā by a negative number λ gives a vector λ Ā

whose direction is opposite to the direction of Ā and whose
magnitude is
–λ times | Ā |.
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 For example, multiplying a given vector A by negative numbers, say
–1 and –1.5, gives vectors as

Null vector or a Zero vector

A Null vector or a Zero vector is a vector having zero magnitude and is
represented by O or Ō . The result of adding two equal and opposite
vectors will be a Zero vector
Eg: When a body returns to its initial position its displacement will be a
zero vector.

The main properties of Ō are :

Ā+Ō=Ā
λŌ=Ō
ŌĀ=Ō
Unit vectors
A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particular
direction.
It has no dimension and unit. It is used to specify a direction only.
If we multiply a unit vector, say n by a scalar, the result is a vector.

In general, a vector A can be written as

Ā = |A|
̅
̂= 𝐀
𝐀 |𝐀|
where  is the unit vector along Ā

Unit vectors along the x-, y- and z-axes of a rectangular coordinate system
are denoted by î , ĵ and k̂ , respectively.

Since these are unit vectors, we have | î | = | ̂J | = | k̂ | = 1

These unit vectors are perpendicular to each other and are called
orthogonal unit vectors
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Resolution of a vector
We can now resolve a vector A in terms of component vectors that lie along
unit vectors î and ĵ .

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors — Graphical Method

Triangle law of vector addition
If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides
of a triangle taken in order ,then their resultant is given by the third side of
the triangle taken in reverse order.

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This graphical method is called the head-to-tail method.
If we find the resultant of B + A , the same vector R is obtained.
▪ Thus, vector addition is commutative:
A+B=B+A
▪ The addition of vectors also obeys the associative law
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

Subtraction of vectors
Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms of addition of vectors. We
define the difference of two vectors A and B as the sum of two vectors
A and –B :
A – B = A + (–B)

Parallelogram law of vector addition

If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the
adjacent sides of a parallelogram ,then their resultant is given by the
diagonal of the parallelogram.

Example
Rain is falling vertically with a speed of 35 m s –1 . Winds starts blowing
after sometime with a speed of 12 m s –1 in east to west direction. In which
direction
should a boy waiting at a bus stop hold his umbrella ?

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Vector Addition – Analytical Method

Consider two vectors A and B in x-y plane

From the geometry of the figure,

OS 2 = ON 2 + SN 2
but ON = OP + PN
= A + B cos θ
SN = B sin θ
OS 2 = (A + B cos θ ) 2 + (B sin θ ) 2
R 2 = A 2 +2AB cos θ + B 2 cos 2θ +B 2sin2 θ
R 2 = A 2 + B 2 + 2AB cos θ
𝐑 = √𝐀2 + 𝐁 2 + 2𝐀𝐁𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
This Equation gives the magnitude of the resultant of vectors A and B.

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From figure,

These Equations gives the direction of the resultant of vectors A and B.

Example
A motorboat is racing towards north at 25 km/h and the water current
in that region is 10 km/h in the direction of 60° east of south. Find the
resultant velocity of the boat

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Motion in a Plane

Position Vector
The position vector r of a particle P at time t
r = xî +y ĵ
The position vector r of a particle P at time t’
r’ = x’î +y’ ĵ
Displacement vector
Δr = r’ -r
Δr =( x’î +y’ ĵ ) - (xî +y ĵ )
Δr = ( x’- x) î + (y’ - y ) ĵ
Δr = Δx î + Δy ĵ

Velocity vector
Δ𝐫
v=
Δ𝐭
v = Δx î + Δy ĵ
Δt
v = Δx î + Δy ĵ
Δt Δt
v = vx î + v y ĵ
Instantaneous velocity
𝐝𝐫
v=
𝐝𝐭
v = vx î + vy ĵ where

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Acceleration

a = ax î + a y ĵ

Instantaneous Acceleration
𝐝𝐯
a=
𝐝𝐭

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Projectile Motion

▪ An object that is in flight after being thrown or projected is called a

projectile.
▪ The path (trajectory)of a projectile is a parabola.
▪ The components of initial velocity u are u cos θ along horizontal
direction and u sin θ along vertical direction.
▪ The x-component of velocity(u cos θ ) remains constant throughout
the motion and hence there is no acceleration in horizontal
direction,i.e., ax = 0
▪ The y- component of velocity (u sin θ ) changes throughout the
motion. At the point of maximum height, u sin θ = 0. There is
acceleration in horizontal direction, ay = – g

Equation of path of a projectile

Displacement of the projectile after a time t
x= ucosθ t
x
t =ucosθ
1
y= u sinθ t − 2 g t 2
x 1 x 2
y= u sinθ (ucosθ) − g ( )
2 ucosθ
g
y= tanθ x − 2 u2 cos2 θ
x2
This equation is of the form y = a x + b x 2 , in which a and b are constants.
This is the equation of a parabola, i.e. the path of the projectile is a
parabola .
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Time of Flight of a projectile (T)

The total time T during which the projectile is in flight is called Time of
Flight, T.

Consider the motion in vertical direction,

s = ut +½ at2
s=0,
u = u sin θ ,
a =-g ,
t=T
0 = u sin θ T - ½ gT2
u sin θ T = ½ gT2
𝟐 𝐮 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
T=
𝐠
Horizontal range of a projectile (R)
The horizontal distance travelled by a projectile during its time of flight is
called the horizontal range, R.
Horizontal range = Horizontal component of velocity x Time of flight
𝟐 𝐮 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
R = u cos θ x 𝒈
𝒖𝟐 𝐱 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 cos θ
R= 𝑔
𝐮𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝛉
R=
𝐠
R is maximum when sin2θ is maximum, i.e., when θ = 45 0 .
𝐮𝟐
Rmax =
𝐠

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Show that for a given velocity of projection range will be same for angles 𝜽
and ( 90-𝜽 )
𝐮𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝛉
For angle θ, R=
𝐠
𝐮𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐(𝟗𝟎−𝛉)
For angle (90 -θ), R=
𝐠
𝐮𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝟏𝟖𝟎− 𝟐𝛉)
R=
𝐠
sin (180 - 2θ) =sin 2θ
𝐮𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝛉
R=
𝐠
for given velocity of projection range will be same for angles 𝜽 and ( 90-𝜽 )
Maximum height of a projectile (H)
It is the maximum height reached by the projectile.
Consider the motion in vertical direction to the highest point
v2 – u2 = 2as
u = u sin θ,
v=0,
a = -g ,
s=H
0 - u2 sin 2θ = -2 g H
𝐮𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝛉
H=
𝟐𝐠

Example
A cricket ball is thrown at a speed of 28 m s –1 in a direction 30° above the
horizontal. Calculate (a) the maximum height, (b) the time taken by the
ball to return to the same level, and (c) the distance from the thrower to
the point where the ball
returns to the same level.
(a) H = u2 sin 2θ
2g
H = 282 sin2 30
2 x 9.8
H = 10 m

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(b) T = 2 u sin θ
g
T = 2x 28 sin30
9.8
T = 2.9 s
(c) R = u2 sin 2θ
g
R = 282 sin60
9.8
R = 69 m

Uniform Circular Motion

When an object follows a circular path at a constant speed, the motion of
the object is called uniform circular motion. The word “uniform” refers to
the speed, which is uniform (constant) throughout the motion.

Period
The time taken by an object to make one revolution is known as its time
period T
Frequency
The number of revolutions made in one second is called its frequency.
𝟏
υ=
𝑻
unit - hertz (Hz)
Angular velocity (ω )
angular velocity is the time rate of change of angular displacement
𝚫𝛉
ω=
𝚫𝒕
In the limit Δt tends to zero
𝐝𝛉
ω=
𝒅𝒕

Unit is rad/s
During the time period T ,the angular displacement is 2π radian
2𝛑
ω= or ω = 2𝛑 υ
𝑻

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Relation connecting angular velocity and linear velocity

As the object moves from P to P′ in time Δt . Δθ is called angular

displacement and Δ r is the linear diplacement
arc
angle =
radius
Δr
Δθ=
r
Δr=r Δθ
Δr Δθ
=r
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
v=rω
Angular Acceleration
The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration.
d𝛚
α =
dt
dθ
But ω =
𝑑𝑡
d dθ
α= ( 𝑑𝑡 )
dt

𝐝𝟐 𝛉
α= 𝐝𝐭

Centripetal acceleration
A body in uniform circular motion experiences an acceleration , which is
directed towards the centre along its radius .This is s called centripetal
acceleration .

PONPANDIAN PHYSICS
Let r and r′ be the position vectors and v and v′ the velocities of the object
when it is at point P and P ′
Δv Δr
=
v r
vΔr
Δv=
r
Δv vΔr
=
Δt r Δt
v
a= xr
r
v2
a= r
If R is the radius of circular path, then centripetal acceleration .
𝐯𝟐
ac = 𝐑
Centripetal acceleration can also be expressed as

v=Rω v=Rω
𝐯𝟐
ac = R = v/ω
𝐑
v2
ac =
R
ac = R2 ω2 ac = v 2
R (v/ ω)
a c = ω 2R ac = v ω
Example
An insect trapped in a circular groove of radius 12 cm moves along the
groove steadily and completes 7 revolutions in 100 s.
(a) What is the angular speed, and the linear speed of the motion?
(b) Is the acceleration vector a constant vector ? What is its magnitude ?
100
Period, T= s
7
(a) The angular speed ω is given by
2π 2π 2π x7
ω= = 100 = =0.44 rad/s
𝑇 100
7

The linear speed , v =ω R = 0.44 × 0.12 = 5.3 x 10 -2 m s -1

(b) The direction of velocity v is along the tangent to the circle at every
point. The acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle. Since
this direction changes continuously, acceleration here is not a constant
vector.
a = ω 2 R = (0.44 ) 2 x0.12 = 2.3x10 -2 m s -2

PONPANDIAN PHYSICS