Alevel Physics 1 2021 OCT -Final

Pass A’ level Physics 1 in Two days
PREFACE
This book covers Mechanics, Heat and Moder physics. The content is brief, concise
and summarised with marking points underlined in most cases.
A variety of examples have been presented in the book to help a student easily
understand numerical calcultions in physics 1 even with out the help of a teacher.
A number of exercises have also been included in every chapter and at the end of
each numerical calculation question, the answer is placed in high lighted brackets.
At the end of every chapter, you will find UNEB questions and their answers dating
from 1998 to 2020.
This book has been embraced and used but not limited to schools such as Seeta
high school, St Marys College Kitende, Kings college Budo, Bishop Cipriano
Kihangire s.s.s.
Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 1

For Further assistance, do not hesistate to consult the

author on watapp number 0775263103 or direct call on
the same number or 0703171757.
Students who need online or face to face tutorials can

also reach the author through the above contacts.

SECTIONA: MECHANICS
CHAPTER1: DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL QUANTITY

1.1.0: Fundamental quantities
These are quantities which can’t be expressed in terms of any other quantities by using any
mathematical equation. E.g.
Mass - M Length - L Time- T
1.1.1: Derived quantities

These are quantities which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities of mass, length,
and time e.g.
i) Pressure iii) Momentum
ii) Acceleration iv) Density
1.1.2: DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL QUANTITY

This refers to the way a physical quantity is related to the three fundamental quantities of length,
mass and time.
Or It refers to the power to which fundamental quantities are raised.

Symbol of dimensions is [ ]
Examples
[Area] = 𝐿2 , [Volume]= 𝐿3 [Momentum]=[Mass][Velocity]=M𝐿𝑇 −1
[𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦] =
[𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠] 𝑀
= 𝐿3 =M𝐿−3 [Weight]=[m][g]=M𝐿𝑇 −2
[𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒]
[𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡] 𝐿
[Force]=[Mass][Acceleration]= M𝐿𝑇 −2
−1
[Velocity]= = 𝑇 = 𝐿𝑇 [𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒] M𝐿𝑇 −2
[𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒] [Pressure]= [𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎] = 𝐿2 =M𝐿−1 𝑇 −2
[𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦] 𝐿𝑇 −1
[Acceleration]= [𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒]
= 𝑇 = 𝐿𝑇 −2
1.1.3: USES OF DIMENSIONS

1. Used to check the validity of the equation or check whether the equation is dimensionally
consistent or correct.
2. Used to derive equations
a) Checking validity of equations (dimensional consistency)

When the dimensions on the L-H-S of the equations are equal to the dimensions on the
R-H-S, then the equation is said to be dimensionally consistent.
Examples
𝑙
1. The period T, of a simple pendulum is given by 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔 Show that the equation is
dimensionally correct.
Where 2 𝜋 = dimension less constant 𝑔 = Acceleration due to gravity
𝑙 = length of pendulum
Solution
L.H.S [𝑇] = 𝑇 Since the dimensions on the L.H.S are
𝑙 𝑙
1
2 [𝑙]
1
2
equal to the dimensions on the R.H.S then
R.HS = [2𝜋√𝑔 ] = [2𝜋 (𝑔) ] = [2 𝜋] ([𝑔]) the equation is dimensionally consistent.
1
𝐿 2 1⁄
= ( −2 ) = (𝑇 2 ) 2 = T
𝐿𝑇

Example
Show that the equation 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 is dimensionally correct.
Solution
L.H.S [𝑣 2 ] = (𝐿𝑇 −1 )2 = 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 Since dimensions on the L.H.S are equal to
R.H.S = [𝑢 2]
= [2as]= (𝐿𝑇 −1 )2
= 1𝑥 𝐿𝑇 𝐿−2 dimensions on the R.H.S then the equation is
2 −2
=𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿 𝑇 2 −2 dimensionally correct.
Exercise: 1
1. Show that the following equations are dimensionally consistent where symbols have their usual
meanings
1 ii) 𝑣 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 iii) 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
i) 𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 2
2. The frequency f of vibration of the drop of a liquid depends on surface tension, 𝛾 of the drop, its density, 𝜌
𝛾
and radius r of the drop. Show that 𝑓 = 𝑘 √𝜌𝑟3 where k is a non-dimensional constant
UNEB 2016 N0 1 (a)

(i) Define dimensions of a physical quantity. (01mark)
(ii) In the gas equation
𝑎
) (𝑉 − 𝑏) = 𝑅𝑇
(𝑃 +
𝑉2
Where P= pressure, V= volume, T=absolute temperature, and R= gas constant. What are the
dimensions of the constants a and b. (04marks)
UNEB 2010 N0 4 (d)

𝐸
The velocity V of a wave in a material of young modulus E and density ρ is given by 𝑉 = √(𝜌)
Shows that the relationship is dimensionally correct (03 marks)
UNEB2009 No 3b
A cylindrical vessel of cross sectional area, A contains air of volume V, at pressure p trapped by
frictionless air tight piston of mass, M. The piston is pushed down and released.
i) If the piston oscillates with simple harmonic motion, shows that its frequency f is given
𝐴 p
𝑓 = 2𝜋 √MV (06 marks)
ii) Show that the expression for f in b(i) is dimensionally correct (03 marks)
UNEB 2001 No 2 b
The velocity V of sound travelling along a rod made of a material of young’s modulus y and density
𝑌
ρ is given by 𝑉 = √ Show that the formula is dimensionally consistent (03 mks)
𝜌
UNEB 1997 No 1
a) i) What is meant by dimensions of a physical quantity (1mk)
ii)The centripetal force required to keep a body of mass 𝒎 moving it a circular path of radius 𝒓
𝑚 𝑣2
is given by 𝐹 = 𝑟
show that the formula is dimensionally consistent. (04 marks)

CHAPTER 2: COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

VECTOR QUANTITY
It is a physical quantity with both magnitude and direction.
Example; displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, weight and momentum
SCALAR QUANTITY
It is a physical quantity with only magnitude.
Example; distance, speed, time, temperature, mass and energy
Example
A particle at the origin 0 is acted upon by the three forces as shown below. Find the position of the
particle after 2 seconds of its mass is 1kg.
7N
3N 60o
4N
Solution But𝐹𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎
(→): 𝐹𝑥 = − 3 + 7𝑐𝑜𝑠60 = 0.5𝑁 2.12 = 1𝑎
(↑): 𝐹𝑦 = 7𝑠𝑖𝑛60 − 4 = 2.06𝑁 𝑎 = 2.12𝑚𝑠 −2
From 𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + ½ 𝑎𝑡 2
FR
Fy 𝑢 = 0 𝑡 = 2𝑠 𝑎 = 2.12𝑚𝑠 −2
θ
Fx
𝑆 = 0𝑥2 + ½ 𝑥2.12𝑥22 = 4.24𝑚
𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2 = √0.52 + 2.062 = 2.12𝑁
EXERCISE:2
1. Two coplanar forces act on a point 0 as shown 2. Three coplanar forces act at a point as shown
below below
y y
5N
10N 5N 4N
45o 60o 60o 30o

X X
O
0
Calculate the resultant force An[12.3N at 68.0 3N
above the horizontal] Find the resultant force acting at 0 An[3.4N at

73.10 above the horizontal]
UNEB 2019 No1

(a) (i) Distinguish between scalar quantity and vector quantity. (01 mark)
(𝑖𝑖) Give two examples of each type of quantity. (02 marks)
(b) A body of mass 0.2 kg at rest is acted on by four forces of 2.8𝑁, 6.0𝑁, 4.5𝑁 and 1.2𝑁 as shown below.
1.2N
600 2.8N
300
4.5N 1000
6.0N
Calculate the:
(i) Resultant force on the body An[8.73N at 𝟐𝟒. 𝟔°] (04 marks)
(ii) Distance moved in 4s. An[349.2m] (02 marks)

CHAPTER 3: KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the branch of physics which deals with motion of bodies and systems without
consideration of the force causing motion
(a) LINEAR MOTION

Acceleration
It is the rate of change of velocity with time
It SI unit is ms-2
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣−𝑢
Acceleration = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎=
𝑡
Uniform acceleration
Constant rate of change of velocity.
Equations of uniform acceleration

1st equation
Suppose a body moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration a, increases its velocity from
u to v in a time t, then from definition of acceleration
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎 𝑡 …………….1
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣 − 𝑢
2nd equation
Suppose an object with velocity u moves with uniform acceleration for a time t and attains a velocity
v, the distance s travelled by the object is given by S = average velocity 𝑥 time
𝑣+𝑢
𝑆 = ( 2 ) 𝑡 But 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 2𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑆=
(𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑢) 2
𝑆= 𝑡 1
2 𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 ……………………2
(2𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑡
𝑆=
2
3rd equation
S = average velocity 𝑥 time 𝑣 2 −𝑢2
𝑣+𝑢 𝑣−𝑢
S=
2𝑎
𝑆 = ( 2 )𝑡 But 𝑡 = 𝑎 2 2
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠 ………………..3
𝑣+𝑢 𝑣−𝑢
𝑆= ( 2
)( 𝑎 )
Examples
1) A particle moving in a straight line with a constant acceleration of 2ms-2 is initially at rest, find the
distance covered by the particle in the 3rd second of its motion.
Solution
1
Using S = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 Distance in 3rd
Distance for 3s – distance for 2s
u=0m/s, t=2s and t=3s a= 2ms-2
= 9 − 4 = 5𝑚
t=2 : 𝑠 = 0𝑥2 + ½ 𝑥2𝑥22= 4𝑚
Distance in 3rds in 5m
When t=3: a=2ms-2 u=0m/s
𝑠 = 0𝑥3 + ½ 𝑥2𝑥32= 9𝑚
2) A Travelling car A at a constant velocity of 25m/s overtake a stationery car B. 2s later car B sets off in
pursuit , accelerating at a uniform rate of 6ms-2. How far does B travel before catching up with A
Solution Since it moves with a SA = 25t---------------(1)
For A: SA = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
1 2 constant velocity a=0
2

1 1
For B: SB = 𝑢𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 t=12s or t= 3 𝑠
For B to catch A then
If B is to catch up with A Since the car leaves 2s later
SA=SB
then it must travel faster i.e then time 12s is correct since
25t =3t2−12𝑡 + 12
it will take a time of (t-2)s it gives a positive value
SB = 0x(t-2)+ ½ x6(t-2)2 3t2− 37𝑡 + 12 = 0 SB = 25x12
37±√372 −4𝑥12𝑥3
SB = 3t2-12t+12…………..(2) t= SB = 300m
2𝑥3
EXERCISE:3
1. A particle which is moving in a straight line with a 3. A body accelerates uniformly from rest at the
velocity of 15ms-1 accelerates uniformly for 3.0s, rate of 6ms-2 for 15 seconds. Calculate
increasing its velocity to 45ms-1. What distance does i) velocity reached within 15 seconds
it travel while accelerating? An[90m] ii) the distance covered within 15 seconds
2. A bus travelling steadily at 30m/s along a An[90m/s, 675m]
straight road passes a stationary crab which, 5s 4. An electron in a TV tube reaches a velocity in
later, begins to move with a uniform acceleration the region of 107 𝑚𝑠 −1 . If the distance
of 2m𝑠 −2 in the same direction as the bus between the filament and the accelerating
(a) How long does it take the car to anode is 5cm, what is the acceleration of the
acquire the same speed as the bus electron? An[1015 𝑚𝑠 −2]
(b) How far has the car travelled when it is
level with the bus An[15s, 1181m]
(b)
VERTICAL MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
Definition
Acceleration due to gravity (𝑔) is rate of change of velocity with time for an object falling freely under
gravity.
OR The force of attraction due to gravity exerted on a 1kg mass.
Numerical examples
1. A particle is projected vertically upwards with velocity of 19.6ms-1. Find
i) The greatest height attained
ii) Time taken by the particle to reach maximum height
iii) Time of flight
Solution
V=0 ii) From 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡
Smax 𝑢 = 19.6, 𝑔 = 9.81ms-2 𝑣 = 0 at max height
U=19m/s 0 = 19.6 − 9.81𝑡
At greatest height 𝑣 = 0𝑚/s 𝑡 = 1.998𝑠
2 2
𝑣 = 𝑢 − 2𝑔𝑠 Time to maximum height = 2.0𝑠
2 2
0 = 19.6 − 2𝑥9.81 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 iii) Time of flight = 2𝑥 time to max height
19.62 = 2𝑥2 = 4.0𝑠
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑥9.81 = 19.58𝑚
2. A man stands on the edge of a cliff and throws a stone vertically upwards at 15ms-1. After what time
will the stone hit the ground 20m below the point of projection
Solution
V=0 v=0m/s at max height, 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 =? t=?
Smax Method I: 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡
U=15m/s
20m 0 = 15 − 9.81𝑡
𝑡 = 1.53𝑠
Time to maximum height = 1.53𝑠

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠 Total time = (2.53 + 1.53) = 4.06𝑠

0 = 152−2𝑥9.81𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 Time taken to hit the ground = 4.06𝑠
152 Method II
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 11.47𝑚 The height of the cliff = 20m which is below
2𝑥9.81
Maximum height = 11.47𝑚 the point of project therefore
Total height = (11.47 + 20) = 31.47𝑚 𝑠 = −2𝑚 𝑢 = 15𝑚/𝑠
When the ball begins to return down from 1
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
max height 𝑢 = 0𝑚/𝑠 2
1 −20 = 15𝑡 − ½ 𝑥9.81𝑡 2
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2 −20 = 15𝑡 − 4.905𝑡 2
2
31.47 = 0𝑥𝑡 + ½ 𝑥9.81𝑡 2 𝑡 = 4.06𝑠
Time taken to hits the ground = 4.06𝑠
31.47𝑥2
𝑡=√ = 2.53𝑠
9.81
Exercise :4
1. A pebble is dropped from rest at the top of a cliff cliff top if it is to reach the bottom in 4s .
125m high. An(5s, 50m/s, 11.25m/s)
(a) How long does it take to reach the foot of 2. A body dropped from rest falls half its total path
the cliff and with what speed does it hit in the last second before it strikes the ground.
the floor Form what height was it dropped An[𝟓𝟖. 𝟐𝒎]
(b) With what speed must a second pebble be
thrown vertically down wards from the
UNEB 2014 No 1(c)

(i) State Newton’s laws of motion (03marks)
(ii) Explain how a rocket is kept in motion (04marks)
(iii) Explain why passengers in a bus are thrown backwards when the bus suddenly starts moving.
(03marks)
UNEB 2013 No 3(d)

(i) Define uniformly accelerated motion (03marks)
(ii) A train starts from rest at station A and accelerates at 1.25 m 𝑠 −2 until it reaches a speed of 20
m 𝑠 −1 . It then travels at this steady speed for a distance of 1.56km and then decelerates at 2
m 𝑠 −2 to come to rest at station B. Find the distance from A and B
An ( 1 820m) (04marks)
UNEB 1993 No 1
(a) Define the terms
(i) Displacement
(ii) Uniform acceleration
(b) i) A stone thrown vertically upwards from the top of a building with an initial velocity of 10m/s.
the stone takes 2.5s to land on the ground.
ii) Calculate the height of the building
(iii)State the energy changes that occurred during the motion of the stone (03 marks)

(c) PROJECTILE MOTION

This is the motion of a body which after being given an initial velocity moves freely under the
influence of gravity
TERMS USED IN PROJECTILES

1. TIME OF FLIGHT [T]
It refers to the total time taken by the projectile to move from the point of projection to the
point where it lands on the horizontal plane through the point of projection.
Vertically: 𝑆𝑦 =𝑢𝑦 t + ½ at2 𝑔𝑇
(𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2 ) = 0
at point A when the projectile return to the 𝑔𝑇
plane 𝑆𝑦 =0, 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
2
t=T(time of flight), 𝑎 = −𝑔 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 𝑢 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑔𝑇 2 𝑇 =
0 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑇 − 𝑔
2
𝑔𝑇 Note: The time of flight is twice the time to
T(𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2 ) = 0 maximum height
𝑔𝑇
Either 𝑇 = 0 or (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 2 ) = 0
2. EQUATION OF A TRAJECTORY
A trajectory is a path described by a projectile.
A trajectory is expressed in terms of horizontal distance x and vertical distance y.
For horizontal motion at any time t
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑡 since 𝑦 = a 𝑥 − b x 2
𝑥
𝑡 = ----------------[1] the motion is parabolic
𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑔 𝑥 2 𝑆𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃
For vertical motion at any time t Either 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 2 𝑢2
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑡 − ½ 𝑔𝑡 2 -------------[2]
Putting t into equation [2] 𝑔 𝑥 2 ( 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃)
Or 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 − 2 𝑢2
𝑥 1 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
– 2 𝑔 (𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
gx 2
𝒚 = 𝒙𝒕𝑎𝑛𝜃 −
2u2 cos2 θ
Examples
1. A Particle is projected with a velocity of 30ms-1 at an angle of elevation of 300. Find
i) The greatest height reached
ii) The time of flight iii) Horizontal range
iv) The velocity and direction of motion at a height of 4m on its way upwards
Solution
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 302 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 30 4 = 30𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑡 – ½ 9.81𝑥 𝑡 2
(i) 𝑆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 11.47𝑚
2𝑔
𝟐 𝒖 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
2𝑥9.81
2 𝑥 30 𝑠𝑖𝑛30
4.905𝑡 2 − 15𝑡 + 4 = 0
(ii) 𝑻 = 𝒈
= 9.81
= 3.06𝑠 𝑡 = 2.76𝑠 or 𝑡 = 0.30𝑠
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 302 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥30 The value of 𝑡 = 0.30𝑠 is the correct time since
(iii) R= 𝑔
= 9.81
= 79.45𝑚 it’s the smaller value for which the body
30m/s
moves upwards.
Y-axis B
A α
V x 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
o
4m 4m V
𝑣𝑥 = 30𝑐𝑜𝑠 30 = 25.98𝑚/𝑠
30 V
O
y
X-axis 𝑣 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
𝑣𝑦 = 305𝑥30 − 9.81𝑥0.30 = 12.06𝑚/𝑠
For vertical motion
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑡 − ½ 𝑔𝑡 2

−1 𝑉𝑦 −1 12.06
0
𝑣 = √𝑉𝑥2 + 𝑉𝑦2 = √25.982 + 12.062 = 28.64𝑚/𝑠 Direction : 𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (25.98) =24.9
Velocity is 28.64m/s at 24.9o to horizontal
2. A ball is kicked from the spot 30m from the goal post with a velocity of 20m/s at 300 to the horizontal.
The ball just clears the horizontal bar of a goal post. Find;
(i) Height of the goal post
(ii) How far behind the goal post does the ball land
Solution
1
𝑦 = (20𝑠𝑖𝑛30)𝑥1.732 − 𝑥9.81𝑥(1.732)2
y-axis
20m/s 2
𝑦 = 2.61𝑚
Height of the goal post = 2.61m
y
30 o ii) Time of flight
30m z 2 u sinθ 2𝑥20𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛30
x
x-axis 𝑇 = g = 9.81
= 2.04𝑠
horizontal motion : 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥𝑡 iii) Horizontal distance: 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥𝑡
30 = 20𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑥𝑡 𝑥 = 20𝑐𝑜𝑠30𝑥2.04 =35.33m
𝑡 = 1.732𝑠 but 𝑥 = 20 + 𝑧
For vertical motion: 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑡 − ½ 𝑔𝑡 2 35.33 = 30 + 𝑧
𝑧 = 5.33𝑚 The ball 5.33m behind the goal
EXERCISE :5
1. A hammer thrown in athletics consists of a metal edge of a flat roof of height 20m. the edge of
sphere of mass 7.26kg with a wire handle the roof is 38m horizontally from the thrower.
attached, the mass of which can be neglected. In a
certain attempt it is thrown with an initial velocity Roof
which makes an angle of 450 with the horizontal 2m
and its flight takes 4.00s. stating any assumptions 20m
find; 600
38m Ground
(i) The horizontal distance travelled Calculate

(ii) Kinetic energy of the sphere just before (i) The speed at which the ball was thrown
it strikes the ground An [80.0m, An (25.4 m𝒔−𝟏 )
2.90x103J]
(ii) The velocity with which the ball strikes the
2. A soft ball is thrown at an angle of 60 above roof . An (15.64 m𝒔−𝟏 𝒂𝒕 𝟑𝟔. 𝟐° below the
the horizontal. It lands a distance 2m from the
horizontal)
UNEB 2016 No1 (b)
A particle is projected from a point on a horizontal plane with a velocity, u, at an angle, 𝜃, above the
𝑢2
horizontal. Show that the maximum horizontal range 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 is given by 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔
where g is
acceleration due to gravity. (04marks)
UNEB 2014 No1 (a)
(i) What is a projectile motion (01marks)
(ii) A bomb is dropped from an aero plane when it is directly above a target at a height of 1402.5m. The
aero plane is moving horizontally with a speed of 500kmℎ−1. Determine whether the bomb will hit
the target. An (misses target by 2347.2m) (05marks)
UNEB 2012 No 3 (d)
(i) Derive an expression for maximum horizontal distance travelled by a projectile in terms of the initial
speed u and the angle of projection θ to the horizontal [02 marks]
(ii) Sketch a graph to show the relationship between kinetic energy and height above the ground in a
projectile.

CHAPTER 4: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

LAW I : Everybody continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by
an external force.
This is sometimes called the law of inertia
Definition
Inertia is the reluctance of a body to start moving once it’s at rest or to stop moving if its
already in motion.
Explain why a passenger jerks forward when a fast moving car is suddenly stopped.
Passengers jerk forward because of inertia. When the car is suddenly stopped, the passenger
tends to continue in uniform motion in a straight line because the force that acts on the car
does not act on the passenger
LAW II: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force and
takes place in the direction of the force.
Consider a mass m moving with velocity u. If the mass is acted on by a force F and its velocity changes to v;
By Newton’s law of motion 1 = 𝑘𝑥1𝑥1
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢 𝑘(𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢) (𝑣−𝑢)
F 𝛼 = = 𝑘𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑘𝑚𝑎 𝑘=1
𝑡 𝑡
v-u 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
Since a =
t Note: F must be the resultant force
When 𝐹 = 1𝑁, 𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑔 and 𝑎 = 1𝑚𝑠 −2
LAW III: To every action there is an equal but opposite reactions.

𝑭𝟏 = − 𝑭𝟐
Example of 3rd law of motion
 A gun moves backwards on firing it.  A ball bounces on hitting the ground.
Rocket engine propulsion

Fuel is burnt in the combustion chamber and exhaust gases are expelled at a high velocity. This
leads to a large backward momentum. From conservation of momentum an equal forward
momentum is gained by the rocket, due to continuous combustion of fuel there is a change in
the forward momentum which leads to the thrust hence maintaining the motion of the rocket
4.1.2: LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

Linear momentum (p) is the product of the mass and the velocity of the body moving in
a straight line.
IMPULSE
This is the product of the force and time for which the force acts on a body
i.e. Impulse (I) = Force(F) x time (t)
𝑰⃗ = 𝑭
⃗ t
The unit of impulse is Ns.
An impulse produces a change in momentum of a body. If a body of mass(m) has it velocity
changed from u to v by a force F acting on it in time t, then from Newton’s 2nd law.
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑡 Impulse = change in momentum
Examples

1. A body of mass 5kg is initially moving with a constant velocity of 2ms-1, when it experiences a force of
10N is 2s, find
(i) The impulse given to the body by the force
(ii) The velocity of the body when the force stops acting
Solution
𝐼 = 𝑓𝑡 = 10𝑥2 = 20𝑁𝑠 20 = 5𝑣 − 5𝑥2
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 𝑣 = 6𝑚/𝑠
2. A girl of mass 50kg jumps onto the ground from a height of 2m. Calculate the force which acts on her
when she lands
(i) As she bends her knees and stops within 0.2 s
(ii) As she keeps her legs straight and stops in 0.05s
Solution
𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢 𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
i) 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠 Using F = 𝑡 ii) F = 𝑡
𝑣 2 = 02 + 2𝑥9.81𝑥2 50(6.03-0) 50(6.03−0)
−1 F== = 1507.5𝑁 F = 0.05 = 6030𝑁
𝑣 = √39.24 = 6.03𝑚𝑠 0.2
4.1.3: WHY LONG JUMPER BEND KNEES

By bending the knees, the time taken to come to rest is increased, which reduces the rate of change
of momentum, therefore the force on the jumpers legs is reduced thus less pain on the legs.
4.1.4: LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

It states that for a system of colliding bodies, their total linear momentum remains constant in a given
direction provided no external forces acts on them.
Suppose a body A of mass m, and velocity U1, collides with another body B of mass m2 and velocity U2
moving in the same direction
Before collision After collision
u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2 m1 m2
B A B
A
By principle of conservation of momentum

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Total momentum Total momentum
before collision after collision
4.1.5: Proof of the law of conservation of momentum using Newton’s law

Let two bodies A and B with masses m1 and m2 moving with initial velocities u1 and u2 and let their
velocities after collision be v1 and v2 respectively for time t with (v1<v2)
By Newton’s 2𝑛𝑑 law: 𝑚1 (𝑣1 −𝑢1 ) 𝑚 (𝑣 −𝑢 )
= − 2 𝑡2 2
𝑚 (𝑣 −𝑢 ) 𝑡
Force on 𝑚1 : 𝐹1 = 1 𝑡1 1 𝑚1 𝑣1 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 = −𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚2 𝑢2
𝑚2 (𝑣2 −𝑢2 ) 𝑚
Force on 𝑚2 : 𝐹2 = = 1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑡
By Newton’s 3rd law: 𝑭 = − 𝑭 Hence 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = constant
𝟏 𝟐
Examples
1. A particle P of mass 𝑚1 , travelling with a speed 𝑢 1 makes a head-on collision with a stationary
particle Q of mass 𝑚2 . If the collision is elastic and the speeds of P and Q after impact are v1 and v2
𝑚
respectively. Show that for β = 1
𝑚2
u1 𝛽+1 𝑣2 2𝛽
(i) v1
= 𝛽−1
(ii) 𝑣1
=𝛽−1
Solution

A B A
(𝑢1 + 𝑣1 )= 𝛽(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 )
B
m1 u1 m2 u2 m1 v1 v2 𝑣1 + 𝛽𝑣1 = 𝛽𝑢1 − 𝑢1
m2
Before impact After impact
𝑣1 (1 + 𝛽) = 𝑢1 (𝛽 − 1)
u1 𝛽+1
=
By law of conservation of momentum v1 𝛽−1
u 𝛽+1
𝑚1 𝑢 1 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 --------------[x] ii) From 1 = ------------------ [xx]
v1 𝛽−1
𝑚
(𝑢 1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 𝑣2 from equation[1] : 𝑣2 = 𝛽(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 )
1
Therefore 𝑢 1 − 𝑣1 =
𝑣2 𝑣2 = 𝛽𝑢1 − 𝛽𝑣1
𝛽 𝑣 +𝛽𝑣
𝑢 1 = 2 1 put into (xx)
𝛽(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑣2 ----------------------- [1] 𝛽
for elastic collision k.e is conserved 𝑣 + 𝛽𝑣1
( 2 ) (1 + 𝛽)
½ 𝑚1 𝑢12 =½ 𝑚1 𝑣12 +½ 𝑚2 𝑣22 𝛽
=
𝑚1 (𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣22 ) 𝑣1 (𝛽 − 1)
𝑚1
(𝑢1 2 − 𝑣12)= 𝑣22 (𝑣2 + 𝛽𝑣1 )(𝛽 − 1) = (1 + 𝛽)𝛽𝑣1
𝑚 2 𝛽𝑣2 + 𝛽 2 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 − 𝛽𝑣1 = 𝛽𝑣1 + 𝛽 2 𝑣1
𝛽(𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) = 𝑣22 ----------------------[2] 𝛽𝑣2 − 𝑣2 = 2𝛽𝑣1
equating [1] and [2] 𝑣2 (𝛽 − 1) = 2𝛽𝑣1
𝛽(𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) = [𝛽(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 )]2 𝑣2 2𝛽
= 𝛽−1
𝛽(𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) = 𝛽 2 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 )(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) 𝑣
1
(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 )= 𝛽(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 )(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 )
1. Ball P, Q and R of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 and 𝑚3 lie on a smooth horizontal surface in a straight line. The balls
are initially at rest. Ball P is projected with a velocity 𝑢1 towards Q and makes an elastic collision with
Q. if Q makes a perfectly in elastic collision with R, show that R moves with a velocity.
2 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑢1
𝑣2 =
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )(𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
Solution
Elastic collision of P and Q: 2 𝑚1 𝑢1
𝑣𝑄 = 𝑚 +𝑚 …………………………………(3)
Conservation of momentum: 1 2
𝑚1 𝑢 1 = 𝑚1 𝑣𝑃 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑄 In elastic collision of Q and R:

𝑚2 𝑣 𝑄 𝑚2 𝑣 𝑄 + 𝑚3 0 = (𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )𝑣2
𝑣𝑃 = 𝑢 1 − 𝑚 …………………………………(1) 2 𝑚1 𝑢1
1
Conservation of kinetic energy: 𝑚2 = (𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )𝑣2
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑚 𝑢 = 2 𝑚1 𝑣𝑃 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣𝑄 …………………..(2)
2 1 1
2 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑢1
𝑣2 =
Putting [1] into [2] (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )(𝑚2 + 𝑚3 )
𝑚2 𝑣 𝑄 2
𝑚1 𝑢12 = 𝑚1 (𝑢 1 − 𝑚1
) + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑄2
2. A particle P of mass 𝑚1 moving at a speed 𝑢1 collides head on with a stationery particle Q of mass 𝑚2 .
the collision is perfectly elastic and the speeds of P and Q after impact are 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 respectively.
𝑚
Given that 𝛼 = 𝑚2
1
(i) Determine the value of 𝛼 if 𝑢1 = 20𝑣2
4𝛼
(ii) Show that the fraction of energy lost by P is (1+𝛼)2
Solution equating [2] ÷ [1] :
α(u21 -v21 ) α𝑣 2
= α𝑣2
(i) 𝑚1 𝑢 1 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 α(u1 -v1 ) 2
𝑚1 (𝑢 1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 𝑣2 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) 𝑣22

=
(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝛼𝑣2 ……………………………………….(1) (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) 𝑣2
1⁄ 𝑚 𝑢2 = 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑣 2 + 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑣 2 (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) = 𝑣2 … … … … … … … … (3)
2 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 (1) + (3): 2𝑢1 = 𝛼𝑣2 + 𝑣2
2 2 2
𝑚1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 ) (1+𝛼)
(𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) = 𝛼𝑣22 ----------------------[2] 𝑢1 = 2 𝑣2 … … … … … … … … . (4)

but 𝑢1 = 20𝑣2 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑢2 − 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑣 2
2 1 1 2 1 1
fraction of energy lost = 1⁄ 𝑚 𝑢2
(1 + 𝛼) 2 1 1
20𝑣2 = 𝑣2 (𝑢12 −𝑣12 ) (𝑢1 −𝑣1 ) (𝑢1 +𝑣1 )
2 fraction of energy lost = =
𝛼 = 39 𝑢12 𝑢12
(iii) k.e of p before collision= 1⁄2 𝑚1 𝑢12 from (i) above (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) = 𝑣2 , (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝛼𝑣2
(1+𝛼)
𝑢1 = 2 𝑣2
k.e of p after collision= 1⁄2 𝑚1 𝑣12
(𝛼𝑣2 ) (𝑣2 ) 4𝛼
energy lost = 1⁄2 𝑚1 𝑢12 − 1⁄2 𝑚1 𝑣12 fraction of energy lost = (1+𝛼) 2 = (1+𝛼)2
[ 𝑣2 ]
2
3. A body explodes and produces two fragments of masses 𝒎 and 𝑴. If the velocities of the fragments are
𝒖 and 𝒗 respectively, show that the ratio of kinetic energies of the fragments is
𝑬𝟏 𝑴
=
𝑬𝟐 𝒎
Where 𝐸1 is the kinectic energy of m and 𝐸2 is the kinectic energy of M
Solution
1 1 1 −𝑚𝑢 2 1 𝑚2 𝑢2
𝐸1 = 𝑚𝑢2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2 = 𝑀𝑣 2 𝐸2 = 𝑀 ( ) =
2 2 2 𝑀 2 𝑀
By law of conservation of linear momentum : 1 2
𝑚𝑢 = −𝑀𝑣 𝐸1 ( 𝑚𝑢 ) 𝑀
−𝑚𝑢 = 2 2 2 =
∴𝑣= 𝐸2 1𝑚 𝑢 𝑚
(2 𝑀 )
𝑀
Exercise:13
1. A 4kg ball moving at 8m/s collides with a shown below for 5s after which time it strikes and
stationery ball of mass 12kg, and they stick sticks to the body B of mass 3kg, the force being
together. Calculate the final velocity and the removed at this instant
kinetic energy lost in impact An [2m/s, 96J]
2. A body of mass m makes a head on , perfectly A B
elastic collision with a body of mass M initially 300

0.1N
𝑀
4( )
at rest. Show that
∆𝐸
= 𝑚
where 𝐸0 is what will the speed of the combined masses be.
𝑀 2
𝐸0 (1+ )
𝑚
An(0.087m/s)
original kinetic energy of the mass m and ∆𝐸 6. Two balls collide and bounce off each other as
the energy it loses in the collision shown below. Determine the final velocity v of
3. A metal sphere of mass 𝑚1 , moving at velocity 𝑢1 5kg mas if 8kg mass has a speed of 15𝑚𝑠 −1
collides with another sphere of mass 𝑚2 moving at after collision.
Vms-1
velocity 𝑢2 in the same direction. After collision the
spheres stick together and move off as one body. 8kg 30ms-1 θ 50ms-1
5kg
Show that the loss in kinetic energy E during 300
600
collision is given by
𝜷(𝒖𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐 )𝟐 15ms-1
𝑬= 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝜷 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝟐(𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 ) 7. An alpha particle of mass 4 units is incident
4. A stationary radioactive nucleus disintegrates into with a velocity u on a stationary helium
an 𝛼 −particle of relative atomic mass 4, and a nucleus of equal mass. After collision, an alpha
residual nucleus of relative atomic mass 144. If the 𝑢
particle moves with a velocity 2 at an angle of
kinetic energy of the 𝛼 −particle is 3.24x10-13J, what
60° to its initial direction while the helium
is the kinetic energy of the residual nucleus
An(9x10-15J) nucleus moves at angle 𝜃 to the initial direction
of the alpha particle. Calculate the velocity of
5. The diagram below shows a body A of mass 2kg
the helium nucleus after collision and the value
resting in a frictionless horizontal gully in which it is 𝒖√𝟑
constrained to move. It is acted upon by a force of 𝜃. An( 𝟐
𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎°)

Application of law of conservation of momentum

(a) Consider a horse pipe of cross-sectional area A giving a water jet of velocity v, if the water hits the wall
and comes to rest then;
Force due to water = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑥∆𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝜌𝑣𝐴
But 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑥𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 Force = 𝜌𝑣𝐴𝑥∆𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝜌𝑥𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑥ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 Force = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝜌𝐴𝑥𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Examples
1. Water leaves horse pipe at a rate of 5.0𝑘𝑔𝑠 −1 with a speed of 20m𝑠 −1 and is directed horizontally on
a wall which stops it. Calculate the force exerted by the water on the wall.
Solution
Force due to water= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 5 𝑥(20 − 0) = 100𝑁
2. A helicopter of mass 1.0x103kg hovers by imparting a downward velocity v to the air displaced by its
rotating blades. The area swept pout by the blades is 80m2. Calculate the value of v. (density of
air=1.3kgm-3)
Solution
𝐹 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣 2 1.0𝑥103 𝑥9.81 = 104𝑣 2
2 𝑣 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠
𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣
1.0𝑥103 𝑥9.81 = 80𝑥𝑣𝑥1.3𝑥(𝑣 − 0)
3. Sand falls onto a conveyor belt at a constant rate of 2kgs-1. The belt is moving horizontally at 3ms-1.
Calculate
(a) The extra force required to maintain the speed of the belt
(b) Rate at which this force is dong work
(c) The rate at which the kinetic energy of the sand increases
Solution
Force =mass per second 𝑥velocity change 1
Rate of k.e = 𝑚 𝑥 (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)2
2
= 2𝑥3 = 6𝑁 1
Rate of doing work =force 𝑥 velocity change = 𝑥2𝑥32 = 9𝐽𝑠 −1
2
= 6𝑥3 = 18𝐽𝑠 −1
Exercise:14
1. A horizontal jet of water leaves the end of a hose An(1.92x10-2kgs-1, 2.22x10-2ms-2)
pipe and strikes a wall horizontally with a velocity 3. The blades of a large wind turbines, designed
of 20m/s. If the end of the pipe has a diameter of to generate electricity, sweeps pout an area of
2cm, calculate the force that will be exerted on 1400m2 and rotates about a horizontal axis
the wall. An(125.7N) which points directly into a wind of speed 15m/s
2. An astronaut is outside her space capsule in a 15m/s
region where the effect of gravity can be

neglected. She uses a gas gun to move herself (a) Calculate the mass of air passing per
relative to the capsule. The gas gun fires gas second through the area swept out by
from a muzzle of area 1.60mm2 at a speed of the blades ( take the density of air to
150ms-1. The density of the gas is 0.800kgm-3 be 1.2 kg/m3)
and the mass of the astronaut including her (b) The mean speed of the on the far side of
space suit is 130kg. calculate the blades is reduced to 13m/s. how
(a) The mass of gas leaving the gun per second much kinetic energy is lost by the air per
(b) The acceleration of the astronaut due to
second An(2.5x104kg/s, 7.1x105J/s))
gun, assuming that the change in mass is
negligible
4.1.9: BALLISTIC PENDULUM

Before impact After impact Resolving along the vertical gives 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Light string But 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ℎ
θ L ℎ = 𝐿 − 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐿(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
L L Lcosθ (M+m)
The device illustrates the laws of conservation of
bullet block h=L(1-cosθ)
v momentum and mechanical energy
m M
Determination of velocity of a bullet using a ballistic pendulum

protractor  A bullet of mass m is fired from close range so
String  that it gets embedded in the block and the
Bullet  Wooden block first angle of swing 𝜃 from the vertical is read
and noted.
 A massive wooden block of known mass M is  The length l of the string is measured and
suspended from a fixed point by a string freshly recorded.
blackened with charcoal.  The velocity of the bullet u is obtained from
 A protractor is fixed at the point of the 𝑚+𝑀
suspension of the string as shown above 𝑢=( ) √2𝑔𝑙(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑚
Exercise 15
1. A block of wood of mass 1.00kg is suspended
freely by a thread. A bullet of mass 10g is fired
Ɵ
horizontally at the block and becomes Ɵ
embedded in it. The block swings to one suede

rising a vertical distance of 50cm. with what
speed did the bullet hit the block An[319.4m/s] h
Dam
2. A circular ring is tied to a roof using a string of 4h
length, 𝑙 and displaced such that it makes an

angle of 2𝜃 with the vertical, where 𝜃 = 30°. It is if the bench is frictionless and the masses are
then released to throw a spherical ball 𝑙(√3−1)
equal, show that ℎ = 32 . Hence if
horizontally across the dam at a height, h. It
collides in elastically with the ball when at angle 𝑙 = 128𝑐𝑚 ,find the velociy with whoich the
𝜃 and move together until the ball leaves the ball hits the ground
bench horizontally to cross the dam of width 4h.
UNEB 2019 NO.1

(𝑐) State Newtons laws of motion and use them to derive the laws of conservation of momentum.
(06 marks)
(𝑑) A body of mass 800kg moving at 30ms-1 collides with another body of mass 1400kg moving in the
same direction at 25ms-1. The two bodies stick together after collision. Calculate the;.
(i) common velocity just after collision An(𝟐𝟔. 𝟖𝟐𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ) (02 marks)
(ii) kinetic energy lost during collision An(𝟔, 𝟐𝟓𝟔. 𝟑𝟔𝑱) (03 marks)
UNEB 2018 NO.1c

(i) Explain why a passenger in a car jerks forwards when the brakes are suddenly applied.
(03 marks)
(𝑖𝑖) Use Newton’s second law to define the Newton. (04 marks)
UNEB 2017 NO.1

(a) (i) State Newton’s laws of motion (03marks)
(ii) A molecule of gas contained in a cube of side 𝑙 strikes the wall of the cube repeatedly with a

𝑚𝑢2
velocity u. Show that the average force 𝐹 on the wall is given by 𝐹 = 𝑙 where m is the mass of
the molecule (04marks)
(b) (i) Define the linear momentum and state the law of conservation of linear momentum.
(02marks)
(ii) A body of mass 𝑚1 moving with a velocity u, collides with another body of mass 𝑚2 at rest. If
they stick together after collision, find the common velocity with which they will move (04marks)
UNEB 2013 No 3(a)

(I) State the law of conservation of linear momentum (01mark)
(II) A body explodes and produces two fragments of masses 𝒎 and 𝑴. If the velocities of the fragments are
𝒖 and 𝒗 respectively, show that the ratio of kinetic energies of the fragments is
𝑬𝟏 𝑴
=
𝑬𝟐 𝒎
Where 𝐸1 is the kinectic energy of m and 𝐸2 is the kinectic energy of M (04marks)
UNEB 2011 NO.2

(a) State Newton’s laws of motion (03marks)
(b) Use Newton’s laws of motion to show that when two bodies collide their momentum is conserved
(04marks)
(c) Two balls P and Q travelling in the same line in opposite directions with speeds of 6ms-1 and 15ms-1
respectively make a perfect inelastic collision. If the masses of P and Q are 8kg and 5kg respectively,
find the
(i) The velocity of P (04marks)
(ii) Change in kinetic energy An[v=2.08ms-1,278.38J] (04marks)
(d) (i) what is an impulse of a force (01marks)
(ii)Explain why a long jumper should normally land on sand. (04marks)
UNEB 2008 NO 4
a) State
(i) Newton’s laws of motion (03 marks)
(ii) The principle of conservation of momentum (01 mark)
b) A body A of mass M1 moves with velocity U1 and collides head on elasticity with another body B of mass
𝑚
M2 which is at rest. If the velocities of A and B are V1 and V2 respectively and given that x= 1 Show
𝑚2
that;
𝑢1 𝑥+1
i) = (04 marks)
𝑣1 𝑥−1
𝑣2 2𝑥
ii) 𝑣1
= 𝑥−1
(03 marks)
UNEB 1997 N0 2
a) Define the terms momentum [01marks]
b) A bullet of mass 300g travelling at a speed of 8ms-1 hits a body of mass 450g moving in the
same direction as the bullet at 15ms-1. The bullet and body move together after collision. Find
the loss in kinetic energy [06marks]
c) i) State the work energy theorem [01mark]
ii) A ball of mass 500g travelling at a speed of 10ms-1 at 600 to the horizontal strikes a vertical
wall and rebounds with the same speed at 1200 from the original direction. If the ball is in
contact with the wall for 8x10-3s, calculate the average force exerted by the ball.
An [625N] [06marks]

4.1.10: FORCE
Force is anything which changes a body’s state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
The unit of force is a newton
4.1.11: CONSERVATIVE AND NON CONSERVATIVE FORCES

1. A conservative force is a force for which the work done in moving a body round a closed path is
zero.
4.2.0: SOLID FRICTION

Friction is the force that opposes relative motion of two surfaces in contact.
4.2.3: Molecular explanation for occurrence of friction

 Surfaces have very small projections and when placed together the actual area of contact of
two surfaces is very small, hence the pressure at points of contact is very high. Projections merge
to produce welding and the welding’s have to be broken for relative motion to occur. This
explains the fact that friction opposes relative motion between surfaces in contact
 When the area between the surfaces is changed, the actual area of contact remains constant.
Therefore no change in friction. This explains the fact that friction is independent of the area of
contact provided normal reaction is constant
 Increasing normal reaction, increases the pressure at the welds. This increases the actual area of
contact to support the bigger load, and hence a greater limiting frictional force . Therefore
friction is proportional to normal reaction.
4.2.4: Measurement of coefficient of static friction

Method I
R
Block
Plane surface
Horizontal plane
θ mgCosθ
mg
Method 2
 The mass m of the wooden block is determined  Small masses are added to the scale pan one
and placed on a horizontal plane surface. at a time, till the block just slides
 A string is attached to the block and passed  The total mass M of the scale pan and the
over a smooth pulley carrying a scale pan at masses added is obtained.
the other end.  Coefficient of static friction 𝝁 = 𝒎
𝑴
Measurement of Limiting friction

Alternatively
 The wooden block is placed on a horizontal  Small masses are added to the scale pan one
plane surface. at a time, till the block just slides
 A string is attached to the block and passed  The total mass M of the scale pan and the
over a smooth pulley carrying a scale pan at masses added is obtained.
the other end.  limiting friction 𝒇 = 𝑴𝒈

CHAPTER 5: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

5.1.0: Work
Definition
Work is defined as the product of force and distance moved in the direction of the force
or
Work done is also defined as the product of the component of the force in the direction of motion
and displacement in that direction
Explain why it is easier to walk on a straight road than an inclined road up hill.
When walking on a level ground, work is done only against the frictional force. While when walking up hill,
work is done against both frictional force and the component of the weight of the person along the plane
of the hill.
Explain whether a person carrying a bucket of water does any work on the bucket while
walking on a level road
bucket
5.2.0 : ENERGY
This is the ability to do work.
THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

It states that energy is neither created nor destroyed but changes from one form to another
5.2.2: WORK-ENERGY THEOREM

It states that the work done by the net force acting on a body is equal to the change in its
kinetic energy.
Examples
1. A car mass 1000kg moving at 50ms-1 skid to rest in 4s under a constant retardation. Calculate the
magnitude of the work done by the force of friction
Solution
a) Using 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + ½ 𝑎𝑡 2 Alternatively
0 = 50 + 4𝑎 2 1 1
𝑆 = 50𝑥4 + ½ 𝑥 − 12.5𝑥4 2
𝑎 = −12.5𝑚/s 2 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢2
𝑆 = 100𝑚 2 2
1 1
Frictional force = 𝑚𝑎 W= 𝐹𝑥𝑆 = 12500𝑥100 W= 2 𝑥1000𝑥502 − 2 𝑥1000𝑥02
= 1000𝑥 − 12. = 12500𝑁 Work done = 1.25𝑥106 𝐽 Work done = 1.25𝑥106 𝐽
-1
2. A bullet travelling at 150ms will penetrate 8cm into a fixed block of wood before coming to rest. Find the
velocity of the bullet when it has penetrated 4cm of the block.
Solution
1 1 Using 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑢2 = 𝐹𝑥𝑆 4
2 2
1 1 𝑣 2 = 1502 + 2𝑥(−140625)𝑥
𝑚𝑥02 − 𝑚𝑥1502 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥0.08 100
2 2 𝑣 = 106.06𝑚𝑠-1
𝑎 = −140625ms-2

THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

States that in a mechanical system the total mechanical energy is a constant provided that no dissipative
forces act on the system.
Examples of principle of conservation of M.E

i) A body thrown vertically upwards
Consider a body of mass m projected vertically upwards with speed u from a point on the ground.
At point A Since the total mechanical energy at all points is
At point B constant then the mechanical energy of a an
2
K.E = ½ m𝑣 and 𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥 object projected vertically upwards is conserved
But 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔𝑥 provided there is no dissipative force.
ii) A body falling freely from a height above the ground

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ at a height ‘h’ from the ground surface and at rest
At point A Total energy = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑂 (at rest) and P.E = 𝑚𝑔ℎ Since the total mechanical energy at all points is
Total energy = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ constant then the mechanical energy of a freely
At point B falling object is conserved provided there is no
dissipative force.
Examples
1. A block of mass 1kg is released from rest and travels down a rough incline of 30° to the horizontal a
distance of 2m before striking a spring of force constant 100𝑁𝑚−1. The coefficient of friction between the
block and the plane is 0.1
A
S
0
30
Calculate the:
(i) velocity of B just before it strikes the spring (ii) maximum compression of the spring
solution
R
A
µR 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
S
300
mgcos30 𝑣 = √02 + 2𝑥4.055𝑥2 = 4.027𝑚𝑠 −1
mg 1 2 1
(𝑖𝑖) 𝑘𝑒 = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 2 2
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛30 − 𝜇𝑅 but 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠30
1𝑥(4.027)2
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛30 − 0.1𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠30 𝑒=√ = 0.4027𝑚
𝑎 = 4.055𝑚𝑠 −2 100
1. The figure below shows a wooden block M of mass 990g resting on a rough horizontal surface and
attached to a spring of force constant 50N𝑚−1 .
M a distance of 20cm. If the work done against
When a sharp nail of mass 10g shot at close friction is 9𝑥10−2 𝐽, Find the initial speed of the
range to the block, the spring is compressed by nail just before collision with the block.
Solution
After collision By conservation of energy: K.e of 𝑣 = 0.0141𝑚/𝑠
the nail and block=incresae in P.E+Work again Before collision: 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 +
friction 𝑚2 )𝑣
1 1 (0.01𝑢) + 0.99𝑥0 = (0.01 + 0.99)𝑥0.0141
(𝑚 + 𝑀) 𝑣 2 = 𝑘𝑥 2 + 9𝑥10−2 𝐽
2 2 𝑢 = 1.41𝑚/𝑠
1 1
(0.01 + 0.99) 𝑣 2 = ( 𝑥50𝑥0.022 + 9𝑥10−2 𝐽)
2 2 𝑃 = 2𝑥57.7𝑥0.5 = 57.7𝑁
Exercise:17
2. A particle A of mass 2kg and a particle B of mass (a) When the spring is released the trolley
1kg are connected by a light elastic string C and separate freely and P moves to the left with
initially held at rest 0.9m apart on a smooth an initial velocity of 6m/s. calculate
horizontal table with the string in tension. They are (i) Initial velocity of Q
simultaneously released. The string releases 12J of (ii) The initial total kinetic energy of the
energy as it contracts to its natural length. system
C B
(b) Calculate the initial velocity of Q if trolley P is

A
Calculate the velocity acquired by each of the

held still when the spring under the same
particles and find where the particles collide
An(2m/s, 4m/s, 0.3m from A) compression as before us released
3. A student devises the following experiment to An(10m/s, 24J, 12.5m/s)
determine the velocity of a pellet from an air rifle 5. A muscle exerciser consists of two steel ropes
attached to the ends of a strong spring contained
Barrel of rifle
h in a telescopic tube. When the ropes are pulled

k sideways in opposite directions in the diagram
A piece of plasticine of mass M is balanced on the below
A
edge of a table such that it just fails to fall off. A Steel ropes
0 0
30 30 Steel ropes
pellet of mass, m is fired horizontally into the P P
C D
plasticine and remains embedded in it. As a result
the plasticine reaches the floor a horizontal B
distance 𝒌 away. The height of the table is h The spring has an uncompressed length of 0.8m. the
(i) show that the horizontal velocity of the force F in newton required to compress the spring to
𝑔
1⁄
2
a length x in meters is given by 𝐹 = 500(0.80 − 𝑥)
plasticine with pellet embedded is 𝑘 (2ℎ) The ropes are pulled with equal and opposite
(ii) obtain an expression for the velocity of the forces, P so that the string is compressed to a length
pellet before impact with the plasticine of 0.60m and the ropes make an angle of 300 with
4. the length of the springs
P spring Q (a) Calculate the force F
0.50kg 0.30kg
(b) the work done in compressing the spring
As shown in the diagram, two trolleys P and Q of (i) by considering forces at A or B,
mass 0.50kg and 0.30kg respectively are held calculate the tension in each rope
together on a horizontal track against a spring (ii) by considering forces at C or D,
which is in a state of compression. calculate the force P An(100N,
10J, 57.7N, 57.7N)
5.3.0: POWER
It’s the rate of doing work.
Its units are watts(W) or joule per second [Js-1]
Work done 𝑑
Power = time P= 𝐹𝑥 𝑡
Fxd 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑥𝑣
P= t
PUMP RAISING AND EJECTING WATER.

Consider a pump which is used to raise water from a source and then eject it at a given speed. The total
work done is sum of potential energy in raising the water and kinetic energy given to the water. The work
done per second gives the rate (power) at which the pump is working.
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝑷. 𝑬 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 + 𝑲. 𝑬 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
UNEB 2020 No.1

(a) (i) State the laws of friction. (03marks)
(ii) Use molecular theory to explain the laws stated in (a)(i) (06marks)
(b) Describe briefly how to measure limiting friction between a wooden block and a plane surface
(04marks)
(c) A block of wood of mass 3.95kg rests on a horizontal table of height 5.0m at a distance of 6.0m from the
edge of the table. A bullet of 50.0g moving with a horizontal velocity of 500ms-1 hits and gets embedded
in the block. If the coefficient of dynamic friction between the block and the table is 0.3
(i) Find the initial velocity of the block after the collision with the bullet (02marks)
(ii) Calculate the horizontal distance from the table to the point where the block hits the ground
An (𝒊) = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓𝒎𝒔−𝟏 , (𝒊𝒊) = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔𝒎 (05marks)
UNEB 2017 No.1c

A bullet of mass 10g moving horizontally with a velocity of 300m/s embedds into a block of wood of mass
290g which rests on a rough horizontal floor. After impact, the block and bullet move together and come
to rest when the block has travelled a distance of 15m. Calculate the coefficient of slidding friction
between the block and the floor. An(𝟎. 𝟑𝟒 ) (07marks)
UNEB 2015 No.1

(a) (i) What is meant by a conservative force (01mark)
(ii) Give two examples of a conservative force (01mark)
(b) (i) State the law of conservation of mechanical energy (01mark)
(ii) A body of mass m, is projected vertically upwards with speed, u. Show that the law of conservation of
mechanical energy is obeyed through its motion (05marks)
(i) Sketch a graph showing variation of kinetic energy of the body with time (01mark)
(c) (i) Describe an experiment to measure the coefficient of static friction (04marks)
(ii) State two disadvantages of friction (01marks)
(d) A bullet of mass 20g moving horizontally strikes and gets embedded in a wooden block of mass 500g
resting a horizontal table. The block slides through a distance of 2.3m before coming to rest. If the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the table is 0.3, calculate the
(i) Friction force between the block and the table (02marks)
(ii) Velocity of the bullet just before it strikes the block (04marks)
An(𝟏. 𝟓𝟑𝑵, 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔𝟖𝒎/𝒔 )
UNEB 2010 No3
(c) i) State the laws of solid friction [03marks]
ii) With the aid of a well labeled diagram describe an experiment to determine the co-efficient of kinetic
friction between the two surfaces. [05marks]
d) A body slides down a rough plane inclined at 300 to the horizontal. If the co-efficient of kinetic friction
between the body and the plane is 0.4. Find the velocity after it has travelled 6m along the plane.
An[4.25m/s] [05marks]
UNEB 2008 No2

a) i) state the laws of friction between solid surfaces [03marks]
ii) Explain the origin of friction force between two solid surfaces it contact. [03marks]
(i) Describe an experiment to measure the co-efficient of kinetic friction between two solid surfaces.
b) i) A car of mass 1000kg moves a long a straight surface with a speed of 20ms-1. When brakes are applied
steadily, the car comes to rest after travelling 50m. Calculate the co-efficient of friction between the
surface and the types. An[𝝁 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟖] [04marks]
UNEB 2001 No1

a) i)State the principle of conservation of mechanical energy. [01mark]
ii)Show that a stone thrown vertically upwards obey, the principle in (c) throughout its upward motion.
[04marks]

CHAPTER 6: STATICS
Is a subject which deals with equilibrium of forces 𝑒. 𝑔 the forces which act on a bridge.
6.1.0: Conditions necessary for mechanical equilibrium

When forces act on a body then it will be in equilibrium when;
1. The algebraic sum of all forces on a body in any direction is zero
2. The algebraic sum of moments of all forces about any point is zero
6.3.4: CENTRE OF MASS AND CENTER OF GRAVITY

Centre of mass: This is a point at which the whole mass of a body is considered to be concentrated.
Centre of gravity: This point where the resultant force on the body due to gravity acts.
DETERMINATION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF AN IRREGULAR LAMINA

 Make three holes near the edge of the card board
 Suspend the cardboard from one hole and allow it to swing freely
 Hung a pendulum bob from the same point of suspension
 Trace the outline of the pendulum on the sheet
 Repeat the procedure above using the other holes.
 The point of intersection of the three outlines is the centre of gravity of the board
6.2.1: Moment of a force

This is the product of a force and the perpendicular distance of its line of action from the pivot.
6.2.2: Principle of moments

It states that when a body is in mechanical equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a point is
equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point.
6.2.3: Beams hinged against the wall

1. A Uniform beam AB, 3.0m long and of weight 6N is hinged at a wall at A and is held stationary in a
horizontal position by a rope attached to B and joined to a point C on the wall, 4.0m vertically above A.
Find
(i) the tension T in the rope
(ii) the magnitude and direction of the Reaction R at the hinge.
Solution
C 𝑅 = 3.74𝑁
4m
Rsinα
R
T The reaction at A is 3.74 at 53.280 to the beam
Tsinθ
α Rcosα Tcosθ θ
A B
1.5m 1.5m
6N
2. A uniform beam AB of mass 20kg and length 2.4m is hinged at a point A in a vertical wall and is
maintained in a horizontal position by means of a chain attached to B and to point C in a wall 1.5m
above. If the bar carries a load of 10kg at a point 1.8m from A. calculate.
i) The tension in the chain
ii) The magnitude and direction of the reaction between the bar and the wall
Solution
𝑅 = 300.85𝑁 Reaction at A is 300.85 at 24.10 to the
horizontal

6.2.4: Ladder problems

1. A uniform rod AB of mass 10kg is smoothly hinged at B and rests in a vertical plane with the end A
against a smooth vertical wall. If the rod makes an angle of 400 with the wall, find the reaction on the
wall and the magnitude of the reaction at B
Solution
let length of the ladder be 2L
RA
A
40 L R
L
RY Reaction at B is 106.38𝑁 at 67.24° to the beam.
α
θ
B
RX
10gN
2. uniform ladder which is 5m long and has a mass of 20kg leans with its upper end against a smooth
vertical wall and its lower end on a rough ground. The bottom of the ladder is 3m from the wall. Calculate
the functional force between the ladder and the ground and the coefficient of friction
Solution
𝐴↷ : RB 𝑥 5𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 = 20𝑥9.81𝑥2.5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳
RB
B
RA
RB x 5𝑠𝑖𝑛53.13 = 20𝑥9.81𝑥2.5𝑐𝑜𝑠53.13
2.5m
2.5m
RB= 73.56𝑁
F
θ
3m
A
Resolving horizontally: RB= 𝐹
3
20gN
𝐹 = 73.56𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 5 ∴ 𝛳 = 53.130 But 𝐹 = 𝜇𝑥𝑅𝐴
Resolving vertically: RA = 20𝑔𝑁 73.56 = 𝜇𝑥196.2
RA= 20𝑥9.81 = 196.2𝑁 𝜇 = 0.37
UNEB 2019 No 2
(i) Define moment of a force and give its S.I unit (2 marks)
(ii) Explain briefly how to locate the centre of gravity of an irregular sheet of cardboard. (4 marks)
(iii) State the conditions necessary for equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of a system of forces.(2 mks)
(iv) A wheel of radius 0.5 m rests on a level surface at point C and makes contact with edge E of a block of
height 0.2 m as shown below
F X
0.5 m E
C 0.2 m
A force F is applied horiozotally through the axle of the wheel at X to just move the wheel over the block.
If the weight of the wheel is 180N, find the;
(i) Force exerted at point E An(300N) (02marks)
(ii) Force F An(239.9N) (04marks)
(v) State the laws of solid friction and explain each of them (06marks)
UNEB 2018 No 2
(a) What is meant by centre of mass? (01mark)
(b) Explain why a long spanner is preferred to a shorter one in undoing a tight bolt. (03marks)
(c) A uniform ladder of length 10m and weight 400N, leans against a smooth wall and its foot rests on rough
ground. The ladder makes an angle of 60° with the horizontal. If the ladder just slips when a person of
wiehgt 800N climbs 6m up the ladder, calculate the;
(i) Reaction of the wall and the ground. (05marks)
(ii) Distance another person of weight 600N can climb so that the same reactions are exerted as
in (c) (i) An((i) 392.6N, 1262.6N at 71.90 to the ground, (ii) 8.0m) (02marks)
(d) (i) State the principle of conservation of energy (01mark)
(𝒊𝒊) How does the principle in (d) (i) apply to a child slidding down an incline? (02marks)
(e) A pump with power output of 147.1W can raise 2kg of water per second through a height of 5m and
deliver it into a tank. Calculate the speed with which the water is delivered into the tank. (03marks)
Hint (𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒙 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟏⁄𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 + 𝒎𝒈𝒉) An(7.0 m/s)

(f) Explain the effect of a couple on a rigid body. (03marks)
UNEB 2015 No 2
(a) (i) State the principle of moments (01mark)
(ii) Define the terms center of gravity and uniform body (2marks)
(b) The figure below shows a body, m of mass 20kg supported by a rod of negligible mas horizontally hinged
to a vertical wall and supported by a string fixed at 0.5m from the other end of the rod
Vertical wall
(ii) Reaction at the hinge (3marks)
String
(iii) Maximum additional mass which can be added
to the mas of 20 kg before the string can break
Hinge
450
0.5m
given that the string cannot support a tension of
Rod
2.0m more than 500N (2marks)

m
An(370N,270N,7.03kg)
Calculate the
(i) Tension in the string (3marks)
UNEB 2006 No 2
(d) State the condition for equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of coplanar forces. (2mk)
(e) A 3m long ladder at an angle 600 to the horizontal against a smooth vertical wall on a rough ground. The
ladder weighs 5kg and its centre of gravity is one third from the bottom of the ladder.
i) Draw a sketch diagram to show the forces acting on the ladder. (2mk)
ii) Find the reaction of the ground on the ladder. (4mk)
(Hint Reaction on the ladder =√𝑹𝟐 + 𝑭𝟐 ) An(49.95N at 79.110 to the horizontal)
UNEB 2005 No2

(f) (i) Define centre of gravity (1 mark)
(ii) Describe an experiment to find the centre of gravity of a flat irregular card board. (3 marks)
UNEB 2000 No3

a) State the conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body under the action of coplanar forces.(2mk)
d) A mass of 5.0kg is suspended from the end A of a uniform beam of mass 1.0kg and length 1.0m. The end B
of the beam is hinged in a wall. The beam is kept horizontal by a rope attached to A and to a point C in
the wall at a height 0.75m above B
i. Draw a diagram to show the forces on the beam (2 marks)
ii. Calculate the tension in the rope (4 marks)
iii. What is the reaction exerted by the hinge on the beam (5 marks)
An (89.8N, 72.01N, at 3.950 to the beam)
UNEB 1998 No1

d) (i)Explain the term unstable equilibrium (3mk)
(ii) An oil drum of diameter 75cm and mass 90kg rests against a stone as shown
Find the least horizontal force applied through the
75cm
stone
centre of the drum, which will cause the drum to
ground
15cm roll up the stone of height 15cm.
An(1177.2N) (5 marks)

CHAPTER 7: FLUID FLOW

A fluid element is a molecule of a fluid which follows the flow
A flowline is the path which an individual molecule in a fluid element describes
Why some fluids flow more easily than others
7.0 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Laminar (steady/uniform) flow is the orderly flow of a liquid where flow lines are parallel to the axis
of flow and equidistant layers from the axis of flow have the same velocity.
Laminar flow occurs at low velocities below the critical velocity.
Turbulent flow
axis
pipe
7.1: EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

Coloured liquid
Reservoir
 .
Tap Glass tube
Fine stream of
A coloured solution
Tap
Narrow jet
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is the frictional force between adjacent layers of a fluid.
Viscous drag is the frictional force experienced by a body moving in a fluid due to its viscosity.
7.2: Effects of temperature on viscosity

 In liquids, viscosity is due to intermolecular forces of attraction between layers moving at different speeds.
 In gases, viscosity is due to transfer of momentum .
7.3: COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY ( 𝜼)

Coefficient of viscosity is the frictional force acting on a unit area of a fluid when in a region of unit
velocity gradient OR
Coefficient of viscosity is the tangential stress which one layer of a fluid exerts on another layer in
contact with it when the velocity gradient between the layers is 1𝑠 −1 .
Measurement of 𝜼 of a liquid by poiseuille’s formula

Tap
 Measure the length 𝑙 of capillary tube, obtain
the radius, r of capillary tube by measuring the
Constant head Capillary tube
h
tank
L
mass of a known length of mercury column or by
Beaker
Waste pipe
Liquid flowing out
column travelling microscope method
𝑉
 Measure and record the a constant head h .  Plot a graph of ( 𝑡 ) against h and find the slope,
 Measure and record volume V of liquid flowing 𝑠 of the graph.
through the capillary tube in time t
 Calculate the coefficient of viscosity 𝜼, from
 Repeat several times by varying h to obtain a set π r4 ρ g
of values for each volume v and calculate the 𝑆 = ( 8ηl )
𝑉
volume per second( 𝑡 ).

7.5: STOKE’S LAW AND TERMINAL VELOCITY

Stoke law states 𝑭 = 𝟔𝝅𝜼 𝒓𝑽
F- viscous drag 𝜼 -Coefficient of viscosity of fluid
r-radius of the sphere
v- terminal Velocity of the sphere
Measurement of 𝜼 liquid by Stoke’s law

The method is suitable for liquids of high viscosity such as glycerin and treacle
A
Small ball bearing  Three reference marks A , B and C at equal
B Large measuring cylinder distances are made on the sides of a tall
C transparent tube filled with the liquid.
Viscous fluid
Coefficient of viscosity is then calculated from Stoke’s
 Densities of the ball bearing and liquid 𝜌 and 𝜎 using
respectively are obtained. 2 𝑟 2 𝑔 (𝜌−𝜎)
𝜼= 9𝑉
……………………………….[ 2 ]
0
7.6: TERMINAL VELOCITY

Terminal velocity is the maximum constant velocity attained by a body falling through a viscous fluid.
EXPLANATION OF TERMINAL VELOCITY

Consider a sphere of radius,𝑟 falling from rest through a viscous fluid.
 The forces acting on the sphere are its weight W downwards , up thrust upwards U due to the
displaced fluid and the viscous drag, F upwards due to viscosity of the fluid.
 Initially 𝑊 > 𝑈 + 𝐹 and the sphere accelerates downwards. As its velocity increases, viscous drag
increases and eventually 𝑊 = 𝑈 + 𝐹 and net force is zero and sphere moves with constant velocity.
A graph of velocity against time for an object falling in a fluid
Measurement of terminal velocity

A
Small ball bearing
 Three reference marks A , B and C at equal
B Large measuring cylinder
distances are made on the sides of a tall
transparent tube filled with the liquid.
C
Viscous fluid
 Densities of the ball bearing and liquid 𝜌 and 𝜎 terminal velocity is obtained from
respectively are obtained. 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑡 = 𝑡 = 2 𝑡………………….[ 1 ]
Numerical examples
1. A spherical raindrop of radius 2.0x10-4m, falls vertically in air at 200c, if the densities of air and water are
1.3kgm-3 and 1x103kgm-3 respectively and the viscosity of air at 200c is 1.8x10-5pa. Find the terminal velocity
of the drop
Solution
2 𝑟 2 𝑔 (𝜌𝑓 −𝜌𝑠 )
u F
ams -2 𝑉𝑜 = 9η
2
mg
2𝑥 (2𝑥10−4 ) 𝑥9.81𝑥 (1𝑥103−1.2)
At terminal velocity : 𝑀𝑔 = 𝑈 + 𝐹 𝑉𝑜 = = 4.84𝑚𝑠 −1
9𝑥1.8𝑥10−5
4 4
3
𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑠 𝑔 = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌𝑓 𝑔 + 6π 𝜼 r𝑉𝑜
2. Calculate the terminal velocity of a rain drop of radius 0.2cm. Density of water 1000kgm-3 and density of
air 1kgm-3 and coefficient of viscosity of air is 10-3Pa
Solution
𝑉𝑜 = 8.7𝑚𝑠 −1
Exercise:20
1. A small oil drop falls with terminal velocity of is estimated that the smallest particles produced by
4𝑥10−4 𝑚𝑠 −1 through air. Calculate the radius of the explosive have diameter of 0.01mm and density
the drop. What is the terminal velocity of oil drop if of 2000kgm-3. Calculate
its radius is halved. (viscosity of air = 1.8x10-5Nm-2s, (a) The time taken for the smallest particles
-3
density of oil = 900kgm , neglect density of air) An to fall to the ground
-6 -4
[1.92x10 m, 1.0x10 ms ] -1 (b) The horizontal distance travelled from
2. Calculate the terminal velocities of the following the point of the explosion.
rain drops falling through air (viscosity of air 1.8x10-5 Pas, density of air 1.2kgm-3)
(a) One with a diameter of 0.3cm An [1.62𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑠, 1620km]
(b) One with a diameter of 0.01mm 4. Calculate the viscous drag on the drop of oil of
-3
(density of water=1000kgm , and viscosity of radius 0.1mm falling through air at its terminal
-3
air=1.0x10 Pas. neglect air buoyancy) velocity. (viscosity of air 1.8x10-5Pas, density of air
An [45 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 5𝑥𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑚𝑠 −1 ] 850kgm-3) An [3.6𝑥𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑁]
3. An explosion occurs at an altitude of 1000m where
there is a constant horizontal wind speed of 10m/s. It
7.9: BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE

It states that for a non-viscous incompressible fluid flowing steadily, the sum of the pressure plus the
potential energy per unit volume plus kinetic energy per unit volume is constant at all points on a stream
line.
i.e. 𝑷 + ½ 𝝆𝒗𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
P is the pressure with in the fluid g is the acceleration due to gravity
ρ is the density of the fluid h is height of the fluid (above reference line)
v is the velocity of the fluid
Derivation of Bernoulli’s equation

Consider a tube of flow with in a non-viscous 1 𝑚𝑣 2 1
𝑲. 𝑬 per unit volume= 2 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 2 𝜌𝑣 2
incompressible fluid of density ρ undergoing 𝑚𝑔ℎ
steady flow. If 𝑷. 𝑬 per unit volume= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑃1 and 𝑃2 = pressure at X and Y respectively By conservation of energy
𝑉1 and 𝑉2 = velocities at X and Y espectively 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐾.𝐸 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐾.𝐸
Work done by pressure difference = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 + 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
ℎ1 and ℎ2 = Average heights at X and Y 1 1
work done per unit volume=
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = (2 𝜌 𝑣2 2 − 2 𝜌 𝑣1 2 ) + (𝜌𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 )
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑃𝐴𝑥𝑑 1 1
work done per unit volume = =𝑃 𝑃1 + 𝜌 𝑣1 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌 𝑣2 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
𝐴𝑑 2 2
𝑃 + ½ 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ =a constant
1. Aero foil lift

 By Bernoulli’s principle pressure below becomes
Region of high speed and low
pressure
greater than that above the wings.

 This pressure difference produces the resultant
Region of low speed and high pressure
force called lift upwards force. It is this force
 An aero foil e.g. an air craft wing is shaped so which provides a force that lifts the plane off the
that air flows faster along the top of the wings ground at take off
than below the wings.
Examples
1. A fluid of density 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 flows in a horizontal tube. If the pressure at the entry of the tube is 105 𝑃𝑎
and at the exit is 103 𝑃𝑎, given that the velocity of the fluid at the entry is 8𝑚𝑠 −1 , calculate the velocity of
the liquid at the exit.
Solution
𝑷 + ½ 𝝆𝒗𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 105 + ½ 𝑥1000𝑥82 = 103 + ½ 𝑥1000𝑥𝑉22
P1 + ½ ρv1 2 = P2 + ½ ρv2 2 for horizontal flow 𝑉2 = 16.25𝑚𝑠 −1
2. Air flows over the upper surface of the wings of an aero plane at a speed of 81ms-1 and past the lower
surfaces of the wings at 57ms-1. Calculate the lift force on the aero plane if it has a total wing area of
3.2m2. (density of air = 1.3kgm-3)
Solution
P1 + ½ ρv1 2 = P2 + ½ ρv2 2 for horizontal flow lift force, 𝐹 = (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )𝐴
1 2 2) 1 2 2) 1
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 2 𝜌(𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 2 𝑥1.3𝑥(81 − 57 𝐹 = [ 𝑥1.3𝑥(812 − 572 )] 𝑥3.2 = 6.9𝑥103 𝑁
2
7.12: FLUIDS AT REST

7.12.1: DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY
Density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance.
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
S.I unit’s 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
Relative density
Definition
It is the ratio of the density of a substance to density of an equal volume of water at 40c
It is at 4℃ because water has maximum density of 1000kgm-3 at that temperature
7.12.2: ARCHIMEDE’S PRINCIPLE

It states that when a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an up thrust equals to
the weight of the fluid displaced.
Verification of Archimedes’ principle

Consider a rod of cross-sectional area A immersed in a large quantity of a fluid of density 𝜌 such that its
top level C, is ℎ1 meters below the surface of the fluid while its bottom level D, is ℎ2 meters as shown
below
1h 1F
Weight of fluid displaced = A(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )𝜌𝑔………..(i)
2h A
C
Force at C: 𝐹1 = ℎ1 𝜌𝑔𝐴
D Force at D: 𝐹2 = ℎ2 𝜌𝑔𝐴
F
2
Net Upward force (𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡) = (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )𝜌𝑔𝐴….(ii)
Vol of fluid displaced = vol of cylinder= 𝐴(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) From equation (i) and equation (ii), therefore;
Mass of fluid displaced = A(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )𝜌 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 = weight of fluid displaced
Verification of Archimedes’ principle using a spring balance.

 Fill the displacement can with water till water displacement can and wait until water stops
flows through the spout and wait until the water dripping when it is completely immersed, its
stops dripping. weight (apparent weight) is then read and
 Weigh a solid object in air using a spring balance recorded from the spring balance as 𝑊𝑤 .
and record its weight 𝑊𝑎  Re weigh the beaker and the displaced water
 Place a beaker of known weight, 𝑊𝑏 beneath and record the weight as 𝑊(𝑏+𝑤)
the spout of the can.  If (𝑊𝑎 - 𝑊𝑤 ) = (𝑊(𝑏+𝑤) − 𝑊𝑏 ), then
 With the help of the spring balance, the solid Archimedes’s principle is verified
object is carefully lowered into the water in the
Application of Archimedes’ principle
It can be used to determine density and relative density of a solid and a liquid.

a) Determination of density and relative density of a solid

 Weigh a solid object in air using a spring balance and record its weight 𝑊𝑎 .
 Immerse the solid object wholly in water and record the apparent weight 𝑊𝑤
 Weight of water displaced (up thrust in water) = 𝑊𝑎 - 𝑊𝑤 is calculated
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑊
 𝑅. 𝐷 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = 𝑢𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊 −𝑎𝑊
𝑎 𝑤
 Density of solid = RD of solid 𝑥 density of water
b) Determination of density and relative density of a liquid
 Weigh a solid object in air using a spring balance and record its weight 𝑊𝑎 .
 Density of liquid = R.D of liquid x density of water
Law of floatation
It states that a floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which its floating.
Experiment to verify the law of floatation

 Pour water in a displacement can until it over flows through the spout and wait until the water
stops dripping
 Place a beaker under the spout. Gently place an object which floats on water and wait until
water stops dripping from the spout
 Displaced water is is collected in a beaker
 Determine the weight of the floating object and the weight of the displaced water
 The two weights are found to be the same, hence law of floatation
7.13: PRESSURE
Pressure is the force acting normally per 1𝑚2 area
𝐹
P= 𝐴
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
The pressure in a fluid increase with depth, and all points at the same depth in the fluid are at the same
pressure.
RELATION OF PRESSURE P WITH DEPTH h

Consider a cylindrical region of cross sectional area A and height h in a fluid of density
Cross-setional area A
The top of the cylinder is at the surface of the
fluid and the vertical forces acting on it are its
h
weight (mg) and an upward force F due to
pressure p at the bottom of the cylinder.
F F
𝑃 = ℎ𝜌𝑔
UNEB 2020 Q 4
(a) Define the following
(i) Pressure ( 01mark )
(ii) Relative density ( 01mark )
(b) (i) State Archimedes Principle. (01mark)
(𝑖𝑖) Describe an experiment to determine the relative density of a liquid. ( 04marks )
(c) (i) Derive the expression for Bernoulli’s equation (05marks)
(𝒊𝒊) Explain why a person standing by the road side may be pulled towards the road when a fast moving
bus passes by (03marks)
(d) A water tight drum tied to a cable anchored on the sea bed floats 500m beneath rhe sea surface

Surface of the sea
500m
Water tight
drum
Sea bed Cable

3
If the weight of the drum is 500N and its volume is 25m , calculate the
(i) Pressure on the drum due to the sea water An[= 4.91x106Nm-2] (02marks)
(ii) Tension in the cable assuming it is vertical an [= 2.25x106N] (03marks)
UNEB 2019 Q 4
(a) State and illustrate Archimedes principle ( 05marks )
(b) (i) State the law of floatation . (01mark)
(𝑖𝑖) Describe an experiment to verify the law in (b) (i) ( 05marks )
(c) (i) Write Bernoulli’s principle and define each term in the equation (02marks)
(𝒊𝒊) Explain the origin of the lift force on the wing of a plane (03marks)
(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) Air flows over the upper surface of the wings of an aero plane at a speed of 120ms-1 and past the
lower surfaces of the wings at 110ms-1. Calculate the lift force on the aero plane if it has a total wing
area of 20m2. (density of air = 1.2kgm-3) [an= 2.97x104N] (04marks)
UNEB 2016 Q.4

(a) (i) What is meant by fluid element and flow line as applied to fluid flow (02marks)
(ii) Explain why some fluids flow more easily than others. (03marks)
(b) (i) State Bernoulli’s principle (01mark)
(ii) Explain how a pitot static tube works (04marks)
(c) Air flowing over the upper surface of an air craft’s wings causes a lift force of 6400N. The air flows under
the wings at a speed of 120m/s over an area of 28m2. Find the speed of air flow over an equal area of the
upper surface of the air of the air craft’s wings. (density of air= 1.2𝑘𝑔𝑚 −3 ) An 𝟏𝟐𝟏. 𝟔𝒎𝒔−𝟏
(4marks)
(d) (i) What is meant by surface tension and angle of contact of a liquid (02marks)
(ii) A water drop of radius 0.5cm is broken up into other drops of water of radius 1mm. Assuming
isothermal conditions, find the total work done to break up the water drop. An 𝟖. 𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑱
(04marks)
UNEB 2014Q.4
(a) Define coefficient of viscosity and state its units (02marks)
(b) Explain the origin of viscosity in air and account for the effect of temperature on it (05marks)
(c) Describe, stating the necessary precautions an experiment to measure the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid
using Stoke’s law (07marks)
(d) A steel ball bearing of diameter 8.0mm falls steadily through oil and covers a vertical height of 20.0cm in
0.56 s. if the density of the steel is 7800𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and that of oil is 900 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . Calculate:
(i) Up thrust on the ball An 𝟐. 𝟑𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑵 (03 marks)
(ii) Viscosity of oil An 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒𝑵𝒔𝒎−𝟐 (03 marks)
UNEB 2002 Q 3
a) i) Show that the weight of fluid displaced by an object is equal to the up thrust on the object. (5mks)
ii) A piece of metal of mass 2.60x10-3kg and density 8.4x103kgm-3 is attached to a block of wax of mass
1.0x10-2 kg and density 9.2x102kgm-3. When the system is placed in a liquid, it floats with wax just
submerged. Find the density of liquid. (04marks)
b) Explain the
i) Terms laminar flow and turbulent flow (04marks)
ii) Effects of temperature on the viscosity of liquids and gases (03marks)
c) i) Distinguish between static pressure and dynamic pressure (02marks)
CHAPTER 8: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Terms used
1. Elasticity: This is the ability of the material to regain its original shape and size when the
deforming load has been removed.
2. Elastic material: This is a material which regains its original shape and size when the deforming
load has been removed. E.g. Rubber band, spring.
3. Elastic limit: This is the maximum load which a material can experience and still regain its
original size and shape once the load has been removed.
The elastic limit sometimes coincides with the limit of proportionality.
4. Proportional limit: This is the maximum load a material can experience for which the
extension created on it is directly proportional to the load applied.
5. Hooke’s law: it states that; the extension of a wire or spring is directly proportional to the applied
load provided the proportional limit is not exceeded.
6. Yield point: This is a point at which there is a marked increase in extension when the stress or
load is increased beyond the elastic limit.
7. Plastic deformation: This is when a material cannot recover its original shape and size when the
deforming load has been removed.
8. Ductility: It is the ability of the material to be permanently stretched. or it is the ability of the
material to be stretched appreciably beyond elastic limit. It can be drawn into different shapes
without breaking.
Tensile stress and Tensile strain

Tensile stress: it is force acting per unit area of cross-section of a material.
𝐹
Stress = 𝐴
Tensile strain: it is the extension per unit original length of the material.
𝑒
Strain = 𝐿
Strain has no units because it is a ratio of two similar units
Examples
1. A metal bar has a circular cross section of diameter 20mm. If the maximum permissible tensile stress is
8𝑥107Nm-2, calculate the maximum force which the bar can withstand.
Solution
𝜋𝑑 2 22
[ 𝑥(20𝑥10−3 ) ]
2
Force= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 8𝑥107 𝑥 4 𝐹 = 8𝑥107 𝑥 7 = 2.513𝑥104 𝑁
4
2. A metal bar is of length 2.0m and has a square cross-section of side 40mm. When a tensile force of 80𝑘𝑁
is applied, it is extends by 0.046mm, calculate
(i) Stress (ii) Strain in specimen
Solution
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 80𝑥1000 𝑒 0.046𝑥10−3
stress= 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
= (40𝑥10−3 )2 = 5.0𝑥107 𝑁𝑚−2 strain= 𝑙 = = 2.3𝑥10−5
2
8.0: Experiment to study elastic properties of steel

 Two long, thin identical steel wires are  Known weight, W is added to the free end of test
suspended besides each other from the same wire and the corresponding extension e is read
rigid support B from the vernier scale.
 The wire P is kept taut and free of kinks by  The procedure is repeated for different weights
weight attached to its end and for each extension, the load is removed to
 The original length 𝑙 of test wire Q is measured ensure that the wire goes back to the original
and recorded. length
 The mean diameter d of test wire is determined  Results are tabulated including values of tensile
𝜋 𝑑2 𝑊 𝑒
and cross-sectional area 𝐴 = is found. stress ( 𝐴 ) and tensile strain (𝐿)
4
 The graph of tensile stress versus tensile strain is
plotted as below.
8.1: Stress-strain graphs
1. Ductile material e.g. copper, steel, iron
A ductile material is one which can be permanently stretched
B P-Proportionality limit
stress
(Nm ) -2 P
E Y C
E-Elastic limit
Y-Yield point
B-Breaking stress
O strain
C-Breaking point
2. Rubber
stress
Rubber does not obey Hooke’s law except for a
smaller load. This is because rubber has coiled
strain
molecules which uncoil when stretched
3. Brittle materials e.g. glass, chalk, rocks and cast iron

These are materials that can not be permanently stretched. It breaks as soon as the elastic limit has been
reached
Brittle materials have only a small elastic region
stress and do not under go plastic deformation. This
behavior in glass is due to the existence of cracks in
strain its surface. The high concentration of the stress at
the crack makes the glass break.
8.3: Young’s modulus (Modulus of elasticity)

Young’s modulus is the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain of a material
Young modulus = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹 𝐹𝐿
𝐸=
𝐸 = 𝐴⁄𝑒 𝐴𝑒
𝐿
A is area, L is original length, e is extension
Examples
1. Find the maximum load which may be placed on steel of diameter 1mm if the permitted strain must not
exceed 0.001 and young’s modulus for steel is 2𝑥1011 Nm-2
Solution
Stress= 𝐸𝑥 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑥1011 𝑥0.001 = 2𝑥108 𝑁𝑚−2 22
2 [ 7 𝑥(1𝑥10−3 )2 ]
8 𝜋𝑑 𝐹 = 2𝑥10 𝑥 8
= 1.571𝑥102 𝑁
Force= 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2𝑥10 𝑥
4 4
2. A cylindrical copper wire and a cylindrical steel wire, each of length 1m and having equal diameter are
joined at one end to form a composite wire 2m long. This composite wire is subjected to a tensile stress

until its length becomes 2.002m. Calculate the tensile stress applied to the wire (young modulus of copper
=1.2𝑥1011Pa and Steel =2𝑥1011Pa)
Solution
[Recall from S.H.M wire in series experience the same tension and weight]
Note: the two wires will 𝐹 1 1
0.002 = 𝐴 ( 1.2𝑥1011 + 2𝑥1011 )
1m T
experiences same stress
T 𝐹
1m
0.002 = 𝑒1 + 𝑒2 = 1.5𝑥108 𝑁
F 𝐹𝐿 𝐴
Total extension, 𝑒 = 2.002 − 2 𝑒 = 𝐴𝐸 Stress = 1.5𝑥108 𝑁
𝐹𝐿 𝐹𝐿
𝑒 = 0.002𝑚 0.002 = 𝐴 𝐸1 + 𝐴 𝐸2
1 2
𝑒 = 𝑒1 + 𝑒2 -------------[1]
3. One The ends of a uniform wire of cross-sectional area 10-6m2 and negligible mass are attached to fixed
points A and B which are 1m apart in the same horizontal plane. The wire is initially straight and
outstretched. A mass of 0.5kg is attached to the mid point of the wire and hangs in equilibrium with the
mid point at a distance 10mm below AB. Calculate the value of young’s modulus for the wire
Solution
M
A 0.5 0.5 B
𝐶𝐵 = 0.5001𝑚
1X10-2
T
θ θ
T
𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶𝐵 = 0.5001𝑚
Length ACB = 0.5001 𝑥 2 = 1.0002𝑚
C
0.5kg
𝐹𝐿 127.75x1
2 2
0.5gN
−2 2
𝐸 = 𝐴 𝑒 = 10-6 x2x10-4 = 6.39𝑥1011 𝑁𝑚−2
𝐶𝐵 = 0.5 + (1𝑥10 )
8.4: Determination of young’s modulus (Searle’s apparatus)

 The wire P is kept taut and free of kinks by
B
P Q Rigid support
Test wire
weight A attached to its end
Main scale
Vernier scale
Small fixed
mass
Load,w
 A graph of weight W against extension e is
 Two long, thin identical steel wires are suspended plotted and its slope (s) obtained.
𝑆𝐿
besides each other from the same rigid support B  Young’s modulus is obtained from 𝐸 = 𝐴
Precautions
8.5: Energy stored in a stretched material [strain energy]

Consider a material of an elastic constant k, stretched by a force,𝑭 to extend by 𝒆.
By Hooke’s law, the extension is directly proportional to the applied force provided the elastic limit is not
exceeded.
1
Stretching force
F
Work done = 2 𝑘 𝑒 2
The work done to stretch the material is stored
0 e extension as elastic potential in the material
1
Work done = area under the graph Energy stored = 2 𝑘 𝑒 2
1
Work done = 𝐹 𝑒 Or Energy stored = 𝐹 𝑒
1
2 2
But 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒
By calculus [integration]
Examples
1. Calculate the energy stored in 2m long copper wire of cross-sectional area 0.55mm2, if a force of 50N is
applied to it
Solution
𝐹𝐿 Energy stored = ½ 𝐹𝑒
𝑒=
𝐴𝐸
1 2.8𝑥0.1 = 0.04𝐽
= 𝑥50𝑥
2 1.2𝑥1011 𝑥0.5𝑥10−6
2. An elastic string of cross-sectional area 4mm2 requires a force of 2.8N to increase its length by one tenth.
Find young’s modulus for the string if the original length of the string was 1m, find the energy stored in the
string when it is extended.
Solution
Exercise: 24 [use g = 10ms-2]

1. A metal column shortens by 0.25mm when a arm), calculate the stress in the humerous if it has a
load of 120𝑘𝑁 is placed upon it. Calculate; radius of 1.5cm An (9.9x105Pa)
a) Energy stored in the column 4. Find the maximum load that can be support by
b) Loss of gravitational potential energy. a steel cable 1.5cm in diameter without its elastic
An[15J, 30J] limit being exceeded when the load is
2. A uniform steel wire of density 7800kgm-3 weighs (a) In air (b) immerse in water
26g and 250cm long, it lengthens by 1.2mm, An (1.41x104kg, (ii)depends on density of load)
when stretched by a force of 80N, calculate; 5. A rubber cord a catapult has a cross-sectional
a) The value of young’s modulus for steel area of 1.0m𝑚2 and un stretched length 10.0cm.
b) The energy stored in the wire It is stretched to 15cm and then released to
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
(Hint volume = Al = 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 ) An project a missile of mass 5.0g. Calculate;
(2.03x1011Nm-2, 0.048J) (a) the energy stored in the rubber.
(b) The velocity of projection
3. A gymnast of mass 70kg hangs by one arm from (c) The maximum height that the missile could
high bar. If the gymnasts whole weight is assumed reach. ( young’s modulus for
to be taken by the humerous bore (in the upper rubber=5.0x108Pa)
An(6.25J, 50m/s, 125m)
8.7: FORCE ON A BAR DUE TO THERMAL EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION

When a bar is heated and then prevented from contracting as it cools, a force is exerted at the ends of a
bar.
Consider a metal of young’s modulus E, cross sectional Area A at a temperature θ20c fixed between two
rigid supports.
L2
When the bar is cooled to a temperature 𝜃1 ℃, the bar can not contract hence there will be forces on the
rigid support.
If 𝛼 is the mean co-efficient of linear 𝐿 −𝐿
𝛼 ∆𝜃 = 2𝐿 1
expansion then 𝐿𝜃 = 𝐿0 (1 + 𝛼𝜃) 0
𝐿2 −𝐿1
0
𝐿𝜃 is length of the bar at temperature θ c But strain = 𝐿0
𝐿0 is length of the bar at temperature 00c 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝛼∆ 𝜃
𝐿2 = 𝐿0 (1 + 𝛼𝜃2 ) ………………….i Stress = E x strain
𝐿1 = 𝐿0 (1 + 𝛼𝜃1 ) …………………..ii 𝐹
= 𝐸𝑥𝛼∆ 𝜃
Subtracting: 𝐿2 − 𝐿1 = 𝐿0 𝛼∆𝜃 𝐴
𝐹 = 𝐸𝐴𝛼∆ 𝜃
Coefficient of linear expansion 𝛼 is defined as the fractional increase in length at0℃ for every
degree rise in temperature.
UNEB 2020 No2

(a) Define the following terms as applied to materials
(i) Stress ( 1 mark)
(ii) Young’s Modulus ( 1 mark)

(b) The velocity of compressional waves travelling along a rod omade of material of Young’s Modulus, E and
1⁄
𝐸 2
density, 𝜌, is given by 𝑉 = ( ) . Show that the formula is dimensionally consistent. (02 marks)
𝜌
(c) Derive an expression for the energy stored in a stretched wire within the elastic limit ( 03 marks)
(d) A uniform wire of length 2.49m is attached to two fixed points A and B, a horizontal distance 2m apart.
When a 5kg mass is attached to the midpoint C of the wire, the equilibrium position of C is 0.75m below
the line AB. Neglecting the weight of the wire and taking Young’s Modulus for the material to be
2.0𝑥1011 𝑁𝑚−2., find the;
(i) Strain in the wire An(0.004016) (04marks)
(ii) Stress in the wire An ( 8.03𝑥108 𝑁𝑚−2 ) (02marks)
(iii) Energy stored in the wire An(0.204J) (04marks)
(e) (i) Sketch the stress-strain curve for glass and explain its shape. (02marks)
(ii) Why does glass break easily. (01mark)
UNEB 2018 No3

(i) What is meant by a
(i) Brittle material? ( 1 mark)
(ii) Ductile material? ( 1 mark)
(ii) Give one example of each of the materials in (a) above ( 1 mark)
(iii) Explain why bicycle frames are hollow. ( 02 marks)
(iv) (i) Sketch a labeled graph of stress against strain for a ductile material (02marks)
(ii) Explain the main features of the graph in (d) (i) (04marks)
(v) Derive the expression for the energy stored per unit volume in a rod of length, L, Young’s modulus, Y,
when stretched through distance, e. (04marks)
(vi) A load of 5kg is placed on top of a vertical brass rod of radius 10 mm and length 50cm. If Young’s
modulus of brass is 3.5𝑥1010 𝑁𝑚−2. Calculate the;
(i) Decrease in length (03marks)
(ii) Energy stored in the rod (02marks)
An[ (𝒊) = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒎, (𝒊𝒊) = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐉 ]
UNEB 2017 No4

(a) (i) Define elastic deformation and plastic deformation (02marks)
(ii) Explain what is meant by work hardening (02marks)
(b) (i) Sketch using the same axes, stress-strain curves for a ductile material and rubber. (03marks)
(ii) Explain the features of the curve for rubber (03marks)
UNEB 2015 No2

(c) (i) Define young’s modulus (01mark)
(ii) Explain the precautions taken in the determination of Young’s modulus of a wire (06marks)
(a) Explain why a piece of rubber stretches much more than a metal wire of the same length and cross-
sectional area (02marks)
UNEB 2006 No 3
a) i) Define stress and strain (2 marks)
ii) Determine the dimensions of young’s modulus (3 marks)
b) Sketch a graph of stress versus strain for a ductile material and explain its features (6 marks)
c) A steel wire of cross-section area 1mm2 is cooled from a temperature of 600c to 150c, find the;
i. Strain (2marks)
ii. Force needed to prevent it from contracting young’s modulus = 2x1011Pa, coefficient of
linear expansion for steel = 1.1x10-5K-1 (3 marks)
d) Explain the energy changes which occur during plastic deformation (4 marks) Ans (4.95x10-4, 99N)
CHAPTER 9: CIRCULAR MOTION

This is the motion of the body with a uniform speed around a circular path of fixed radius about a center.
Terms used in circular motion
1. Angular velocity (ω)

This is the is the rate of change of the angle for a body moving in a circular path.
∆𝜽
Or rate of change of angular displacement i.e ω = ∆𝒕
𝜃
For large angles and big time intervals. 𝝎 = 𝑡
Angular velocity is measured in radians per second (rads-1)
2. Period T
This is the time taken for the body to describe one complete are revolution
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒[𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒] 2𝜋𝑟
𝑇= 𝑇=
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜔𝑟
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋
𝑇= 𝑣 𝑇= 𝜔
units seconds.
But 𝑣 = 𝑟 𝜔
3. Acceleration
Centripetal acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity of a body moving in a circular path
and is always directed towards the centre.
𝒗𝟐
9.1: Derivation of 𝒂 = 𝒓
Consider a body of mass m moving around a circular path of radius r with uniform angular velocity 𝜔 and
speed V. If initially the body is at point A moving with velocity VA and after a small time interval ∆t, the
body is at point B where its velocity is VB with the radius having moved an angle ∆𝛳
V B
-V A
𝑠 = 𝑟  ∆𝑉 = V∆𝜃
Δθ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉∆𝜃
O
θ
B ΔV VB 𝑎= 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= ∆𝑡
r
VA ∆𝜃 v
A But ∆𝑡
= ω =r
Vector form: 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = ∆𝑉 2
v
Taking ∆𝑉 as arc of a circle: 𝑎=
r
EXERCISE:26
1. What force is required to cause a body of mass 3g to (i) Boeing Chinook-rotor balde length 9.14m,
move in a circle of radius 2m at a constant rate of 4 (ii) Siskorsky Black Hawk- rotor blade length
revolutions per second. An(3.8N) 8.45m,
2. A helicopter ‘s rotor blades rotate such that the (iii) Westland Lynx- rotor blade length 6.40m.
speed at the tip is 200𝑚𝑠 −1 . This is roughly the Calculate also the maximum tension in (c) if the
same for all helicopters regardless of the length mass of the blades is 46kg. An(3.5Hz, 3.8Hz,
of the blades. Calculate the frequency of 5.0Hz, 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟓 N)
rotation for the following;
9.2: CENTRIPETAL FORCE

Centripetal force is an inward force towards the center of the circle required to keep a body moving in a
circular path
𝒎 𝒗𝟐
𝐹= 𝒓
This is the expression for the centripetal force Or 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑟 ω2

9.4: Motion in a vertical cycle

Consider a body of mass m attached to a string of length r and whirled in a vertical circle with a constant
speed V. If there is no air resistance to the motion, then the net force towards the centre is the centripetal
force.
𝑚 𝑣2
TD
D
Tmax= 𝑟
+𝑚𝑔- ----------------(2)
A mg C 𝑚 𝑣2
TA
TB
TC At point C: 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑟 --------------------------(3)
mg B
mg mg The minimum tension is experienced on the top
𝑚 𝑣2
of the circle at point D
At point A: 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑟 ------------------------(1) Tmin=
𝑚 𝑣2
– 𝑚𝑔------------------(4)
𝑟
The maximum tension in the vertical circle is
experienced at B
Note
If the speed of whirling is increased the string will most likely break at the bottom of the circle.
Motion is tangential to the circle and when string breaks the mass will fly in a parabolic path.
Examples
1. An object of mass 3kg is whirled in a vertical circle of radius 2m with a constant sped of 12ms -1, calculate
the maximum and minimum tension in the string
Solution
D 𝑚 𝑣2 𝑚 𝑣2
TD
mg
𝑇 – 𝑚𝑔 = T= − 𝑚𝑔
A C 𝑟 𝑟
TA
TB
TC 3𝑥122 3𝑥122
mg B
T= 2
+3𝑥9.81 = 245.43𝑁 𝑇 = 2 − 3𝑥9.81
mg mg
Minimum tension is at D T = 186.57𝑁
Maximum tension is at B
2. A stone of mass 800g is attached to string of length 60cm which has a breaking tension of 20N. The string
is whirled in a vertical circle the axis of rotation at a height of 100cm from the ground.
i) What is the angular velocity where the string is most likely to break?
ii) How long will it take before the stone hits the ground?
iii) Where the stone hit the ground
Solution
9.5: Motion in a horizontal circle [conical pendulum]

Consider a body of mass , m tied to a string of length L whirled in a horizontal circle of radius r at a
constant speed V
A
θ
T L
Tcosθ
θ
O r
Tsinθ
mg
Explain why a mass attached to a string rotating at a constant speed in a horizontal circle
will fly off at a tangent if the string breaks
 When a mass is whirled in a horizontal circle, the horizontal component of the tension (𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
provides the necessary centripetal force which keeps the body moving in a circle without falling off.
 When the string breaks, the mass will not have any centripetal force and will continue in a straight line
along the tangent.
Examples
1. A stone 0.5kg is tied to one end of a string 1.2m long and whirled in a horizontal circle of diameter 1.2m.
Calculate;
i) The length in the string ii) The angular velocity iii) The period of motion
Solution
A
0.6
But 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ∴ θ= 300 𝑔
ω = √𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = √1.2𝑐𝑜𝑠30
9.81
θ
T 1.2
put into: (1) T𝑐𝑜𝑠30 = 0.5𝑥9.81
1.2m
Tcosθ
θ
O 0.6m
Tsinθ 𝑇 = 5.60𝑁 ω =3.07rads-1
22
mg
ii) Angular velocity 2𝜋 2𝑥
i) (↑)𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0.5𝑔𝑁 -------(1) iii)Period , 𝑇 = ω = 3.077 = 2.05𝑠
2. A body of mass 4kg is moving with a uniform speed 5ms-1 in a horizontal circle of radius 0.3m, find:
i) The angle the string makes with the vertical ii) The tension on the string
Solution
9.6: Motion of a car round a flat track [negotiating a bend]

Consider a car of mass m moving round a circular horizontal arc of radius r with a speed v
A) Skidding of the car

mv2
(1) into equation (3): 𝜇 𝑚𝑔 = r
R1 R2
O r
Center F1 mg
F2 𝑣 2 = 𝑟𝑔 𝜇
(↑) : R1 + R 2 =mg----------------- (1) The maximum speed with which no skidding
m v2 occurs is given by
(→): F1 + 𝐹2 =
r
-----------------(2)
vmax = √μrg
The frictional forces F1 and F2 provide the
necessary centripetal force For no skidding
But F1 = 𝜇R1 , 𝐹2 = 𝜇𝑅2 𝑣2
𝜇 ≥ 𝑟𝑔 0r 𝑣 2 ≤ μrg
m v2
𝜇 (R1 + R 2 ) = --------------------- (3)
r
Example
1. A car of mass 1000kg goes round a bend of radius 100m at a speed of 50kmℎ−1 without skidding.
Determine the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road surface
Solution 𝜇(𝑅 + 𝑅 ) =
𝑚 𝑣2
-------------------[2]
1 2 𝑟
R1 R2
m v2
O
Put equation (1) and equation 2: 𝜇 mg= r
r F2
Center F1 mg 50𝑥1000 2
v2 ( )
(↑): 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 𝑚𝑔------------------- (1) 𝜇= = 3600
= 0.1965
m v2 rg 100𝑥9.81
(→): 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 =
r
B) Overturning/toppling of a car
Consider a car of mass m moving around a horizontal (flat)circular bend of radius r at speed v. let the
height of the centre of gravity above the track be “h” and the distance between the wheels be “2a”.
(↑): R1 + R 2 = 𝑚𝑔 − − − − − (1) m v2 ℎ
R +R + . = (𝑅 − 𝑅 ) + 𝑚𝑔
1 2 2 1
m v2 r 𝑎
(→): F1 + F2 = − − − − −(2) 𝑚𝑣 2 ℎ
r 2𝑅1 = 𝑚𝑔 −
Taking moments about G 𝑟𝑎
𝑚 𝑣2ℎ
𝐹1 . ℎ + 𝐹2 . ℎ + 𝑅1 . 𝑎 = 𝑅2 . 𝑎 𝑅1 = 2
(𝑔 − 𝑟𝑎
)----------------------- (5)
(𝐹1 + 𝐹2 )ℎ + 𝑅1 𝑎 = 𝑅2 . 𝑎 -------------- (3) A car just topples or upsets when 𝑅1 = 0
Put equation 2 into equation 3 𝑚 𝑣2ℎ
m v2 2
(𝑔 −
𝑟𝑎
) =0
r
.ℎ + 𝑅1 𝑎 = 𝑅2 . 𝑎 2
𝑣 ℎ
2
mv ℎ 𝑔 = 𝑟𝑎
r
.𝑎= (𝑅2 − 𝑅1 )----------------------[4]
𝑟𝑔𝑎
Equation 1+Equation 4 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ ℎ

9.7: Motion of a car on a banked track

Definition :Banking a track is the building of a track round a corner with the outer edge raised above the
inner one.
Advantages of banking
Banking ensures that only the horizontal component of normal reaction contributes towards the
centripetal force.
Banking also enables the car to go round a bend at a higher speed for the same radius compared to a flat
track.
A) SMOOTH TRACK
Consider a car of mass m negotiating a banked track at a speed v and radius of the bend is r.
R 𝑅Sinθ m v2
Rcosθ
(2) ÷ (1): 𝑅Cosθ
= rmg
Rsinθ
θ v2
r θ mg mgcosθ
tan θ =
center rg
(↑) :𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 ------- (1) 𝑣 2 = 𝑟𝑔𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃
(→):𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
m v2
----(2) θ is the angle of banking and v is the
r designed speed of the banked track.
Example
1. A racing car of mass 1000kg moves around a banked track at a constant speed of 108kmℎ−1, the radius
of the track is 100m. Calculate the angle of banking and the total reaction at the tyres.
Solution
2 (
108𝑥1000 2
) Resolving vertically:𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
−1 𝑣 −1
θ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (𝑟𝑔) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 [ 100𝑥9.81 3600
] =42.50 1000𝑥9.81
𝑅 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠42.5 = 13305𝑁
B) ROUGH TRACK
The frictional force must be there whose direction depends on the speed of the car.
(i) MAXIMUM SPEED/GREATEST SPEED

If the car is moving at speed v, greater than the designed speed v, the force Rsinθ is enough to provide the
necessary centripetal force. The car will tend to slid outwards from the circular path, the frictional force
would therefore oppose their tendency up to the maximum value .
m v2
Mv 2 R1
R2 R Rcosθ 𝑅 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃) = r
------ (2)
r
Rsinθ 𝑅(sinθ+ 𝜇 cos θ) 𝑚 𝑣2
F2 θ
(2) ÷ (1): =
𝑅(cos θ −𝜇 sin θ) 𝑟𝑚𝑔
r
center
θ F1 r θ μR mg mgcosθ (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝜇𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃) v2
mg center
(𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃−𝜇𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃)
= r 𝑔
(↑): 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 + 𝜇 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2
(𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝜇𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑅(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝜇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) = 𝑚𝑔 ------- (1) 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑟𝑔
(𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝜇𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃)
m v2
(→): 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = Or divide the right hand side by cosθ
r (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃+𝜇)
2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑟𝑔 [(1−𝜇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃) ]
(ii) MINIMUM SPEED/LEAST SPEED

2 (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃−𝜇)
2 R1
R2 R Rcosθ 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑟𝑔 [(1+𝜇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃) ]
Mv
r
Rsinθ
F2 θ
r
center
θ F1 r θ μR mg mgcosθ
mg center

Examples
1. A car travels round a bend which is banked at 220. If the radius of the curve is 62.5m and the coefficient of
friction between the road surface and tyres of the car is 0.3, calculate the maximum and minimum speed
at which the car can negotiate the bend without skidding.
Solution
2 (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃+𝜇) 2 (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃−𝜇)
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑟𝑔 [(1−𝜇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃) ] 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑟𝑔 [(1+𝜇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃) ]
1 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛22+0.3 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛22−0.3 2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = [62.5𝑥9.81 (1−0.3𝑡𝑎𝑛22)] =22.15ms-1 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = [62.5𝑥9.81 (1+0.3𝑡𝑎𝑛22)] =7.54ms-1
EXERCISE:29
1. A racing car of mass 2 tonnes is moving at a speed of ii) The reaction to the wheel if it’s assumed to
5ms-1 round a circular path. If the radius of the track be normal to the track. An[1.5o,
is 100m. calculate; 19606.7N]
i) Angle of inclination of the track to the
horizontal if the car does not tend to side slip
.
9.8: Motion of a cyclist round a bend

A cyclist must bend towards the centre while travelling round the bend to avoid toppling. When the
cyclist bends, the weight creates a couple which opposes the turning effect of the centrifugal forces.
Consider the total mass of the cyclist and his bike to be m round the circle of radius r at a speed v.
A) No skidding
a m v2
G Put 1 into 2: 𝜇𝑚𝑔 = r
ɵ
R
centre
mg ɵ
h
𝒗𝟐 = 𝝁𝒓𝒈
F 
mv
2
V is the max speed at which a cyclist negotiates
r
a bend of radius r without skidding
(↑): 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔 ---------- (1)
m v2
For no skidding : v 2 ≤ μ𝒓𝒈
(→): 𝜇𝑅 =
r
-------------------- (2)
B) No toppling/ No over turning

The force G has a moment about the centre of gravity G(F.h) which tends to turn the rider out.
𝑎
G
a
But tan𝜃 = ℎ
ɵ 𝑚 𝑣2
R h
ɵ
centre
mg
2
tan𝜃 = 𝑟
𝑚𝑔
mv
F 
r 2
v = rgtan𝜃
(↑) 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑚 𝑣2 v is the speed at which a cyclist can negotiate a
Taking moment about G: .ℎ = 𝑅. 𝑎 corner without toppling
𝑟
𝑎
𝑚 𝑣2 For no toppling v 2 ≤ rgtan𝜃
𝑟
ℎ
= 𝑅
Why it is necessary for a bicycle rider moving round a circular path to lean towards a center
of the path
When a rider moves round a circular path, the frictional force provides the centripetal force. The
frictional force has a moment about the centre of gravity of the rider, the rider therefore tends to fall
off from the centre of the path if this moment is not counter balanced. The rider therefore leans
toward the center of the path so that his reaction provides a moment about the center of gravity ,
which counter balances the moment due to friction.

UNEB 2020 No3

a) (i) Define centripetal acceleration (01mark)
(ii) Show that the force F on a body of mass M moving in a circle of radius with constant speed V is given
𝑀𝑉 2
by 𝐹 = 𝑟 (05marks)
(iii) Derive the condition for a car to move round a banked circular track without slipping. (04marks)
UNEB 2019 No3

a) Define the following terms as applied ot circular motion
(i) Centripetal acceleration (01mark)
(ii) Period (01mark)
b) (i) Explain why a cyclist bends inwards while going around a curved path (03marks)
ii) Show that if 𝜃 is the angle of inclination of the cyclist to the vertical and 𝜇 is the coefficient of limititng
friction between the ground and the bicycle tyres, then for safe riding 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ≤ 𝜇 (04marks)
(iii) A body of mass 1.5 kg moves once round a circular path to cover 44.0cm in 5.0 s. Calculate the
centripetal force acting on the body. An(0.166N) (03marks)
UNEB 2014No1
(b) (i) Define angular velocity. (01mark)
5
(ii) satellite is revolving around the earth in a circular orbit at an altitude of 6 𝑥10 𝑚 where the
acceleration due to gravity is 9.4𝑚𝑠 −2. Assuming that the earth is spherical, calculate the period of
the satellite. An[𝟓. 𝟒𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒔] (03marks)
UNEB2013No3
(b) Show that the centripetal acceleration of an object moving with constant speed, 𝑣, in a circle of radius,
𝑣2
𝑟, is 𝑟 (04marks)
(c) A car of mass 1000kg moves round a banked track at a constant speed of 108kmℎ−1. Assuming the
total reaction at the wheels is normal to the track, and the radius of curvature of the track is 100m,
calculate the;
(i) Angle of inclination of the track to the horizontal. An[42.5°] (04marks)
(ii) Reaction at the wheels An[13305N] (02marks)
UNEB 2007 No1

a) Explain why the maximum speed of a car on a banked road is higher than that on an unbanked road.
b) A small bob of mass 0.20kg is suspended by an inextensible string of length 0.8m. The bob is then rotated
in a horizontal circle of radius 0.4m. find the
i) linear speed of the bob (3mk)
ii) tension in the string (2mk)
UNEB 2002 No1

d) The period of oscillation of a conical pendulum is 2.0s. if the string makes an angel 600 to the vertical at
the point of suspension, calculate the
i) Vertical height of the point of suspension above the circle (3mk)
ii) Length of the string (1mk)
i) Velocity of the mass attached to the string (3mk)
An[0.995m, 1.99m, 5.41ms-1]

CHAPTER 10: GRAVITATION

Gravitation deals with motion of planets in a gravitational field.
10.1: NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION

It states that: the force of attraction between two bodies in the universe is directly proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Exercise: 30
1. Calculate the gravitational attraction of two cars centres are 1.0𝑥107 𝑘𝑚 apart and rotate
5m part if the masses of the cars are 1000kg and together with and aangular velocity 𝜔 about an
1200kg. An(𝟑. 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑵) axis which intersects a line joining their centres.
2. Calculate the force between the sun and Jupiter if Find the value of 𝜔 and state two assumptions
the mass of the sun is 2.0𝑥1030 𝑘𝑔, mass of Jupiter is made. An(𝟏. 𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒔−𝟏 )
27
1.89𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 and radius of Jupiter’s orbit is 7. The earth is 6.0𝑥1024 𝑘𝑔 and that of the moon is
11 𝟐𝟑
7.73𝑥10 𝑚. An(𝟒. 𝟐𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝑵) 7.4𝑥1022 𝑘𝑔. If the distances between their
3. Calculate the force of attraction between two centres is 3.8𝑥108 𝑚, calculate at what point on
masses, one of 5kg and one of 8kg whose centres are the line joining their centres is no gravitational
10cm apart. An(𝟐. 𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑵) force. An(𝟑. 𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉)
4. Calculate the gravitational force of attraction 8. Two particles of mass 0.20kg and 0.30kg are
between two 10kg particles which are 5cm apart. placed 0.15m apart. A third particle of mass
An(𝟐. 𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑵) 0.05kg is placed between them on a line joining
5. Two small spheres of mass 4kg and mkg are placed the first two particles. Calculate;
80cm apart. If the gravitational force is zero at a (i) Gravitational force acting on the third
point 20cm from the 4kg mass along the line particle placed 0.050m from 0.30kg mass
between the two masses, calculate the value of m. (ii) Where along the line it should be placed for
An(𝟑𝟔𝒌𝒈) no gravitational force to be exerted on it.
6. A binary star consists of two dense spherical An(𝟑. 𝟑𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝑵, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕𝑴)
masses of 1.0𝑥1030 𝑘𝑔 and 2.0𝑥1030 𝑘𝑔 whose
10.3: BOYS’ METHOD FOR DETEMINATION OF UNIVERSAL CONSTANT OF GRAVITATION, G

Polished bar Torsion wire
 The distance d between a and A or b and B is
C D measured and recorded
B Lead
 The deflection θ, of bar CD is measured by lamp
Lead
gold b sphere and scale method.
A 𝐺𝑚𝑀
a sphere
sphere
Torque of couple on CD = 𝑑2 x 𝑙
 Two identical gold sphere a and b of mass m are
𝐺 𝑚 𝑀𝑙
suspended from the ends of a highly polished bar = 𝑘𝜃
CD of length 𝑙 𝑑2
 Two large spheres A and B each of mass M are Where k is torsional of wire per unit radian of twist
brought in position near a and b respectively. 𝑘𝜃𝑑2
𝐺=
𝐺 𝑚 𝑀𝑙
10.4: GAVITATION FIELD STRENGTH/INTENSITY, 𝒈𝟏

Gravitation field strength , 𝑔1 at a point is the force on a unit mass placed at tha point.
The units are 𝑁 𝑘𝑔−1
Consider a body of mass m placed at a distance r from the centre of a planet of mass M, its Gravitation
field strength , 𝑔1 is given by
𝐺 𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀 = 𝑔1 𝑟 2
2
= 𝑚𝑔1
𝑟
RELATION BETWEEN G AND g

Body 𝐺 𝑀𝐸 𝑚
F m = 𝑚𝑔
mE
Earth
rE 𝑟𝐸 2
𝐺 𝑚𝐸 = 𝑔 𝑟𝐸 2
Consider a body of mass m placed on the earth’s Where 𝑟𝐸 is the radius of earth where
surface of radius rE where the acceleration due to 𝑟𝐸 =6.4x106m
gravity is 𝑔
10.5: VARIATION OF GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH

(i) Variation of field strength with height above the earth’s surface
An object of mass m placed at a height h, above the surface of the earth where acceleration due to gravity
at that height is 𝑔1
(ii) Variation of field strength with depth below the earth surface
Consider the earth to be a uniform sphere of uniform density. Suppose a body is at a point h meters from
the surface of the earth measured towards the centre of the earth.
𝑟 2 𝑔1
𝑚
Equation 2 divided by 1: 𝐺 ⁄
h
𝑀𝐸
= 𝑟𝐸2 𝑔
P
r
Earth’s rE 𝐺
center 𝑚 r2 g1
𝑀𝐸
= rE2 g
------------------------- (3)
Earth’s
surface
For masses of uniform spheres are proportional
When the object is on the surface of the earth . to the cube of their radii
𝐺𝑚 𝑚
𝑚𝑔 = 𝐸2 i.e. m ∝ r 3 and 𝑀𝐸 ∝ 𝑟𝐸3
𝑟𝐸
r3 r2 g1
𝑟𝐸2 𝑔 =
𝑀𝐸 = ------------------ (1) 3
rE rE2 g
𝐺 𝑟
𝐺 𝑚𝐸1 𝑚 1
𝑔 =𝑔
at P: 𝑚𝐸 1 𝑔1 = 𝑟2
𝑟𝐸
𝑟 2 𝑔1 ∴ 𝑔1 ∝ 𝑟 for a point inside the earth
𝑚 = 𝐺 ---------------------------- (2)
Where 𝑚𝐸 1 is the effective mass of that part of
the earth which has a radius of r
(iii) Graph of variation of gravitational field strength from the centre of the earth
Surface of the earth For points above the earth, the gravitational
g Inside the
Above the surface of
force obeys the inverse square law while for
earth the earth points inside the earth, g is proportional to the
0 rE r
distance from the centre.
Examples
1. Calculate the gravitational field strength at a point above the earth surface which is 0.50m times the
radius of the earth
Solution
𝑔1 𝑟𝐸 2 9.81𝑥(𝑟𝐸 )2
= 2 𝑔1 = = 4.36𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑔 𝑟 (𝑟𝐸 + 0.5𝑟𝐸 )2
2. A body has a weight of 10N on the earth. What will its weight be on the moon if the ratio of the moon’s
mass to the earth’s mass is 0.012 and the ratio of the moon’s radius to that of the earth is 0.27?
Solution
𝐺𝑚𝑚 𝑚 𝐺𝑚𝐸 𝑚
moon’s surface :𝑊𝑚 = 𝑟𝑚 2
----- (1) 10 = 𝑟𝐸 2
---------- (2)
𝐺𝑚𝐸 𝑚 𝑟 2
earth’s surface : 𝑊𝐸 = (2)÷ (1):
𝑊𝐸
=
𝑚𝑚
𝑥 (𝑟 𝐸 ) 𝑥10
𝑟𝐸 2 10 𝑚𝐸 𝑚

mm rm
But = 0.012 and = 0.27 1 2
me re 𝑊𝑚 = 0.012𝑥 ( ) 𝑥10 = 1.65𝑁
0.27
EXERCISE:31
1. At what distance from the earth surface will the (i) The distance from the surface of the black
1
acceleration be 8 of its value at the earth surface hole where the gravitational intensity
would be the same as that at the earth’s
An(𝟏. 𝟏𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎) surface.
2. Calculate the value of the gravitational (ii) The gravitational intensity 1m from the
intensity at a point centre of the black hole.
(i) 8000m above sea level Assume the laws of Physics are still obeyed near
(ii) 8000m below sea level black holes. An(𝟔. 𝟑𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎, 𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝑚𝑠 −2 )
Take gravitational intensity at the surface of the
earth as 10𝑁 𝑘𝑔−1 An(𝟗. 𝟗𝟕𝟓𝑚𝑠 −2 , 𝟗. 𝟗𝟖𝟖𝑚𝑠 −2) 4. Mars has a radius of about 0.5 times tha of the
eath and has a mass of approximately 0.1 0f the
3. The diameter of a black hole with the same earth. Find the gravitational field at the surface of
mass as the earth is about 1.0cm. Calculate ;
the mars. An( 𝟒𝑚𝑠 −2 )
(iv) Variation of acceleration due to gravity with location on the surface of the earth
a) The earth is elliptical with the equatorial radius slightly greater than the polar radius. At the
equator, the body is less attracted towards the earth than at the poles, acceleration due to gravity
is greater at the poles than the equator
b) The earth rotates about its polar axis, weight of the body at the equator has to provide some
centripetal force m𝜔2 r where r is the equatorial radius, acceleration due to gravity is greater at
the poles than the equator
10.7: VERIFICATION OF KEPLER’S 3RD LAW

Consider a planet of mass m above the sun of ms. If the distance separating the planet and the sun is r.
F
Planet
2𝜋 2 𝐺 𝑚𝑚𝑠
r 𝑚𝑟( ) =
sun 𝑇 𝑟2
2
4𝜋
𝑇2 = ( ) 𝑟3
centripetal force should be provided by the 𝐺𝑚 𝑠
gravitational force of attraction 4𝜋2
Since 𝐺𝑚 is a constant 𝑇 2 𝛼 𝑟 3
𝐺 𝑚𝑚 2𝜋 𝑠
m r 𝜔2 = 𝑟2 𝑠 but 𝜔 = 𝑇
Example
1. The average orbital radii about the sun of the earth and mars are 1.5𝑥1011 𝑚 and 2.3𝑥1011 𝑚 respectively.
How many earth years does it take mars to complete its orbit
Solution
Earth takes 1 year to orbit around the sun 𝑇2 𝑘(2.3𝑥1011 )
3
2 3 (𝑖) ÷ (𝑖𝑖): 2 =
𝑇 𝛼𝑟 1 𝑘 (1.5𝑥10 )3
11
2 11 3
𝑇 = 𝑘 (2.3𝑥10 ) … … … . (𝑖) 2
23 3
12 = 𝑘 (1.5𝑥1011 )3 … … … . (𝑖𝑖) 𝑇 = ( ) = 3.6
15
𝑇 = 1.9 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
10.8: MASS OF THE SUN

The mass of the sun can be estimated by considering the motion of the earth round the sun in an orbit
of radius 1.5x1011m.
F
Earth
m E
Force of attraction= Centripetal force
𝐺 𝑀𝐸 𝑀𝑆
m S
sun
rSO
𝑟2
= mE 𝜔2 rso
𝑠𝑜

𝜔2 𝑟𝑠𝑜
3 2𝜋 𝑇 =1yr≈365days =365x24x60x60s
𝑚𝑠 = But 𝜔 = 𝑇
𝐺
2 3
rso = 1.5x1011m
4𝜋 𝑟𝑠𝑜 22 2 3
𝑚𝑠 = 4𝑥( ) 𝑥(1.5𝑥1011 )
𝐺𝑇 2 𝑚𝑠 = 7
6.67𝑥1011 𝑥(365𝑥24𝑥60𝑥60)2
=2.0𝑥1030 𝑘𝑔
𝑟𝑠𝑜 is radius of the orbit of the earth around the sun
rso =1.5x1011m
10.9: MASS OF THE EARTH

The mass of the earth can be estimated by considerably the motion of the moon round the earth in an
orbit of radius 4𝑥108 m
Force of attraction= Centripetal force
Moon 𝐺 𝑀𝐸 𝑀𝑚
F m m
𝑟2
= mm 𝜔2 𝑟𝐸𝑂
mE rEO 𝐸𝑂
Earth 22 2 3
4𝑥( ) 𝑥(4𝑥108 )
𝑚𝐸 = 7
=5.6x1024kg
6.67𝑥1011 𝑥(30𝑥24𝑥60𝑥60)2
10:10: PERIOD OF A SATELLITE

Consider a satellite of mass m moving in a circular orbit of radius h above the earth surface.
𝑚 4𝜋 2 𝑅 𝐺𝑚𝐸 𝑚
Satellite
2
=
𝑇 𝑅2
h
2 3
4𝜋 𝑅
𝑇2 =
rE
R
𝐺𝑚𝐸
OR Where 𝑅 = rE + h
Attractive force=Centripetal force: But also 𝐺𝑚𝐸 = 𝑔𝑟𝐸 2
𝐺𝑚 𝑚
𝑚𝜔2 𝑅 = 𝑅𝐸2 4𝜋 2 𝑅3
𝑇2 =
2𝜋 𝑔𝑟𝐸 2
𝜔=
𝑇
Examples
1. If the moon moves round the earth in a circular orbit of radius =4.0x108m and takes exactly 27.3 days to
go round once, calculate the value of acceleration due to gravity g at the earth’s surface. (04marks)
𝐺𝑚 𝑚
𝑚𝜔2 𝑅 = 𝑅𝐸2 but 𝜔 = 𝑇
2𝜋 4𝜋𝑅 3
𝑔= 2 2
𝑚 4𝜋 2 𝑅 𝐺𝑚𝐸 𝑚 𝑇 𝑟𝐸
= 22 2
4𝑥( ) 𝑥(4.0𝑥108 )
3
𝑇2 𝑅2
But 𝐺 𝑚𝐸 = 𝑔 𝑟𝐸 2 𝑔 = 7
(27.3𝑥24𝑥60𝑥60)2 𝑥(6.4𝑥106 )2
=11.09ms-2
2. An artificial satellite move round the earth in a circular orbit in the plane of the equator at height
30,000km above the earth’s surface (mass of earth =6.0x1024kg, radius of the earth= 6.4x106m,)
i) Calculate its speed
ii) What is the time between successive appearances over a point on the equator
iii) What will be the additional distance of the satellite if it was to appear stationery
Solution
10.11: GEOSTATIONARY/SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT

These are communication satellites with orbital period of 24hrs and stays at the same point above the
earth surface provided it is above the equator and its moving in the same direction as the earth is
rotating.
HOW COMMUNICATION IS DONE USING A SATELLITE

S1  A set of three satellites are launched into

geostationary or parking orbit
Parkig orbit
A  Radio signals from A are transmitted to a
geosynchronous satellite 1.
Earth
B
S2  These are re-transmitted from 1 to
geosynchronous satellite 2.
 Then to geosynchronous satellite 3 which
S3 transmits to B
10.12: PARKING ORBIT

It’s a path in space followed by a satellite which appears stationary when viewed from the earth
surface.
Example
A communication satellite orbits the earth in synchronous orbits. Calculate the height of communication
satellite above the earth.
Solution
Centripetal force= Attractive force:
Satellite
But𝑅 = rE + h
ℎ = 4.22𝑥107 − 6.4𝑥106 = 3.58 𝑥107 𝑚
h
rE
10:13: GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL [U]

Gravitational potential at a point in the gravitational field is defined as the work done to move a unit
𝑤
mass from infinity to that point. Ie 𝑈 =
𝑚
Examples
1. Assuming the earth is a uniform shere of radius 6.4x106m and its mass is 6.0x1024 kg, calculate
(i) The gravitational potential at the earth surface
(ii) The gravitational potential at a point 6.0x105m above the earth surface
(iii) the work done in taking a 5kg mass from the earth’s surface to a point 6.0x105 m above it
(iv) the work done in taking a 5kg mass from the earth’s surface to a point where the earth’s
gravitational effect is negligible.
Solution
−𝐺𝑀 𝑊 = (𝑈2 − 𝑈1 )𝑥𝑚
(i) 𝑈= 𝑅
6.67𝑥10−11 𝑥6.0𝑥1024 𝑊 = (−5.74𝑥107 − −6.28𝑥107 )𝑥5
7 −1
𝑈1 = − = −6.28𝑥10 𝐽𝑘𝑔 𝑊 = 2.7𝑥107 𝐽
6.4𝑥106
(ii) 𝑈= 𝑅
−𝐺𝑀 (iii) 𝑊 = (0 − 𝑈1 )𝑥𝑚
𝑊 = (0 − −6.28𝑥107 )𝑥5
𝑅 = 𝑅𝐸 + ℎ = (6.4𝑥106 + 0.6𝑥106 ) =7.0x106
6.67𝑥10−11 𝑥6.0𝑥1024 𝑊 = 3.14𝑥108 𝐽
7 −1
𝑈2 = − 7.0𝑥106
= −5.74𝑥10 𝐽𝑘𝑔
2. A body of mass 15kg is moved from the earth’s surface to a point 2.8x106m above the earth. If the radius of
the earth is 6.4x106m and its mass is 6.0x1024 kg, calculate the work done in taking the body to that point
Solution
10.14: ESCAPE VELOCITY

This is the minimum velocity with which a body is projected from the surface of the earth so that it escapes
from the earth’s gravitational pull.

10.16: EFFECT OF FRICTION ON A SATELLITE

 If a satellite is located within the earth atmosphere as it moves in its orbit, the atmospheric gasses offer
frictional resistance to its motion. The satellite thus would be expected to do work to overcome this
resistance and is so doing, it falls to an orbit of lower radius.
−𝐺𝑚 𝑚
 The decrease in the radius causes the total energy ( 2𝑅𝐸 ) to decrease while the kinetic energy of the
𝐺𝑚 𝑚
satellite ( 2𝑅𝐸 ) increases resulting into an increase in the speed of the satellite in its new orbit. Because of
the increase of the speed the satellite becomes hotter and it may burnout.
Examples
1. A satellite of mass 100kg is in a circular orbit at a height 3.59x107m above the earth surface
i) Calculate the kinetic energy, potential energy and the mechanical energy of the satellite in this
orbit
ii) State what happens when the mechanical energy of the satellite is reduced
Solution
i) 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝐸
𝐺𝑚 𝑚 6.67𝑥10−11 𝑥6𝑥1024 𝑥100
𝑃. 𝐸. = − (6.4𝑥106  Satellite falls to an orbit
2𝑅 +3.59𝑥107 ) of small radius
𝑅 =re+ℎ 𝑃. 𝐸. = − 9.4992 x10 8
J  PE reduces
6.67𝑥10−11 𝑥6𝑥1024 𝑥100
K.E. = 2𝑥(6.4𝑥106 +3.59𝑥107 ) 𝑀. 𝐸 = 𝑃. 𝐸 + 𝐾. 𝐸  K.E increases
= −9.4992 𝑥108+4.75𝑥108  Satellite becomes hot
K.E. = 4.7.5𝑥108J
𝐺𝑚 𝑚 M.E= −4.75x10 8
J and may burn
𝑃. 𝐸. = − 𝑅𝐸 (ii)
𝑅 =re+ℎ  Frictional force increases
J
EXERCISE: 32
2. The gravitational potential difference between two radius of orbit of geostationary satellites is
points is 3.0𝑥103 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 . Calculate the work done in 42,000km. Find;
moving a mass of 4.0kg between the two points. An (i) the orbital period of the space station
1.2x104J ] (ii) Gravitational field strength at the space
3. The moon has mass 7.7𝑥1022 𝑘𝑔 and radius station. An[𝟕. 𝟖𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔, 𝟎. 98𝑚𝑠 −2]
1.7𝑥106 𝑚. Calculate; 4. A preliminary stage of the space craft Apollo 11’s
(i) The gravitational potential att its surface journey to the moon was to place it in a parking
(ii) The work needed to completely remove a orbit 189km above the earth’s surface. Calculate
1.5𝑥103 𝑘𝑔 space craft from its surface into (i) The gravitational intensity at this height
(ii) The speed of the spacecraft
outer space. Neglect the effect of the earth,
(iii) The time to complete one orbit
planet , sun, e.t.c An [3.0x106 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 ,
An[9.21Nkg-1,7.8x1𝟎𝟑 m𝒔−𝟏 , 𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒔]
4.5𝑥109 𝐽]
3. A space station is in a stable circular orbit at a
distance of 20,000km from the earth’s centre. The
10:17: WEIGHTLESSNESS
s1
and the floor have the same acceleration as
acceleration due to gravity. The floor therefore
exerts no supporting force on the astronaut (zero
g1 mg1
orbit
earth
reaction)
The astronaut therefore experiences a sensation
The sensation of weight is caused by the reaction of weightless.
of the floor on the person. In orbit an astronaut
Definition
Weightlessness is the condition of a zero reaction and a body moves with the same acceleration as
acceleration due to the gravity.
UNEB 2017No2
(a) State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion (03marks)
(b) Use Newton’s law of gravitation to derive the dimension of the universal gravitational constant.(03marks)
(c) A satellite is revolving at a height ℎ above the surface of the earth with a period , 𝑇
4𝜋2 (𝑟𝑒 +ℎ)3
(i) Show that the acceleration due to gravity g on the earth’s surface is given by 𝑔 = 𝑇 2 𝑟𝑒2
where 𝑟𝑒 is the radius of the earth (06marks)
(ii) What is meant by parking orbit (02mark)
(d) A satellite revolves in a circular orbit at a height of 600𝑘𝑚 above the earth’s surface. Find the
(i) Speed of the satellite An 𝟕. 𝟓𝟕𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 or An 𝟕. 𝟓𝟒𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 (03marks)
(ii) Periodic time of the satellite An 𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟓. 𝟐𝒔 or An 𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟐. 𝟐𝒔 (03marks)
UNEB 2015No3
(a) State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion (03marks)
(b) (i) What is a parking orbit (01mark)
(ii) Derive an expression for the period, T of a satellite in a circular orbit of radius r, above the earth in
terms of mass of the earth m, gravitational constant G and r (03marks)
(c) (i) A satellite of mas 200kg is launched in a circular orbit at a height of 3.59𝑥107 𝑚 above the earth’s
surface. Find the mechanical energy of the satellite An −𝟗. 𝟒𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑱 (03marks)
(ii) Explain what will happen to the satellite if the mechanical energy was reduced
(d) Describe a laboratory ,method of determining the universal gravitational constant, G (06marks)
UNEB 2004 No2

a) Explain and sketch the variation of acceleration due to gravity with distance from the centre of the earth.
(06marks)
UNEB 2000 No 4
a) State Kepler’s laws of gravitation (03marks)
b) I)Show that the period of a satellite in a circular orbit of radius r about the earth is given by
1
4 𝜋2 2 3
𝑇=( ) 𝑟2
𝐺 𝑀𝐸
Where the symbols have usual meanings (05marks)
ii)Explain briefly how world wide, radius or television communication can be achieved with the help of satellites
(04marks)
c) A satellite of mass 100kg in a circular orbit at a height of 3.59x107m above the earth’s surface
(i) Find the mechanical energy (04marks)
(ii) Explain what would happened if the mechanical energy was decreased (04marks)

CHAPTER 11: SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (S.H.M)

Definition
This is the periodic motion of a body whose acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement from
a fixed point and is directed towards the fixed point.
𝑎𝛼−𝑥
𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
The negative signs means the acceleration and the displacement are always in opposite direction.
Characteristics of SHM
(1) It’s a periodic motion (to and fro motion )
(2) Mechanical energy is always conserved
(3) The acceleration is directed towards a fixed point
(4) Acceleration is directly proportional to its displacement
Practical examples of s.h.m

 Pendulum clocks  Motor vehicle suspension springs
 Pistons in a petrol engine  Balance wheels of a watch
 Strings in music instruments
a) Velocity in terms of displacement

Velocity of a body executing S.H.M can be expressed as a function of displacement x. this is obtained from
the acceleration
𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝑥 integrating both sides 02
= −
𝜔2 𝑟 2
+𝐶
2
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥 . 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = - 𝜔 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
2
𝜔 𝑟 2
2
𝑣2 𝜔2 𝑥 2 𝐶 = 2
𝑑𝑥
but 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣 2
= − 2
+ C ………[1]
𝑣2 𝜔2 𝑥 2 𝜔2 𝑟 2
𝑑𝑣 Where C is a constant of Put into [1]: 2 = − 2 + 2
𝑎 =𝑣. integration
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 𝑟 2 − 𝜔2 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑣
𝑣 . 𝑑𝑥 = - 𝜔2 𝑥 When t = 0 v=0 and
𝑥 = 𝑟(amplitude) 𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 (𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑣𝑑𝑣 = - 𝜔2 𝑥𝑑𝑥
Velocity is maximum when x =0
𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 𝑟 2
𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝎𝒓
A graph of velocity against displacement

From 𝒗𝟐 = 𝜔2 𝑟 2 − 𝜔2 𝑥 2
V(m/s)
ωr 𝒗𝟐 + 𝜔2 𝑥 2 = 𝜔2 𝑟 2
𝒗𝟐 𝑥2
𝜔2 𝑟 2
+ 𝑟2 = 1
- r r X(m)
This is an ellipse
- ωr
Examples
1. A particles moves in a straight line with S.H.M. Find the time of one complete oscillation when
i) The acceleration at a distance of 1.2m is 2.4ms-2
ii) The acceleration at a distance of 20cm is 3.2ms-2
Solution 𝜔 =1.4rads-1 3.2 = 𝜔2 (0.2)
2𝜋
i) From 𝑎 = −𝜔 𝑥 2
But 𝑇 = 𝜔 𝜔 =4rads-1
22
Negative is ignored 2𝑥
22 2𝜋 2𝑥
7
2.4 = 𝜔2 (1.2) 𝑇 = = =1.57second
𝑇 = 1.47 = 4.46𝑠 𝜔 4
2.4
𝜔2 = 1.2 ii) 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
2. A Particle moving with S.H.M has velocities of 4ms-1 and 3ms-1 at distances of 3m and 4m respectively from
equilibrium position. Find
i) amplitude , ii) period , iii) frequency
iv) velocity of the particle as it passes through equilibrium position
Solution
(i) 𝑣 = 4𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑥 = 3𝑚 42 = 𝜔2 (𝑟 2 − 32 )
Using 𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 (𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 ) 16 = 𝜔2 (52 − 9)
2 2 (𝑟 2 2)
4 = 𝜔 − 3 𝜔2 = 1
2 (𝑟 2
16 = 𝜔 − 9)------- (1) 𝜔=1
−1 22
Also 𝑣 = 3𝑚𝑠 , 𝑥 = 4𝑚 2𝜋 2𝑥
But 𝑇 = = 7
=6.28second
32 = 𝜔2 (𝑟 2 − 42 ) 𝜔 1
1 1
9 = 𝜔2 (𝑟 2 − 16)------- (2) (iii) frequency = =
𝑇 6.28
=0.16Hz
2 2
𝜔 (𝑟 − 9)
16
(1)÷ (2): = 2 (𝑟 2 (iv) velocity as it passes equilibrium position at
9 𝜔 − 16)
equilibrium 𝑥 = 0
16(𝑟 2 − 16) = 9(𝑟 2 − 9)
𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 (𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑟 2 = 25
𝑣 2 = 12 (52 − 02 )
𝑟 = 5𝑚; Amplitude =5m
𝑣 = 5𝑚/s
(ii) period put 𝑟 = 5𝑚 into (1)
Energy changes in s.h.m

- In S.H.M there’s always an energy exchange. At maximum displacement , all the energy is elastic
potential energy while at equilibrium point all the energy is kinetic energy
a) Kinetic energy
It’s the energy possessed by a body due to its motion
K.E = ½ mv2= ½ m𝜔2 (𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 )
Note
i) The K.E is zero when the displacement x is equals to the amplitude
ii) K.E is maximum when the displacement x is zero
K. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ½ m𝜔2 𝑟 2
A graph of K.E against displacement

K.E
K.Emax
-r r X(m)
Graph of P.E against displacement

P.E
-r r X(m)
A graph of M.E against displacement

M.E
P.E
K.E
O r
-r X(m)
11.1: Mechanical oscillation

There are three types of oscillation i.e.
a) Free oscillation b) Damped oscillation c) Forced oscillation
a) Free oscillations
These are oscillations in which the oscillating systems does not do work against dissipative force such as
air friction, and viscous drag and amplitude remains constant with time.
Eg a pendulum bob in a vacuum
Displacement- time graph

displacement
r r
r r time
(a) Damped oscillations

These are oscillations in which the oscillating system loses energy to the surrounding due to dissipative
forces and amplitude of these oscillations reduce with time
Types of damped oscillations

i) Under damped/slightly damped/lightly damped oscillations
Is when energy is lost and amplitude gradually decreases until oscillation dies away.
displacement
time
ii)Over damped/highly damped/heavily damped

Is when a system does not oscillate when displaced but takes a very long time to return to equilibrium
position.
Displacement Example
 A horizontal spring with a mass on a
rough surface
time
iii) Critically damped oscillations
Is when a system does not oscillate when displaced and returns to equilibrium position in a short time.
Example
Displacement
 Shock absorber in a car
time
C) FORCED OSCILLATIONS
These are oscillations where the system is subjected to an external force and the system oscillates at the
same frequency as the oscillating force.
Examples of S.H.M
11.2: SIMPLE PENDULUM
Consider a mass m suspended by a light inelastic string of length L from a fixed point B.
If the bob is given a small vertical displacement through an angle θ and released, we show that a bob
moves with simple harmonic motion
it is in the form 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥 and hence
B
θ L performs S.H.M with period

T
𝑔
X
𝜔2 =
θ
𝑙
mgcosθ
𝑔
mgsinθ mg
𝜔= √
Resolving tangentially: Restoring force = − 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑙
By Newton’s 2nd law: 𝑚𝑎 = − 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 But = 𝑇
2𝜋
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃………………………..……..1
If the displacement is small, then θ is very small. 𝑙
𝑥 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 ≈ 𝑔
𝑙
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔𝜃 1 𝑔
𝑥 𝑔
𝑎 = −𝑔 𝑙 = − ( 𝑙 ) 𝑥 𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑙
Determination of acceleration due to gravity (g) using a simple pendulum

 Starting with a measured length L of the pendulum, the pendulum is clamped between 2 wood
pieces from a retort stand.
 A bob is then given a small angular displacement from the vertical position and released.
 The time t for 20 oscillation is obtained, find period T and hence𝑇 2
 Repeat the procedure for different values of length of the string.
 A graph of T2 against L is then drawn and its slope S calculated.
4𝜋2
Hence acceleration due to gravity is obtained from 𝑔 =
𝑠
11:2: MASS ON A SPRING

a) A horizontal spring attached to a mass
Consider a spring lying on a smooth horizontal surface in which one end of the spring is fixed and the other
end attached to a particle of mass m. When the mass is slightly pulled a small distance x and the
released. The mass executes S.H.M
O Equilibrium position By Newton’s 2nd law: 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 − − − − (2)
m
x
𝑘
𝜔=√
F
𝑚
By Hooke’s law :𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥--------------------- (1)
Example : UNEB 2011 No 4C

A horizontal spring of force constant 200 Nm-1 is fixed at one end and a mass of 2kg attached to the free
end and resting on a smooth horizontal surface. The mass is pulled through a distance of 4.0cm and
released. Calculate the;
i) Angular speed
ii) Maximum velocity attained by the vibrating body, acceleration when the body is half way
towards the centre from its initial position.
Solution
𝑘 200 Note: the small distance pulled and
i) From 𝜔 = √𝑚 = √ 2 = 10rads-1 released becomes the amplitude
ii) 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔𝑟 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
4 where its half towards the centre
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10𝑥 100 =0.4ms-1
𝑟
𝑥= 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
2
4𝑥10−2 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
𝑥= 2
𝑟
𝑘 = 𝑚𝑎
2
4𝑥10−2
2
2
𝑎 = −𝜔 𝑥 = 10 𝑥 = 2𝑚𝑠 −2 200𝑥4𝑥10−2
2 𝑎= = 2𝑚𝑠 −2
Alternatively 2𝑥2
b) Oscillation of mass suspended on a helical spring

Consider a helical spring or elastic string suspended from a fixed point.
When a mass is attached to the spring, it stretches by length, e and comes to equilibrium positions 0.
When the mass is pulled down a small distance, x and released the motion will be simple harmonic.
i ii iii
T
L
T1
e e
O
mg X
B
mg
In position (ii) the mass is in equilibrium position

𝑇 = 𝑚𝑔
And by hooke’s law 𝑇 = 𝑘𝑒
𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝑒 -------------------------(1)
In position (iii) after displacement through 𝑥
But by Hooke’s law 𝑇 1 = 𝑘(𝑒 + 𝑥)
By Newton’s 2nd law: 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑘(𝑒 + 𝑥) = 𝑚𝑎
But from equation 1 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑘𝑒
𝑘𝑒 − 𝑘(𝑒 + 𝑥) = 𝑚𝑎
𝑘𝑒 − 𝑘𝑒 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎
−𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑘
𝑎 = − 𝑚 𝑥 -------------------------------- [2]
Determination of acceleration due to gravity using a vertically loaded spring

 Clamp a spring on a retort stand using pieces of wood
 Fix a horizontal pin to the free end of the spring to act as a pointer
 Place a vertical meter rule next to the pin and note its initial position
 Suspend a known mass, m at the free end of the spring, note and record the new position of the
pointer
 Calculate the extension e produced
 Repeat the procedure above for several masses suspended in turns and tabulate.
 Plot a graph of e against m
 Find the slope, s of the graph
Hence acceleration due to gravity is determined from 𝑔 = 𝑘𝑠 where k is known spring constant
Alternatively
11.4: S.H.M OF A FLOATING CYLINDER

Consider a uniform cylindrical rod of length L and cross sectional area A and density, ρ floating vertically
in a liquid of density, σ. When the rod is given a small downward displacement x and released, the rod
executes S.H.M.

u
U1
𝐴𝛿𝑔
𝑎 = −( )𝑥
𝐴𝑙𝜌
𝛿𝑔
𝑎 = − ( ) 𝑥-------------------------- [3]
h
h
x
𝑙𝜌
it is the form 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
water
mg
mg
𝛿𝑔
At equilibrium, 𝑈 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝐴ℎ𝛿𝑔 -------------- [1] 𝜔2 = 𝑙 𝜌
After a downward, restoring force 𝐹 = 𝑈1 − 𝑚𝑔
𝛿𝑔
𝐹 = 𝐴(ℎ + 𝑥)𝛿g− 𝐴ℎ𝛿𝑔 ---------- [2] 𝜔=√ ---------------------------- [4]
𝑙𝜌
But 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐴ℎ𝛿𝑔 − 𝐴(ℎ + 𝑥)𝛿g = 𝑚𝑎
𝜌𝑙
− 𝐴𝛿𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎 T=2𝜋√(𝛿𝑔)
𝐴𝛿𝑔
𝑎= −( )𝑥
𝑚 1 𝛿𝑔
But 𝑚 = 𝐴 𝑙 𝜌 𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑙 𝜌
11.5: A LIQUID OSCILLATING IN A U-TUBE
Consider a column of liquid of density and total length l in a U-tube of uniform cross sectional area A.
Suppose the level of the liquid on the right side is depressed by blowing gently down that side, the levels of
liquid will oscillate for a short time about their respective or equilibrium positions O.
Blowing
Excess pressure on liquid = 2𝑥𝛿𝑔 from [𝑝 = ℎ𝛿𝑔]
O
x x
x
Force on liquid ,𝐹 = 2𝑥𝛿𝑔𝐴
l l
Restoring force 𝐹 = −𝑚𝑎 ----------------[1]
Newton’s 2nd law : 𝑚𝑎 = −2𝑥𝛿𝑔𝐴
When the meniscus is at a distance, , from 𝑎 = −(
2𝛿𝑔𝐴
) 𝑥-----------------------------[2]
equilibrium position, a differential height of 𝑚
liquid of, 2𝑥, is produced
11.6: S.H.M IN A FRICTIONLESS AIR TIGHT PISTON

Area A For small displacement, 𝑥: 𝑣 − 𝐴𝑥 ≈ 𝑣
𝐴𝑥
F1 mg Air
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑃𝐴 ( )
At Equilibrium : 𝐹1 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑣
𝑃𝐴𝑥
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔 ------------------------------- [1] 𝑚𝑎 = −𝐴 ( )
When the piston is given a slight downward 𝑣
displaced x, 𝑃𝐴2
𝑎 = −( )𝑥
the restoring force 𝐹2 = 𝑃2 𝐴 − 𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑣
But by Newton’s 2nd law : 𝑚𝑎 = −[ 𝑃2 𝐴 − 𝑚𝑔] it is in the form 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
from Equation 1: 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔 2
𝑃𝐴2
𝑚𝑎 = − (𝑃2 𝐴 − 𝑃𝐴)--------------------- [2] 𝜔 = .
𝑚𝑣
Boyle’s law. [𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2]
𝑃𝐴2
𝑃2 (𝑣 − 𝐴𝑥) = 𝑃𝑣 𝜔=√
𝑃𝑣 𝑚𝑣
𝑃2 =
(𝑣 − 𝐴𝑥) 𝑃
𝑃𝑣 𝜔 = 𝐴√𝑚 𝑣 .
𝑚𝑎 = − ( 𝐴 − 𝑃𝐴)
(𝑣 − 𝐴𝑥 𝑨 𝑷
𝐴𝑥 𝑓 = 𝟐𝝅 √𝒎 𝒗
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑃𝐴 ( )
𝑣 − 𝐴𝑥
Example

A piston in a car engine performs S.H.M. The piston has a mass of 0.50kg and its amplitude of vibration is
45mm. the revolution counter in the car reads 750 revolutions per minute. Calculate the maximum force
on the piston.
Solution 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (2𝜋𝑓)2 𝑟
−3 2
𝑟 = 45𝑚𝑚 = 45𝑥10 𝑚, 𝑚 = 0.5𝑘𝑔 22
750 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (2𝑥 𝑥12.5) 𝑥12.5
𝑓 = 750 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 12.5𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠 7
60 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =277.583ms-2
But 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔2 𝑟 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.5𝑥277.583 = 138.792𝑁
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
UNEB 2020 No 3
(𝑏) Describe how a helical sopring may be used to determine the acceleration due to gravity. [5mks]
(𝑐) A particle moving with s.h.m has a speed of 8.0m/s and an acceleration of 12ms-2 when it is 3.0m
from its equilibrium position. Find the;
(𝑖) amplitude of motion [3mks]
(𝑖𝑖) maximum acceleration [2mks]
UNEB 2019 No 3
(𝑐) Define simple harmonic motion [1mk]
(𝑑) A body executes s.h.m with amplitude A and angular velocity 𝜔
(𝑖) Write down the equation for the velocity of the body at a displacement x from the mean
Position [1mk]
(𝑖𝑖) Sketch a velocity- displacement graph for a body in (d)(i) for 𝜔 < 1 [2mks]
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) If the body moves with amplitude 14.142cm, at what distance from the mean position will the
kinetic energy be equal to potential energy? An(10cm) [3mks]
UNEB 2017 No 3
a) (i) Define simple harmonic motion [1mk]
(ii) Sketch a displacement-time graph for a body performing simple harmonic motion
[1mk]
−3
b) A uniform cylindrical rod of length 16cm and density 920𝑘𝑔𝑚 float vertically in a liquid of
density 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . The rod is drepressed through a distance of 7mm and then released.
i) Show that the rod executes simple harmonic motion [06mk]
ii) Find the frequency of the resultant oscillations An(1.299Hz) [04mk]
iii) Find the velocity of the rod when it is at a distance of 5mm above the equilibrium
position An(𝟑. 𝟗𝟗𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ) [03mk]
c) What is meant by potential energy [01mk]
d) Describe energy changes which occur when a
(i) Ball is thrown upwards in air [03mk]
(ii) Loud speaker is vibrating [01mk]
UNEB 2009 No 3
(a) What is meant by simple harmonic motion (01marks)
(b) A cylindrical vessel of cross-sectional area A, contains air of volume V, at a pressure P, trapped by
frictionless air tight piston of mass M,. The piston is pushed down and released.
𝑨 𝑷
(i) If the piston oscillates with s.h.m, show that the frequency is given by 𝑓 = √
𝟐𝝅 𝒎 𝒗
(06marks)
(ii) Show that the expression for, f in b(i) is dimensionally correct (02marks)
(c) Particle executing s.h.m vibrates in a straight line, given that the speeds of the particle are 4m𝑠 −1 and
2m𝑠 −1 when the particle is 3cm and 6cm respectively from equilibrium. calculate the;
(i) amplitude of oscillation An(6.7x𝟏𝟎−𝟐 m) (03marks)

(ii) frequency of the particle An(10.68Hz) (03marks)
(d) Give two examples of oscillatory motions which execute s.h.m and state the assumptions made in each
case
CHAPTER 12: SURFACE TENSION

12.1.1: Molecular explanation for existence of surface tension
B
 Liquid molecules attract each other. In the bulk of the liquid the resultant force on any molecule
such as A is zero.
 A surface molecule such as B is subjected to intermolecular forces of attraction below therefore
potential energy of surface molecules exceeds that of the interior. Average separation of the
surface molecules is greater than that of molecules in the interior. At any point on a liquid surface
there is a net force away from that point and this makes the surface behave like an elastic skin in
a state of tension. This accounts for surface tension.
Definition
Surface tension coefficient γ of a liquid is defined as the force per unit length acting at right angles to one
side of an imaging line drawn in the liquid surface.
𝐹
F L γ=𝐿
12.2.0: CAPILLARITY
If the capillary tube is dipped inside mercury liquid
is depressed below the outside level. This is because
the cohesion of mercury is greater than the Mercury
adhesion of mercury and glass.
The depression of the tube increases with
decreases the diameter of the tube
Definition
Capillarity: Is the rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube
12.2.1: Capillary rise

Around the boundary where the liquid surface meets the tube, surface tension forces exert a downward
pull on the tube since they are not balanced by any other surface tension forces.
The tube therefore exerts an equal but upwards force on the liquid which forces it to rise. The liquid stops
rising when the weight of the raised column acting downwards equals to vertical component of the
upward force exerted by the tube in the liquid.
γ γ cosθ Capillary tube of internal Weight W= 𝑚𝑔 =V𝜌g
radius r
θ W =Ah𝜌g= 𝜋r2h𝜌g ----------------- [2]
h
At equilibrium: 𝑊 = 𝐹
Liquid of density ρ
𝜋r2h𝜌g= 𝛾 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑥2𝜋𝑟
Force acting upwards 𝐹 = 𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑥 𝐿 2 𝛾 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
h= 𝑟 𝜌 𝑔
But L=2𝜋r
F = 𝛾 cos θx2𝜋r ------------[1]
Examples
1. A clean glass capillary tube of internal diameter 0.04cm is held with its lower end dipped in water
contained in a beaker and with 12cm of the tube above the surface of water.
i) To what height will water rise in the tube.
ii) What will happen if the tube is now depressed until only 4cm of its length is above the
surface. (𝛾 of water =7.0x10-2Nm-1, 𝜌 of water =1000kgm-3)
Solution
2 γ cosθ 2 γ cosθ
i) Using h = h=
rρg rρg
But for a clean glass of water θ =0 4𝑥102 =
2 x 7x 10-2 cos0
2 𝑥 7𝑥 10−2 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 0.04 x10-2
( ) x 1000 x9.81
h= 0.04 𝑥10−2
=0.071m 2
(
2
)𝑥 1000 𝑥9.81 θ=55.90
ii) If only 4cm of the tube is left above the water water forms a new surface with an angle of
surface, this length is less than h in part (i) above contact 560
so water must change its angle of contact so that
it can fit the 4cm
Exercise: 34
1. A liquid of density 1000kg𝑚−3and surface tension height of the two liquids levels when the arms are
7.26𝑥10−2 𝑁𝑚−1, dipped in it is a capillary tube open to the atmosphere. (surface tension and
with a bore radius of 0.5mm. If the angle of contact density of water are 7.2𝑥10−2 𝑁𝑚−11 and 103kgm-3
0
is 0 determine, respectively) An[7.14x10-3m]
i) the height of the column of the liquid rise 3. Calculate the height to which the liquid rises in
ii) if the tube is pushed until its 2cm above the capillary tube of diameter 0.4mm placed
the level of the liquid, explain in what vertically inside
happen An[2.96x10-2m, 47.50] (i) A liquid of density 800𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and surface
2. The two vertical arms of manometer containing tension 5𝑥10−2 𝑁𝑚−1 and angle of contact 30°
-3
water, have different internal radii of 10 m and (ii) Mercury of angle of contact 139° and surface
2x10-3m respectively. Determine the difference in tension 0.52N𝑚−1 An[0.032m, 0.0294m]
12.3.O: Measurement of 𝜸 of water by capillary tube method

 A travelling microscope is focused on the water
Traveling microscope meniscus in the capillary tube and the reading
noted, say h1.
P
Water  The beaker is then removes and the travelling
microscope is focused on the tip of the wire P
and scale reading h2 is noted.
Beaker
 The height of the water rise, h is calculated from

 A clean capillary tube is dipped in water as ℎ =/ℎ1 − ℎ2 /.
shown above and a wire P which is bent is tied  The capillary tube is removed and its diameter
along the capillary tube with a rubber band. and hence radius , r is determined by using a
 When the tube is dipped into water, the wire P is travelling microscope. The surface tension can be
adjusted so that its top just touches the surface of obtained from ;
the water. ℎ𝑟𝜌𝑔
𝛾 = 2cosθ for clean glass of water θ=00
12.4.1: Pressure difference across an air bubble

Consider an air bubble of radius r which is spherical and formed in a liquid of surface tension 𝛾.
Therefore the total length of surface in contact with air is L such that surface tension force.

𝑃1 = External pressure on the bubble due to the

P1 P2 F = γ L liquid
𝑃2 = internal pressure of air in the bubble
For the bubble to maintain its shape the, internal pressure should be bigger than the external pressure.
At equilibrium; Force due to 𝑃2 = force due to 𝑃1 + surface tension force
AP2 =AP1 + 𝛾L
𝜋 𝑟 P2 = 𝜋𝑟 2 P1 +2𝜋r 𝛾
2
𝜋𝑟 2 (P2 −P1 ) = 2𝜋 𝑟 𝛾
2𝛾
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 =
𝑟
2𝛾
OR Excess pressure = 𝑟
1. Calculate the total pressure within an air bubble of diameter 0.1mm formed at depth of 10cm below the
water surface. (Atmospheric pressure is 1.013𝑥105 𝑃𝑎 and surface tension of water is 0.0727N𝑚−1).
An1.039𝑥105 𝑃𝑎
12.4.2: Excess pressure (pressure difference) for a soap bubble

A soap bubble has a diameter of 4mm. Calculate the pressure inside it, if the atmospheric pressure is
105 N𝑚−2, and that the surface tension of soap solution is 2.8𝑥10−2 𝑁𝑚−1
Solution
4𝛾 4 𝑥2.8𝑥10−2
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝑟 𝑃2 = 5
−3 +10 = 1.001𝑥10 𝑃𝑎
5
2 𝑥 10
12.5.0: FREE SURFACE ENERGY (𝝈 )

It is defined as the work done in increasing area of the surface by 1𝑚2 under isothermal conditions .
Units of 𝜎 are Jm-2 or Nm-1
Examples
1. Calculate the work done against surface tension force on blowing a soap bubble of diameter 15mm , if
the surface tension of the soap solution is 3.0x10-2Nm-1.
Solution
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
γ = 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑆.𝐴 Work done = 4.241𝑥10−5 J
Increases in surface area is multiplied by 2 for both
Work done = γ 𝑥 increase in surface area
2 the upper and lower surface of a soap bubble.
2 −2 22 15𝑥10−3
= 𝛾𝑥(2𝑥4π𝑟 )=3.0𝑥10 𝑥2𝑥4𝑥 7 𝑥 ( 2 )
2. Calculate the work done in breaking up a drop of water of radius 0.5cm in to tiny droplets of water each
of radius 1mm assuming isothermal conditions, given that surface tension of water is 7𝑥10−2 N𝑚−1.
Solution
Radius of big drop, R= 0.5cm = 5𝑥10−3 𝑚 and Work done = γ 𝑥 increase in surface area= 𝛾𝑥(4π𝑟 2 )
−3
Radius of n tiny droplets, r= 1mm = 1𝑥10 𝑚 Big drop: Work done= 7𝑥10−2 𝑥4𝜋(5𝑥10−3 )2
4 4
Volume of big drop= 𝜋𝑅 3 = 𝜋(5𝑥10−3 )3 = 2.2𝑥10−5 J
3 3
4 4 125 drop lets:
Volume of n tiny droplets= 𝑛𝑥 3 𝜋𝑟 3 = 𝑛𝑥 3 𝜋(1𝑥10−3 )3 Work done= 125𝑥7𝑥10−2 𝑥4𝜋(1𝑥10−3 )2
4 4 = 1.1𝑥10−4 J
𝑛𝑥 𝜋(1𝑥10−3 )3 = 𝜋(5𝑥10−3 )3
3 3 Change in surface energy =1.1𝑥10−4 − 2.2𝑥10−5
𝒏 = 125 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑠 = 𝑥1.09𝑥10−4 J
EXERCISE: 35

1. A spherical drop of mercury of radius 2mm falls to the ground and breaks into 10smaller drops of equal
size. Calculate the amount of work that has to be done.
(Surface tension of mercury = 4.72 x 10-1 Nm-1) An[2.74x10-5J ]
COMBINED BUBBLES
CASE 1
A soap bubble x of radius r1, and another bubble y of radius r2, are brought together so that the
combined bubble has a common interface of radius R. show that
𝑟 𝑟
R= 1 2
𝑟2 − 𝑟1
CASE 2
Two bubbles of a soap solution of radii r1 and r2 of surface tension 𝛾 and pressure P coalence under
isothermal conditions to form one bubble. Find the expression for the radius of the bubble formed.
Solution
Let R be the radius of the new bubble A2 be the surface area of bubble with radius r2
A1 be the surface area of bubble with radius r1 A be the surface area of bubble with radius R
Under isothermal conditions, work done in enlarging the surface area of a bubble is given by
2𝛾A=2γA1+2γA2
2𝛾4𝜋𝑅 2 = 2γ4π 𝑟1 2 . + 2γ4π 𝑟2 2
𝑅 2 = 𝑟1 2 + 𝑟2 2
𝑅 = √ 𝑟1 2 + 𝑟2 2
UNEB 2017 Q.4

(a) A capillary tube is held in a vertical position with one end dipping in a liquid of surface tension 𝛾 and
density 𝜌. If the liquid rises to a height, h derive an expression for h in terms of 𝛾, 𝜌 and radius r of the
tube assuming the ange of contact is zero. (04mks)
(b) A mercury drop of diameter 2.0mm falls vertically and on hitting the ground, it splits into two drops
each of radius 0.5mm. If the surface tension of the mercury is 0.52N𝑚−1 calculate the resulting change
in surface energy An ( 2.289𝑥10−5 J )
(05mks)
(c) State the effect of temperature on surface tension of a liquid. (01mk)
UNEB 2002 Q.4

a) Define the term surface tension in terms of surface energy (01mark)
b) i) Calculate the work done against surface tension is blowing a soap bubble of diameter 15mm, if the
surface tension of the soap solution is 3.0x10-2Nm-1 An [4.24x10-5J] (03marks)
ii) A soap bubble of a radius r1 is attached to another bubble of radius r2. If r1 is less than r2. Show that
𝑟 𝑟
the radius of curvature of the common interface is 𝑟 1− 𝑟2 (05marks)
2 1
UNEB 2001 Q.3

a) Define surface tension and derive its dimension (3mk)
b) Explain using the molecular theory the occurrence of surface tension (4mk)
c) Describe an experiment to measure surface tension of a liquid by the capillary tube method (6mk)
4γ
d) i)Show that the excess pressure in a soap bubble is given by P = r
ii) Calculate the total pressure within a bubble of air of radius 0.1mm in water, if the bubble is formed
10cm below the water surface and surface tension of water is 7.27x10-2Nm-1. [Atmospheric pressure
=1.01x105Pa] An 1.03x105Pa

SECTIONB: HEAT AND THERMO DYNAMIC

1.1: THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY
A thermometric property is a physical property which varies linearly and continuously with change
in temperature.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD THERMOMETRIC PROPERTY
 It should vary linearly with change in temperature
 It should vary continuously with change in temperature
 It should be measurable over a wide range of temperature
 It should be sensitive to temperature changes
 Property should be accurately measurable with a single apparatus
1.2: FIXED POINT

This is temperature at which a substance changes states under specific conditions.
Note
Triple point of water is taken as a standard in thermometry instead of ice and steam point
because triple point is a single temperature and a single pressure while ice point and steam point
vary with pressure and some level of impurities.
(a) : CENTIGRADE/ CELSIUS TEMPERATURE SCALE

Is a temperature scale which uses ice point (00C) as it lower fixed point and steam point
(1000C) as its upper fixed point
STEPS IN SETTING UP CELSIUS TEMPERATURE SCALE

 Choose a thermometric properly of substance and let it be X
 Measure the value of the property at ice point, steam point and let values be X0, X100
respectively.
 Measure the value of the properly at unknown temperature 𝛳 and let it be 𝑋𝜃
𝑋𝜃 −𝑋0
 Unknown temperature is determined from 𝜃 = ( ) 𝑥100℃
𝑋100 −𝑋0
(b) KELVIN / THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALE

This is a temperature scale which uses triple point of water as a fixed point.
1
Kelvin is defined as 273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water
Examples
1) A resistance thermometer has a resistance of 21.42Ω at ice point, 29.10 Ω at steam point and 28.11 Ω at
un known temperature θ. calculate θ on scale of this thermometer.
Solution
𝑅 −𝑅 28.11−21.42 𝜃 = 87.11℃
𝜃 = ( 𝜃 0 ) 𝑥100℃
𝑅100 −𝑅0
𝜃=( ) 𝑥100℃
29.10−21.42
2) Pressure recorded by constant volume thermometer at Kelvin temperature T is given by 4.8x104Nm-2.
Calculate T if the pressure at triple point of water is 4.2x104Nm-2
Solution
𝑃𝑇 4.8𝑥104
𝑇= 𝑥273.16𝐾 𝑇= 𝑥273.16𝐾 = 312.18𝐾
𝑃𝑡𝑟 4.2𝑥104

Determining temperature on a scale of one thermometer as read by another

1) The resistance, 𝑅𝜃 of a particular resistance thermometer at Celsius temperature θ as measured by a
constant volume gas thermometer is. 𝑅𝜃 = 50 + 0.17𝜃 + 3𝑥10−4 𝜃 2 Calculate the temperature as
measured on a scale of a resistance thermometer which corresponds to a temperature of 60℃ at a gas
thermometer.
Solution
𝑅𝜃 = 50 + 0.17𝜃 + 3𝑥10−4 𝜃 2 𝑅60 = 50 + 0.17𝑥60 + 3𝑥10−4 𝑥 602 = 61.28Ω
𝑅0 = 50 + 0.17𝑥0 + 3𝑥10−4 𝑥 02 = 50 𝑅 −𝑅 61.28−50
𝜃 = (𝑅 𝜃 −𝑅0 ) 𝑥100℃ = ( 70−50 ) 𝑥100℃
𝑅100 = 50 + 0.17𝑥100 + 3𝑥10−4 𝑥 1002 = 70Ω 100 0
𝜃 = 56.4℃
2) The resistance of the wire as measured by gas thermometer varies with temperature θ according to the
equation. 𝑅𝜃 = 𝑅0 (1 + 50𝛼𝜃 + 200𝛼𝜃 2 ).Determine temperature on resistance thermometer that
corresponds to 40℃on the gas scale
Solution
𝜃 = 16.02℃
Exercise: 37
1) The resistance of the element in a platinum the following values were obtained 2.00 Ω, 2.48 Ω,
resistance thermometer is 6.75 Ω at triple point of 2.60 Ω respectively. Determine θ An[125℃]
water and 7.166 Ω at room temperature. What is 3) The resistance R of platinum wire at
the temperature of the room on a scale of temperature θoC as measured by a constant
resistance thermometer?. state one assumption you volume thermometer is given by;
have made. An[290K] 𝑅𝜃 = 𝑅0 (1 + 8000𝛼𝜃 − 𝛼𝜃 2 ) where 𝛼 is a
2) The resistance of the wire is measured at ice point, constant. Calculate the temperature of
steam point and at un known temperature θ and platinum thermometer corresponding to 400oC
on glass scale. An[384.8℃]
1.5: TYPES OF THERMOMETERS

a)-Liquid in glass thermometer;
 Place the bulb in pure melting ice and the length of the mercury column, 𝐿0 is measured and
recorded
 Place the bulb in steam from boiling water and the length of the mercury column, 𝐿100 is
measured and recorded
 Place the bulb in contact with the body of an unknown temperature 𝛳 and the length of
mercury column 𝐿𝜃 is measured and recorded
𝐿 −𝐿
 Unknown temperature is determined from 𝜃 = ( 𝜃 0 ) 𝑥100℃
𝐿100 −𝐿0
Advantages of a Liquid in Glass Thermometer

 It is easy to use  It is very portable
 It is very cheap  It has direct readings
b)-RESISTANCE THERMOMETER [PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETER]

A resistance thermometer uses resistance(R) of a metal wire as a thermometric property.
MEASUREMENT OF CELCIUS SCALE TEMPERATURE OF A BODY USING PLATINUM

RESISTANCE THERMOMETER

Resistance box  Determine the resistance of platinum 𝑅0 at

Platinum D 𝑙
wire R 0℃ from 𝑅0 = 𝑙1 𝑅𝑠
Mercury G 2
A L1 B  Transfer the resistance thermometer to a
L2
J
beaker containing water which is gradually
cell
Silica tube heated to boiling point obtain the new balance
 Place the resistance thermometer in a funnel point and determine 𝑅100
with crushed ice and leave it for some time.  Immerse the coil in water at room
 Obtain the balance point by adjusting the temperature θ and resistances 𝑅𝜃 obtained
resistance box. The length 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are read 𝑅 −𝑅
and recorded,  Unknown temperature, 𝜃 = (𝑅 𝜃 −𝑅0 ) x1000C
100 0
DISADVANTAGES OF PLATINUM RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS

 It cannot measure very rapidly changing temperature. This is because it has low -thermal
conductivity and high heat capacity.
 It cannot measure temperature at a point due to size of silica tube.
 Its heavy and not portal
C) -THERMO COUPLE THERMOMETER
ADVANTAGES OF THERMO COUPLE

 It measures temperature at a point e.g. temperature of crystal since the wires can be made
thin.
 It is used to measure rapidly changing temperatures. This is because of its small heat capacity
and high thermal conductivity.
 It is portable
 It has a wide range of temperature between -250℃ to 1600℃ and this can be achieved by
using different metals.
 It can be used to determine direct readings if connected to galvanometer which has been
calibrated to read temperatures directly.
DISADVANTAGES OF THERMO COUPLE

 It cannot measure slowly changing temperatures.
 It is inaccurate because 𝐸. 𝑚. 𝑓 doesn’t vary linearly with temperature.
d)-CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

H
Capillary tube Movable tube open
to atmosphere
Index h
Mercury
A R
Bulb Plastic tubing

Air
Corrections in a constant volume gas thermometer include;

 The temperature of the gas in the dead space because its temperature lies between that of the
bulb and the room temperature.
 Thermal expansion of the bulb
 The capillary effect at the mercury surface.

e)-PYROMETERS
They are used to measure very high temperatures e.g. temperature of furnace
They are divided into two;
 Total radiation pyrometer which responds to total radiation i.e. heat and light produced.
 Optical radiation pyrometer which responds to only light produced.
OPTICAL RADIATION PYROMETER

Objective lens filament lamp
 The light from both the filament and the body
Eye is passed through red filter and viewed by the
Hot body eg
Red filter
Eye piece
eye piece.
A furnace A
 Using the rheostat R, the current through
 The filament is focused by the eye piece and filament is adjusted until the filament and
the hot body is focused by objective lens so object are equally bright. The temperature of
that the image of the object lies in the same the hot body is then read from the ammeter
plane as the filament. calibrated in ℃.
UNEB 2020 Qn5

(𝒂) Define the following
(i) triple point of water (01mark)
(ii) absolute zero temperature (01mark)
(𝑏) Explain why triple point of water is taken as a standard in modern thermometry instead of ice and
steam points (04marks)
(𝒄) (i) What is a thermometric property?. (1mark)
(ii) State three qualities of a good thermometric property (03marks)
(𝒅) (i) A constant volume thermometer was used to measure temperature when the atmospheric
pressure was 760mmHg. The following values were obtained
Length of mercury in Length of mercury in
closed limb (mmHg) open limb (mmHg)
Bulb in ice 140 130
Bulb in steam 140 330
Bulb at room 140 170
temperature
Calculate the room temperature An(20℃) (05marks)
(ii) List three advantages of the constant volume gas thermometer over the mercury in glass
thermometer (02marks)
(𝑒) Explain what happens when the temperature of a fixed mass of ice is raised from 0℃ to 10℃
(03marks)
UNEB 2020 Qn7
(𝒂) (i) Explain how a thermocouple is used to measure temperature on a celcius scale. (5marks)
(ii) Statet two advantages of a thermocouple (01mark)
UNEB 2019 Qn7

(𝒅) (i) Define a thermometric property. (1mark)
(ii) Describe how a liquid-in-glass thermometer can be used to measure temperature in degrees
celcius (04marks)
(i) A thermometer is constructed with a liquid which expands according to relation
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉0 (1 + 𝛼𝑡 + 𝛽𝑡 2 )
Where 𝑉𝑡 is the volume at 𝑡℃ and 𝑉0 is the volume at 0℃ on the scale of the gas thermometer
and 𝛼 and 𝛽 are constants. Given that 𝛼 = 1000𝛽, what will the liquid thermometer read
when the gas thermometer reads 50℃ An(47.73℃) (04marks)

UNEB 2018 Q5
(a) Define
(i) Thermometric property (01mark)
(ii) Specific heat capacity (01mark)
(b) (i) State two examples of commonly used thermometric properties. (01mark)
(ii) Describe briefly how to determine the lower and upper fixed points for an un-calibrated liquid-in-
glass thermometers. (04marks)
UNEB 2017 Qn5

(a) (i) State the thermometric property used in the constant-volume gas thermometer (1marks)
(ii) Give two characteristics of a good thermometric property (02marks)
(b) (i) Describe the steps taken to set up a Celcius scale of temperature for a mercury-in-glass
thermometer (04marks)
(ii) State four disadvantages of mercury-in-glass thermometer. (02marks)
(c) Describe with the aid of a labelled diagram the operation of an optical pyrometer. (06marks)
(d) When oxygen is withdrawn from a tank of volume 50𝑙, the reading of a pressure gauge attached to
the tank drops from 21.4𝑥105 𝑃𝑎 to 7.8𝑥105 𝑃𝑎. If the temperature of gas remaining in the tank falls
from 30℃ to 10℃, calculate the mass of oxygen withdrawn. An(828.8g) (05marks)
UNEB 2015 Qn5

(e) (i) State four desirable properties a material; must have to be used as a thermometric substance
(ii) State why scales of temperature based on different thermometric property may not agree
UNEB 2011 Qn 5
(b) (i)Define the term thermometric property and give four examples (02marks)
(ii) State two qualities of a good thermometer property (01marks)
(c) (i)With reference to the a liquid in glass thermometer, describe the steps involved in setting up a Kelvin
scale of temperature (03marks)
(ii) State one advantage and disadvantage of the resistance thermometer. (01mk)
(d)A resistance thermometer has a resistance of 21.42Ω at ice point, 29.10Ω at steam point and 28.11Ω at
some unknown temperature 𝛳. Calculate 𝛳 on the scale of this thermometer. An[87.11℃] (03mk)
UNEB 2005 Qn 5
(a) (i)What is meant by the term fixed points in thermometry. Give two examples of such points
(ii) How is temperature on a Celsius scale defined on a platinum resistance thermometer?
(b) Explain the extent to which thermometer based on different properties but calibrate using the same
fixed points are likely to agree when used to measure a temperature
(i) Near one of the fixed points (02marks)
(ii) Midway between the two fixed points (02marks)
(d) What are the advantages of a thermocouple over a constant volume gas thermometer in measuring
temperature.
Solution
b)i) They may agree, because for points near the fixed points the values of the thermometric properties
vary almost in step for points close to the fixed points.
ii) They may not agree for temperature midway between fixed points the different thermometric
properties vary differently with temperature.

CHAPTER2: CALORIMETRY
The heat energy of a system is its internal energy and it can be either heat capacity or latent heat.
2.1.0: HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

i) Heat capacity, C
This is the heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1oC or 1K.
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑄
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐶=
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ∆𝜃
−1
The SI unit of heat capacity is Joules per Kelvin [𝐽𝐾 ]
ii) Specific heat capacity, c
This is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg mass of a substance by 1oC or 1K.
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑄
𝑆. 𝐻. 𝐶 = 𝑐=
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑚 𝑥 ∆𝜃
The SI unit of specific heat capacity is Joules per kilogram per Kelvin [𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1].
Examples:
1. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 5kg of iron from 30oC to 40oC if the specific
heat capacity of iron is 440 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 ?
Solution
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 5 𝑥 440 (40 − 30) = 22000J
2. When a block of iron of mass 2kg absorbs 19KJ of heat its temperature rises by 10oC. Find the specific
heat capacity of iron
Solution
a) Determination of S.H.C of a solid by electrical method

Thermometer V
A A Ammeter  A suitable steady current is switched on and at
V Voltmeter
same time stop clock is started. Ammeter and
Metal
Heater
Lagging
voltage readings 𝐼 and V are noted.
 When the temperature has risen appreciably,
 Two holes are drilled into the solid, one for the current is stopped and the time, t of
thermometer and other for an electric heater heating is noted and also the final temperature
and the holes fikked with mercury for good 𝜃2 is read and recorded.
thermal contact.  Therefore the specific heat capacity, C of the
 The mass, m of the solid is measured and recorded. metal is got from
Ivt
 The apparatus is insulated initial temperature C=
m[θ2 −θ1 ]
𝜃1 recorded.
Examples
1
1. A steady current of 12 𝐴 and 𝑝. 𝑑 of 240 𝑉 is passed through a block of mass 1500𝑔 for 1 2 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠. If
the temperature of the block rises from 25℃ to 80℃. Calculate;
(i) S.H.C of the block (ii) The heat capacity of 4 kg mass of the block
Solution
(i) Using continuous flow method

 A steady flow of the liquid is set and system left  The Ammeter reading 𝐼1 and Voltmeter
to run until thermometers indicate steady reading 𝑉1 are read and recorded
temperatures.  The mass 𝑚1 which flows per second is
 The inflow temperature 𝛳1 and out flow measured and recorded
temperature 𝛳2 are read and recorded
 At steady state 𝐼1 𝑉1 = 𝑚1 c(𝛳2 − 𝛳1 ) + ℎ-- [1]  The new mass 𝑚2 which flows per second is
where h is rate of heat loss to surrounding. measured and recorded
 The experiment is repeated for different flow  At steady state 𝐼2 𝑉2 = 𝑚2 c(𝛳2 − 𝛳1 ) + ℎ - [2]
rate. The current and voltage are adjusted Therefore specific heat capacity of a liquid, c is
until the inflow and outflow temperatures are got from
the same as before 𝐼 𝑉 −𝐼 𝑉
C= (𝑚 2 2 )(𝛳1 1 )
 The Ammeter reading 𝐼2 and Voltmeter 2 −𝑚1 2 −𝛳1
reading 𝑉2 are read and recorded
Examples
1) In continuous flow experiment it was found that when applied 𝑝. 𝑑 was 12.0V, current 1.5A, a rate of
flow of liquid of 50.0g/minute cause the temperature of inflow liquid to differ by 10℃. When the 𝑝. 𝑑
was increased to 16.0V with current of 1.6A, the rate of flow of 90.0g/minute was required to produce
the same temperature difference as before. Find ;
(i) S.H.C of the liquid (ii) Rate of heat loss to the surrounding
Solution
𝐼1 𝑉1 = 𝑚1 c(𝛳2 − 𝛳1 ) + ℎ 𝐶 = 1.14𝑥103 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
𝐼2 𝑉2 = 𝑚2 c(𝛳2 − 𝛳1 ) + ℎ ii) 𝐼2 𝑉2 = 𝑚2 c(𝛳2 − 𝛳1 ) + ℎ
𝐼2 𝑉2 – 𝐼1 𝑉1 12𝑥1.5 −16𝑥1.6 90𝑥10−3
C= (𝑚 −𝑚 )(𝛳 −𝛳 ) = 50𝑥10−3 90𝑥10−3 16𝑥1.6 = 𝑥1.14𝑥103 𝑥10 + ℎ
2 1 2 1 ( − )(10) 60
60 60
ℎ = 8.50𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
2) In the flow method to determine the S.H.C of the liquid, the following two sets of results were obtained.
Experiment 1 Experiment 2
P.d across water (V) 5.0 3.0
Current through heater (A) 0.3 0.2
Temperature of liquid at inlet (0C) 25 25
Temperature of liquid at outlet (0C) 41 41
Mass of liquid (kg) 0.15 0.07
Time taken (s) 200 120
a) Calculate the S.H.C of the liquid b) Heat lost per second

Solution
a) 𝐼1 𝑉1 = 𝑚1 c(𝛳2 − 𝛳1 ) + ℎ 𝐶 = 3.3𝑥102 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
𝐼2 𝑉2 = 𝑚2 c(𝛳2 − 𝛳1 ) + ℎ b)
ℎ = −2.55𝐽
EXERCISE: 39
1) A 15W heating coil is immersed in 0.2kg of water rate of loss of heat to the surrounding. An
and switched on for 560 seconds during which [4.2Jkg-1K-1, 0.35W]
time the temperature rises by 10℃. Calculate the 4) A student uses continuous flow experiment to
S.H.C of the liquid. An [3100 Jkg-1K-1 ] determine the specific heat capacity of water. The
2) With a certain liquid, the inflow and outflow first experiment was done with a flow rate of 40g
temperatures were maintained at 25.20℃ and per minute and a power input of 30W. The steady
26.51℃ respectively for a p.d of 12.0V and current state readings on the two thermometers were
1.50A, the rate of flow was 90g per minute, with 18.5℃ for the inlet water temperature and
16.0V and 2.00A, the rate of flow was 310g per 26.5℃ for the outlet water temperature. When
minute. Find the S.H.C. of the liquid and also the the flow rate was adjusted to 20 g per minute
-
power lost to the surrounding. An [2910 Jkg and power input of 18.25W was found to give the
1 -1
K , 12.3W] same temperature difference as before.
3) In a continuous flow method, the inflow and An [4406 Jkg-1K-1 ]
outflow temperatures were maintained at 17.0℃ 5) In determination of the specific heat capacity of
and 22.0℃ respectively for a p.d of 6.0V and water using the continuous flow method, the
current 2.1A, the rate of flow was 35g per minute, following results were taken;
with 4.0V and 1.4A, the rate of flow was 15g per
minute. Find the S.H.C. of the liquid and also the
Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Calculate the S.h.c of water. An [4234 Jkg-1K-1 ]

P.d across water (V) 3.05 3.15
Current through heater (A) 6.55 7.54
Temperature of liquid at inlet (0C) 30 30
Temperature of liquid at outlet (0C) 41.5 41.5
Mass of liquid (kg) 0.431 0.524
Time taken (minutes) 20 20
(𝒊𝒊) S.H.C of a liquid using Electrical method

A  A suitable steady current is switched on and
A- Ammeter
V- voltemeter
V Rheostat stop clock is started simultaneously. Ammeter
stirrer
and voltage readings 𝐼 and V are noted.
Thermometer
 When the temperature has risen appreciably,

Lagging
Liquid whose S.H.C is to

be determined the current is stopped and the time, t of
Insulating stand
 A liquid of mass, m is poured in a copper heating is noted and also the final
calorimeter of mass, 𝑚 𝑐 and specific heat temperature 𝜃2 is read and recorded.
capacity, 𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝑉𝑡 = 𝑚𝑐(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚 𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
 The temperature, 𝜃 1 of the liquid is then 𝐼𝑉𝑡 − 𝑚 𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
𝑐=
recorded from the thermometer immersed in 𝑚(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
the liquid  Hence specific heat capacity, c of the solid can
be calculated
METHOD OF MIXTURES
a) For a solid
capacity 𝑐 𝑐 containing water of mass, 𝑚 𝑤 at
Thermometer Stirr a temperature, 𝜃1 .
 The mixture is well stirred until a maximum
Felt lagged temperature, 𝜃2 is reached.
Solid
Copper  Hence specific heat capacity, 𝑐𝑠 of a solid can
Liquid
calorim be calculated
 A solid of mass, 𝑚 𝑠 whose specific heat capacity, 𝑚 𝑤 𝑐𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚 𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
𝑐 𝑠 is required is heated to a temperature, 𝜃3 𝑐𝑠 =
𝑚 𝑠 (𝜃3 − 𝜃2 )
 A solid is then transferred quickly to a copper
calorimeter of mass, 𝑚 𝑐 and specific heat
Examples
1. The temperature of 500g of a certain metal is raised to 100℃ and it is then placed in 200g of water at
15℃. If the final steady temperature rises to 21℃, calculate the S.H.C of the metal.
Solution
Heat lost by metal = heat gained by water 𝐶𝑚 = 128 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
𝑀𝑚 𝐶𝑚 (100 − 21) = 𝑀𝑤 𝐶𝑤 (21 − 15)
0.5𝑥 𝐶𝑚 𝑥(100 − 21) = 0.2𝑥4200𝑥(21 − 15)
b) For a liquid
capacity 𝑐 𝑐 containing a liquid of mass, 𝑚 𝑙 at
Thermometer Stirr whose specific capacity, 𝑐 𝑙 at temperature,
𝜃1 is required.
Felt lagged  The mixture is well stirred until a maximum
Solid
Liquid Copper temperature, 𝜃2 is reached.
calorim  Assuming there are no heat loses during the
 A solid of mass, 𝑚 𝑠 and specific heat capacity, experiment
𝑐 𝑠 is heated to a temperature, 𝜃3 𝑚 𝑠 𝑐𝑠 (𝜃3 − 𝜃2 ) − 𝑚 𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
 A solid is then transferred quickly to a copper 𝑐𝑙 =
𝑚 𝑠 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
calorimeter of mass, 𝑚 𝑐 and specific heat

 Hence specific heat capacity, 𝑐𝑙 of the liquid

can be calculated
Examples
1. What is the final temperature of the mixture if 100g of water at 70℃ is added to 200g of cold water
at 10℃. And well stirred (Neglect the heat absorbed by the container and S.H.C of water is
42000 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 ) .
Solution
Heat lost by hot water = heat gained by cold water 100𝑥10−3 (70 − 𝜃) = 200𝑥10−3 (𝜃 − 10)
𝑀𝐻 𝐶𝐻 (𝜃1 − 𝜃3 ) = 𝑀𝐶 𝐶𝐶 (𝜃3 − 𝜃2 ) 𝜃 = 30℃
2.1.3: COOLING CORRECTION

Is the number of degree Celsius that should be added to the observed maximum temperature
to cater for heat losses during rise or fall.
OR
Is the extra temperature that is added to the observed maximum temperature to
compensate for the heat lose to the surrounding.
2.1.4: DETERMINATION OF COOLING CORRECTION OF A POOR CONDUCTOR E.G. RUBBER
Question: Explain why a small body cools faster than larger bodies of the same material.
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 1 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑄
Rate of heat loss ∝ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
. This implies that heat loss∝ . Since = − 1⁄𝑚𝑐 and
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
mass∝ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, a small body cools faster than a large body
2.1.5: NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

It states that under conditions of forced convection, the rate of heat loss is directly proportional
to excess temperature over the surrounding
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡
∝ (θ−θR), But = 𝑚𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡
= −𝑘(θ − θ𝑅 ), ∴ = −𝑘(θ − θ𝑅 )
𝑑𝑡
EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING

 Hot water in a calorimeter is placed near an open  For each temperature the excess temperature,
window. (θ − 𝜃𝑅 )is calculated, where 𝜃𝑅 is room
 Temperature θ of the water is recorded at suitable temperature
time intervals  A graph of slope against excess temperature is
 A graph of temperature θ against time t is plotted. plotted
 Different slopes at different temperatures  A straight line graph through the origin verifies
𝜃1 ,𝜃2 , 𝜃3 ………..𝜃𝐴 are determined. Newton’s law of cooling.
Why temperature remains constant during change of state (phase)

 During melting (change of state from solid to liquid), the heat energy supplied is used to weaken the
intermolecular forces and increase separation between molecules. This increases the potential energy of
the molecules but the mean kinetic energy of the molecules remain constant . Further increase in
separation between molecules causes the regular patterns to collapse as the solid changes to a liquid,
until the process is complete the temperature remains constant.

 During boiling (change from liquid to vapour state) the heat supplied is used to break the
intermolecular forces and increases separation between molecules. This increases the potential energy
of the molecules but the mean kinetic energy of the molecules remain constant . Also some of the
energy is used in doing work during expansion against atmospheric pressure, hence no temperature
change occurs.
Significance of latent heat on regulation of body temperature
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

Is the quantity of heat required to change 1kg mass of a solid to a liquid at constant
temperature.
It’s unit is 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1
LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURIZATION

Is the quantity of heat required to change any mass of substance from liquid to gas at a
constant temperature.
2.2.1: WHY LATENT HEAT OF VAPOURIZATION IS HIGHER THAN LATENT HEAT OF FUSION
Examples
1. A calorimeter with heat capacity of 80𝐽℃−1contains 50g of water at 40℃ what mass of ice at 0℃
needs to be added in order to reduce the temperature to 10℃. Assume no heat is lost to the surround
(S.H.C of water = 4200Jk𝑔−1 ℃−1, S.L.H of the of ice = 3.4x105Jkg-1).
Solution
80 𝑥 (40 − 10) + 0.05 𝑥4200𝑥(40 − 10) = 𝑚𝐼 (3.4𝑥105 + 4200𝑥10)
𝑚 𝐼 = 0.023𝑘𝑔
2.2.2: DETERMINATION OF THE S.L.H OF VAPOURIZATION (LV) OF LIQUID:

a)ELECTRIC METHOD [DEWAR FLASK METHOD]
Examples
1) When electrical energy is supplied at a rate of 12W to a boiling liquid 5.0x10-3 Kg of the liquid
evaporates in 30 minutes .On reducing the electrical power to 7W, 1.0x10-3 Kg of the liquid evaporates
in the same time. Calculate;
a) S.L.H of vapourisation b) Power loss to the surrounding
Solution
𝑚
𝐼1 𝑉1 𝑡 = 𝑚1 x 𝑙𝑉 + ℎ, 𝐼2 𝑉2 𝑡 = 𝑚2 x 𝑙𝑉 + ℎ b) 𝐼1 𝑉1 = 𝑡1x 𝑙𝑉 + ℎ
(𝐼2 𝑉2− 𝐼1 𝑉1 )𝑡 (7 − 12)𝑥30𝑥60 5𝑥10−3
𝐿𝑉 = = 12 = 𝑥 2.25𝑥106 + ℎ
(𝑀2− 𝑀1 ) (1𝑥10−3 − 5𝑥10−3 ) 30𝑥60
𝐿v = 2.25𝑥106 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 h= 5.75𝑊
2) In an experiment to determine S.L.H.V of a liquid using Dewar flask in the following results were
obtained.
Voltage V(V) Current I(A) Mass collected in 300s/g
7.4 2.6 5.8
10.0 3.6 11.3
Calculate the;
a) S.L.H of vapourization of alcohol

b) Average rate of heat loss to the surrounding

Solution
𝐼1 𝑉1 𝑡 = 𝑚1 x 𝑙𝑉 + ℎ … … … … … (𝑖), 𝐿𝑣 = 9.14𝑥 105 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1
𝐼2 𝑉2 𝑡 = 𝑚2 x 𝑙𝑉 + ℎ … … … … . . (𝑖𝑖) Put into equation (2): 𝐼2 𝑉2 𝑡 = 𝑚2 x 𝑙𝑉 + ℎ
I2 V2 −I1 V1 10𝑥3.6−7.4𝑥2.6 11.3
𝐿𝑣 = = 1 10𝑥 3.6 = 𝑥10−3 𝑥9.14𝑥105 + ℎ
𝑀2 −𝑀1 (11.3−5.8)𝑥 𝑥10−3 300
300
ℎ = 1.57𝑊
Excersise:41
1) A student performs two experiments to Calculate the heat lost to surrounding 400s.
measures the specific latent heat of ethanol An(5080J)
using an electrical method. 3) In an experiment to determine S.L.H.V of a
Experiment 1 Experiment 2
liquid at its boiling point. The following results
V2=7.30V
V1=8.90V
I1=2.10A I2=1.74A were obtained.
m2=111g Voltage V(V) Current I(A) Mass (g) evaporated in 400s
m1=174g
10.0 2.00 14.6
t1=15 minutes t2=15 minutes
15.0 2.50 30.6
Calculate the specific latent heat of ethanol.
An 8.55x104 Jkg-1 Calculate the;
2) In an experiment to determine S.L.H.V of a a) S.L.H of vapourization of liquid
liquid using Dewar flask, the following results b) Energy loss to the surrounding in 400s
were obtained. c) Rate of evaporation of the liquid when a
Voltage V(V) Current I(A) Mass collected in 400s/g 30.0W rate of heating is used. An
10.0 2.00 14.6 4.38x105 Jkg-1 , 1.61kJ, 0.0594gs-1
11.2 2.50 30.6
b)DETERMINATION OF S.L.H.V BY METHOD OF MIXTURE

 The mass 𝑚1 of water and the calorimeter is  Temperature 𝜃3 of steam is measured by
measured and noted thermometer T and recorded
 The initial temperature, θ1 of water in the  The mass 𝑚𝑐 of the empty calorimeter is
calorimeter is noted obtained by weighing
 Steam from boiling water is then passed into the heat given by
Heat given by
water in the calorimeter through a steam trap. ( ) +(condensed water) =
 After a measurable temperature rise, the final steam condensing
from θ3 to θ℃
temperature, θ2 of the water in calorimeter is heat taken ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
measured and noted. ( ) +( )
by calorimeter 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 The new mass, 𝑚2 of the water and the 𝑚𝑠 𝑙𝑣 + 𝑚𝑠 𝐶𝑤 (θ3−𝜃2) = (𝑚𝑐 𝐶𝑐 + 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑤 )(θ3−𝜃2)
calorimeter is again measured and the 𝐶𝑤 = S.H.C of water
mass, 𝑚𝑠 of condensed steam is calculated 𝑚𝑤 = mass of water 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑤 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚𝑐
from 𝑚𝑠 = 𝑚2 − 𝑚1 𝐶𝑐 = S.H.C of calorimeter
 𝑙𝑣 can be obtained
Examples
1) An electric kettle with a 2.0𝑘𝑊 heating element has a heat capacity of 400JK. 1.0kg of water at 20℃
is placed in the kettle. The kettle is switched on and it is found that 13 minutes later the mass of water
in it is 0.5kg. Ignoring heat losses calculate a value for the specific latent heat of vaporization of water.
( specific heat capacity of water is 4200 Jkg-1K)
Solution
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑚𝑓 𝐶𝑓 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚𝑤 𝐶𝑤 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) + 𝑚𝑠 𝑙𝑣
2𝑥1000𝑥13𝑥60 = 400 (100 − 20) + 1𝑥4200[100 − 20] + (1 − 0.5)𝑙𝑣
𝑙𝑣 = 2.38𝑥106 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1

Explain why specific latent heat of vaporization of water is higher at 20℃ than at 100℃
 At 20℃ the molecules of the liquid are closer together than at 100℃. The intermolecular forces
of attraction are stronger at 20℃ than at 100℃.
 More energy is required to break the bonds at 20℃ than the heat needed at 100℃
UNEB 2020 Q6
(a) Define specific heat capacity (01mark)
(b) Describe, stating the assumptions made, an electrical method for the determination of the specific heat
capacity of a metal. (08marks)
(c) In an experiment to determine specific heat capacity of a liquid using the continuous flow calorimeter;
(i) The readings are taken when the apparatus has attained a steady state. Explain the meaning
of a steady state (02marks)
(ii) Explain why two sets of reading are taken (01mark)
(d) When water is passed through a continuous flow calorimeter at the rate of 100gmin-1, the
temperatures rises from 16℃ to 20℃, when the p.d across the heater is 20V and the current is 1.5A.
When another liquid at 16°𝐶 is passed through the calorimeter at the rate of 120gmin-1, the same
temperature change is obtained at a p.d of 13V and current 1.2A. Calculate the S.H.C of the liquid.
(4marks) An[1700 Jkg-1K-1]
(e) (i) Define latent heat (01mark)
(𝑖𝑖) Explain why latent heat if vaporization is always greater than that of fusion (02marks)
UNEB 2019 Q5
(𝒄) (i) Describe an electrical method of determining the specific heat capacity of a good conducitng solid
(06marks)
(𝑖𝑖) Give any two reasons why the value obtained using the method in (c)(i) may not be accurate
(02marks)
UNEB 2018 Q5
(𝑐) (i) Describe with the aid of a diagram, an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a
liquid using the continuous flow method. (07marks)
(ii) State two advantages of the continuous flow method over the method of mixture. (01mark)
(ii) State two disadvantages of the method in (c) (i). (01mark)
(𝑏)The brake linings of the wheels of a car of mass 800kg have a total mass of 4.8𝑘𝑔 and are made of a
material of specific heat capacity 1200 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 . If the car is moving at 15𝑚𝑠 −1 and is brought to
rest by applying the brakes, calculate the maximum possible temperature rise of the brake linings.
(04marks)
1⁄ 𝑀𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃 1⁄ 𝑥 800𝑥152 = 4.8𝑥1200∆𝜃 ∆𝜃 = 15.6℃
2 2
UNEB 2016 Q5
(a) (i) Define specific latent heat of fusion (01mark)
(ii) State the effect of impurities on melting point. (01mark)
(b) Explain why there is no change in temperature when a substance is melting (04marks)
(c) With the aid of a diagram, describe the continuous flow method of measuring the specific heat
capacity of a liquid (06marks)
(d) In an experiment to determine the specific heat of fusion of ice, a heating coil is placed in a filter funnel
and surrounded by lumps of ice. The following two sets of readings were obtained.
V(V) 4.0 6.0
I(A) 2.0 3.0
Mass of water m(g)
14.9 29.8
collected in 500 s

Calculate the;
(i) Specific latent heat of fusion of ice. An [3.36x105Jkg-1] (04marks)
(ii) Energy gained in the course of obtaining the first set of readings An [500J] (03marks)
(e) Why are two sets of readings necessary in (d) above. (01mark)
UNEB 2015 Q5
(c) Describe with the aid a diagram an experiment to determine specific latent heat of vaporization of
steam using the method of mixtures (07marks)
(d) A 600W electric heater is used to raise the temperature of a certain mass of water in a thermos flask
from room temperature to 80℃. The same temperature rise is obtained when steams from a boiler is
passed into an equal mass of water at room temperature in the same time. If 16g of water were being
evaporated every minute in the boiler, find the specific latent heat of vaporisation of steam,
assumption no heat loses. An( 2.26x106 Jkg-1 ) (04marks)
UNEB 2014 Q7
(a) Define specific latent heat of vaporisation (01mark)
(b) With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe an experiment to measure the specific latent of
vaporisation of a liquid using an electrical method (07mark)
(c) Explain the effect of pressure on boiling point of a liquid (02mark)
(d) A liquid of specific heat capacity 2.8𝑥103 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 and specific latent hate of vaporisation
9.00𝑥105 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 is contained in a flask of heat capacity 800𝐽𝐾 −1 at a temperature of 32℃. An electric
heater rated 1 kW is immersed in 2.5kg of the liquid and switched on for 12 minutes, calculate the
amount of liquid that boils off, given that boiling point of the liquid is 80℃
𝑨𝒏(𝟑. 𝟖𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏 𝒌𝒈) (06mark)

CHAPTER3: GAS LAWS AND GAS PROCESSES

3.1: Boyle’s law:
it states that the pressure of fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume at constant
temperature i.e.
1 𝑃𝑉 = constant
P∝𝑣 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Experiment to verify Boyles law

Atmospheric  Measure and record the difference in mercury
Air
pressure
levels h
L
h mercury  Record the length 𝑙 of the air column
trapped in the closed tube
Rubber  Obtain the air pressure, 𝑃 = 𝐻 ± ℎ.
 Repeat the procedure and obtain a series of
 A fixed mass of the gas is trapped inside J values P and 𝑙 , 𝑙 ∝ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
1
tube of uniform cross section using mercury.  Plot a graph of P against 𝑙 and a straight
 Measure and record the atmospheric pressure line graph passing through origin verifies
H using a barometer Boyles law
 Adjust the flexible tube by lowering or raising
the open end.
Absolute zero temperature (0K)

is the temperature attained when molecules slow down and acquire their minimum possible energy.
Molecular explanation for existence of absolute zero temperature

When a gas is cooled, its molecules loose kinetic energy continuously. As molecules loose kinetic energy
they move closer into close proximity until when they cease to have kinetic energy. At this point the gas
is said to occupy a negligible volume and its temperature at this point is called the absolute zero
temperature and the pressure the gas exerts on the walls of the container occupied is negligible.
Examples
1) A gas is confined in the container of volume 0.1𝑚3 at pressure of 1.0𝑥105 𝑁𝑚−2 and temperature of
300K. If the gas is found to be ideal gas, calculate the density of the gas [𝑅𝑚𝑚 = 32]
Solution
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑚 = 0.032𝑥4.01
𝑝𝑣 1.0𝑥105 𝑥0.1
∴ 𝑛 = 𝑅𝑇 = 8.31𝑥300 = 4.01moles Mass = 0.128𝑘𝑔
𝑀 0.128
But 𝑚 = 𝑛𝑀 But 𝜌 = 𝑉 = 0.1 = 1.28𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
Calculation involving loss of gas

1) Oxygen gas is contained in cylinder of volume 1.0𝑥10−2 𝑚3 at temperature of 300K and pressure
2.5𝑥105 𝑁𝑚−2 . After some oxygen is used at constant temperature, pressure falls to
1.3𝑥105 𝑁𝑚−2 Calculate the mass of oxygen used.
Solution
𝑉1 = 1.0𝑥10−2 𝑚3, 𝑇1 = 300𝐾 , 𝑃 𝑉 𝑀
∴ 𝑚1 = 1𝑅𝑇1 =
2.5𝑥105 𝑥1𝑥10−2 𝑥32𝑥10−3
= 0.032𝑘𝑔
5 −2
𝑃1 = 2.5𝑥10 𝑁𝑚 , 𝑀 = 32𝑔 (R.M.M of oxygen) 1
−2
8.31𝑥300
3
𝑚
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑀 𝑅 𝑇 𝑉2 = 1.0𝑥10 𝑚 , 𝑇2 = 300𝐾 ,
𝑃2 = 1.3𝑥105 𝑁𝑚−2

1.3𝑥105 𝑥1𝑥10−2 𝑥32𝑥10−3 = [0.032 − 0.0166] 𝑘𝑔 = 0.0154 𝑘𝑔

𝑚2 = 8.31𝑥300
= 0.0166𝑘𝑔
Therefore mass of oxygen = [𝑚1 - 𝑚2 ] kg
Connected containers
In closed containers the total number of molecules remains constant
1) Two glass bulbs of equal volume are joined by another tube and are filled with a gas at 𝑠. 𝑡 𝑝. When
one of the bulbs is kept in melting ice and another place in as hot bath the new pressure is 877.6mmHg.
Calculate the temperature of bath
Solution
V 𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑃 𝑉 𝑃𝐴′ 𝑉𝐴′ 𝑃′ 𝑉 ′
+ 𝐵 𝐵
V
= + 𝐵 ′𝐵
A B
𝑅𝑇𝐴 𝑅𝑇𝐵 𝑅𝑇𝐴′ 𝑅𝑇𝐵
P’A = P’B = 877.6𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
PA = 760mmHg PB = 760mmHg
T’A = (0 + 273) = 273𝐾 T’B =?
TA = 273k TB = 273K 760𝑥𝑉 760𝑥𝑉 877.6𝑥𝑉 877.6𝑥𝑉
Since cylinders are enclosed, the number of 8.31𝑥273
+ 8.31𝑥273 = 8.31𝑥273 + 8.31𝑥𝑇 ′
𝐵
moles is both cylinders before cooling will be 642.4 877.6
= 8.31𝑇 ′
the same after cooling (heating). 2268.63 𝐵
𝑛A+𝑛B = nA1+nB1 T’B = 372.95𝐾
3.5: Daltons law of partial pressure

It states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases that do not react chemically is the sum of
partial pressure of the constituents
Definition. Partial pressure of gas is the pressure the gas would exert if it was to occupy the whole
container alone.
Examples
1) Two containers A and B of volume 3x103cm3 and 6x103cm3 respectively contain helium gas at pressure
1x103Pa and temperature 300K. Container A is heated to 373Kwhile container B is cooled to 273K. Find
the final pressure of the helium gas.
Solution
2) Two cylinder A and B of volume V and 3V respectively are separately filled with gas. The cylinders are
connected with tap closed with pressure of gas A and B being P and 4P respectively. When tap is open,
the common pressure becomes 60Pa. Find P
Solution
𝑃 𝑉 𝑃 𝑉 𝑃𝑥𝑉 4𝑃𝑥3𝑉 𝑃 = 18.46𝑃𝑎
𝑃 = 𝐴` 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝐵
𝑉𝐴 +𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐴 +𝑉𝐵
60 = +
𝑉+3𝑉 𝑉+3𝑉
3.8: THE 1ST LAW OF THERMO DYNAMICS

The 1st law states that the total energy in a closed system is conserved.
When we warm gas so that it expands, the heat (∆Q) appears partly as an increase in internal
energy (∆u) and partly as external work done (∆w).
∆Q = ∆u + ∆𝑤
But ∆𝑤 = 𝑃∆𝑉 ∆𝑢 = increase in internal energy
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑢 + 𝑃∆𝑉 ∆𝑤 = work done
∆𝑄 = heat supplied
3.9: Work done by a gas in expansion at constant pressure

For an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder by a Work done during expansion gas 𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥
frictionless piston of area of cross-section A. gas 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑃𝐴𝑑𝑥
expands by pushing piston by 𝑑𝑥 ∴ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑃𝑑𝑣 since 𝑑𝑣 = 𝐴𝑑𝑥
𝑤 𝑣
Cylinder piston
∫0 𝑑𝑤 = ∫𝑣 2 𝑃𝑑𝑣
1
𝑣
W = ∫𝑣 2 𝑃𝑑𝑣 ……….. (A)
1
P F 𝑣 𝑣
W = ∫𝑣 2 𝑃𝑑𝑣 = P[𝑣]𝑣21 = P [𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ] ………(B)
1
dx
V1 V2 Generally :The external work done in expanding
Force on piston, F=PA gas at constant pressure 𝑾 = 𝑷∆𝑽
a) MOLAR HEAT CAPACITY AT CONSTANT VOLUME

Is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of 1mole of gas by 1 Kelvin at constant
volume
It is denoted by 𝐶 𝑉 (C-capital). It is measured in 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1
𝐶 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑣 𝑀 Where 𝑀 = molar mass
b) MOLAR HEAT CAPACITY AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

Is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of 1 mole of gas by 1 Kelvin at constant
pressure
It is denoted by 𝐶 𝑃 (C-capital) and it is measured 𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1.
𝐶 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑀
3.11: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MOLAR HEAT CAPACITIES [𝑪𝑷 − 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑹 ]

From 1st law of thermodynamics: ∆𝑄 = ∆𝑢 + ∆𝑤 n𝑪𝑷 ∆T = 𝑛𝑪𝑽 ∆𝑇 + 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇
At constant pressure: n𝑪𝑷 ∆T = ∆u + P ∆V …….. (1) 𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝑽 + 𝑅
For an ideal gas equation P∆𝑉 = 𝑛R∆T 𝑪𝑷 − 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑹
n𝑪𝑷 ∆T = ∆𝑢 + 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇 𝐶𝑃
Where 𝐶 = 𝛾
At constant volume 𝑛𝐶𝑉 ∆𝑇 = ∆𝑢 + 0 since 𝑉
P∆𝑉 = 0
Examples
1) The density of a gas with S.H.C of a gas at constant pressure of 890𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 at a temperature of
20℃ and pressure of 1.01𝑥105 𝑃𝑎 is 1.54𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . Calculate the S.H.C of oxygen at constant volume
Solution
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑟𝑇 But 𝑚 = 𝑣𝜌 𝜌𝑅𝑇 1.54𝑥8.31𝑥293
𝑀= = = 0.0371𝑘𝑔
𝑃 1.01𝑥105 𝑃 1.01𝑥105
𝑟= = = 223.84 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 But 𝑪𝑷 − 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑹
𝜌𝑇 1.54𝑥293
𝒄𝑷 − 𝒄𝑽 = 𝒓 where 𝑪𝑷 and 𝑪𝑽 are molar heat capacities
𝑐𝑣 = 890 − 223.84 = 666.16𝐽𝑘𝑔 𝐾 −1 −1 𝑐𝑝 𝑀 – 𝑐𝑣 𝑀 = 𝑅 where 𝑐𝑝 and 𝑐𝑣 are S.H.C
Alternatively are constant pressure and volume respectively
890𝑥0.0371−8.31
𝑚
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇 But 𝑚 = 𝑣𝜌 𝑐𝑣 = 0.0371
= 666.01 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
𝑀
2) The S.H.C of oxygen at constant volume is 719𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 If the density of oxygen at S.T.P is
1.429𝑘𝑔𝑚−3. Calculate the S.H.C of oxygen at constant pressure
Solution
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑟𝑇 But 𝑚 = 𝑣𝜌 𝑐𝑝 = 719 + 258.9 = 977.9𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
5
𝑃 1.01𝑥10 Alternatively
𝑟= = = 258.9 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 𝑚
𝜌𝑇 1.429𝑥273 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑀 𝑅𝑇 But 𝑚 = 𝑉𝜌
𝒄𝑷 − 𝒄𝑽 = 𝒓
𝜌𝑅𝑇 1.429𝑥8.31𝑥273 𝑐𝑝 𝑀 – 𝑐𝑣 𝑀 = 𝑅 where 𝑐𝑝 and 𝑐𝑣 are S.H.C

𝑀= = = 0.0324𝑘𝑔
𝑃 1.01𝑥105 are constant pressure and volume respectively
But 𝑪𝑷 − 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑹 𝑐𝑝 =
8.31+0.0324𝑥719
= 977. 9 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
where 𝑪𝑷 and 𝑪𝑽 are molar heat capacities 0.0324
EXERCISE:44
1) Nitrogen gas is trapped in the container by (a) Give the equation of state for n moles of an
movable piston. If temperature of gas is raised ideal gas, defining the symbols used.
from 0℃ to 50℃ at constant pressure of (b) Show by calculation that;
4.0x105 Pa and total heat added is 3.0x104 J. (i) The number of moles of gas in the container
Calculate the work done by the gas is 2.01x10-2
𝐶 (ii) The volume of the gas at B on the graph
[Cp=29.1Jmol-1K-1, 𝐶𝑃 = 1.4] (Ans 8.57x103J). is 1.67x10-3m3, R= 8.31Jmol-1k-1
𝑉
2) An ideal gas with volume of 0.1𝑚 expands at a 4) A steel pressure vessel of volume 2.2x10-2m3
3
constant pressure of 1.5𝑥105 𝑃𝑎 to treble its contains 4.0x10-2kg of a gas at a pressure of

volume. Calculate the work done by the gas 1.0x105Pa and temperature 300K. An explosion
An(3 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑱) suddenly releases 6.48x104J of energy, which raises
3) The diagram shows curves relating pressure, P and the pressure instantaneously to 1.0x106Pa.
volume V for a fixed mass of an ideal monatomic Assuming no loss of heat to the vessel, and ideal
gas at 300K and 500K. The gas is in a container gas behavior calculate;
fitted with a piston which can move with negligible (a) The maximum temperature attained
friction. (b) The two principal specific heat capacities
of the gas.
P(104Pa) (c) What is the velocity of sound in this gas at
a temperature of 300K? An[3000K,
C
600Jkg-1K-1, 783 Jkg-1K-1, 268ms-1]

A B
5.00 500K
300K
0
0 1.00 V (10-3M3)
a)ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
Is the change (expansion or compression) which occurs at constant temperature
For an isothermal change 𝑃𝑉 = constant. Heat must be supplied at the same rate as the gas is
doing its work
𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑢 + 𝛥𝑤
But 𝛥𝑢 = 𝑛𝐶𝑣𝛥𝑇 and 𝛥𝑇 = 0 ⟹ 𝛥𝑢 = 0
∴ 𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑤 …………………………………………. (x)
Equation (x) above implies that in an isothermal change all heat supplied to gas must be used
to do external work.
REVERSIBLE ISOTHERMAL CHANGE:

It’s defined as, a change that occurs at constant temperature and can be made to go in the
reverse direction by an infinitesimal change in the conditions causing it to take place
WORK DONE (ΔW) IN AN ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION

Consider an isothermal expansion from V1to V2
𝛥𝑤 = 𝑃𝛥𝑣 𝑉2 nRT
W= ∫𝑉1 𝑉 dv
𝑤 𝑉2
∫𝑜 𝛥𝑤 = ∫𝑉1 PΔv 𝑉 1
𝑣2
W= 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ∫𝑉 2 𝑉 dv
1
W= ∫𝑣1 PΔv 𝑉2
nRT
W= 𝑛𝑅𝑇 [1𝑛𝑉] 𝑉1
But 𝑃 = 𝑉 W= 𝑛𝑅𝑇 (1nV2 -1nV1)
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑊 = 𝑛 𝑅 𝑇 𝐼𝑛 OR 𝑊 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝐼𝑛 OR 𝑊 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝐼𝑛
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1
b)ADIABATIC PROCESS (ΔQ = O)

An adiabatic process is a change (expansion or compression) in which there is no heat exchange
between the gas and the surrounding.
Using the 1st law of thermal dynamics.
𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑢 + 𝛥𝑤
But 𝛥𝑄 = 0
Therefor𝑒 𝛥𝑢 = −𝛥𝑤 ………………………………………………… (xx)
 Equation (xx) shows that, in an adiabatic process the external work done in expanding the gas
is at expense of internal energy and this result into cooling of the gas.
Question; explain why an adiabatic expansion results into cooling of the gas.
During an adiabatic expansion, no heat is supplied to the gas. Molecules of the gas strike the receding
piston and bounce off with reduced velocities hence lower kinetic energies. Since the absolute
temperature is proportional to mean kinetic energy of the molecules, the gas cools during expansion
EQUATION FOR ADIABATIC PROCESS

From the 1st law of thermal dynamics Putting ΔT into (5) : 𝐶𝑃 𝑥(−
𝑃𝛥𝑉
) − 𝑉𝛥𝑃 = 0
ΔQ = 𝛥𝑢 + 𝛥𝑤 …………………. (1) 𝐶𝑣
𝐶𝑃
But 𝛥𝑢 = 𝐶𝑣 𝛥𝑇 for 1mole of gas And 𝛥𝑤 = 𝑃𝛥𝑉 𝑃𝛥𝑉 + 𝑉𝛥𝑃 = 0
Putting these into equation 1 𝐶𝑣
𝐶
𝛥𝑄 = 𝐶𝑣 𝛥𝑇 + 𝑃𝛥𝑉 But 𝑃 = 𝛾
𝐶𝑣
But for an a adiabatic process ΔQ = 0 𝛾 𝑃𝛥𝑉 + 𝑉𝛥𝑃 = 0
Therefore 𝐶𝑣 𝛥𝑇 + 𝑃𝛥𝑉 = 0 …………………(2) Driving all through by PV
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 for 1mole of an ideal gas PγΔV VΔP
Differentiating it partially, gives PV
+ PV = 0
γΔV 𝛥𝑃
𝑃𝛥𝑉 + 𝑉𝛥𝑃 = 𝑅𝛥𝑇 + =0
𝑉 𝑃
𝑃𝛥𝑉 = 𝑅𝛥𝑇 – 𝑉𝛥𝑃 ……………….(3) 𝛥𝑉 𝛥𝑃
Putting equation (3) into (2), gives Integrating : 𝛾 ∫ + ∫ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉 𝑃
𝐶𝑣 𝛥𝑇 + 𝑅𝛥𝑇 – 𝑉𝛥𝑃 = 0 ……………..(4) 𝛾1𝑛𝑉 + 1𝑛𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
But 𝐶𝑃 – 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 1𝑛𝑉 𝛾 + 𝐼𝑛𝑃 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐
𝛾
𝐶𝑣 𝛥𝑇 + (𝐶𝑃 −𝐶𝑣 ) 𝛥𝑇 – 𝑉𝛥𝑃 = 0 In𝑃𝑉 = 𝐼𝑛𝑐
𝐶𝑃 𝛥𝑇 − 𝑉𝛥𝑃 = 0 … … … … . (5) P𝑉 𝛾 = Constant
−𝑃𝛥𝑣 𝛾 𝛾
From equation (2) : 𝛥𝑇 = 𝐶 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
𝑣
WORK DONE (ΔW) IN AN ADIABATIC EXPANSION

𝛥𝑄 = 𝛥𝑢 + 𝛥𝑤 But 𝛥𝑄 = 0 𝑅
𝐶𝑣 = 𝛾−1…………..(2)
Therefor𝑒 𝛥𝑢 = −𝛥𝑤
From 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝛥𝑢 = 𝐶𝑣 𝛥𝑇 𝑃 𝑉
𝛥𝑤 = −𝑛𝐶𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )…….(1) ⟹ 𝑻𝟐 = 2 2…………(3)
𝑛𝑅
But 𝐶𝑃 – 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝐶𝑝 𝐶𝑣 𝑅 𝑇1 = … … … … (4)
𝑛𝑅
– = 𝑅 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑉1
𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑣 Putting 2, 3, 4 into 1: 𝛥𝑤 = −𝑛 𝛾−1 ( 𝑛𝑅 − 𝑛𝑅 )
𝑅
𝛾−1= (𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 )
𝐶𝑣 𝛥𝑤 = −
𝛾−1
Examples
1) An ideal gas at 180C is compressed adiabatically until its volume is halved. Calculate the final
temperature of gas (assume S.H.C of gas at constant pressure and volume are 2100𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 K −1 and
1500 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 K −1 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 )
Solution
𝑻𝟏 = (18 + 273) = 291𝐾 𝑉 1.4−1

𝑉 291𝑥𝑉 1.4−1 = 𝑇2 ( )
𝑻𝟐 =? , 𝑉1 = 𝑉, 𝑉2 = 2 2
0.4
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝑉
𝑻𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 𝑽𝟐 291𝑥𝑉 0.4 = 𝑇2 0.4
𝐶𝑃 2100 2
But 𝛾 = 𝐶 = 1500 = 1.4 𝑇2 = 383.916𝐾
𝑣
2) A gas having a temperature of 270C volume of 30000cm3 and pressure of 80cmHg expands
isothermally to double its volume. The gas is then adiabatically compressed to half its original volume.
(i) Represent these changes on P-V sketch
(ii) Calculate final pressure and temperature of gas (𝛾 = 1.4)
Solution
(i) 𝑃2 = 40𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
P3
Adiabatic: 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇2 → 𝑃3 𝑉3 𝑇2
1
T2
But 𝑉3 = 2 𝑉2 = 1.5𝑥 10−3 𝑚3
P1
𝛾 𝛾
P2 T1 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑃3 𝑉3
V3 V1 V2 40(6𝑥10−3 )1.4 = 𝑃3 𝑥(1.5𝑥10−3 )1.4
(ii) 𝑇1 = 27 + 237 = 300𝐾 𝑃3 = 5.092x105 𝑃𝑎
𝑉1 = 3000𝑥10−3 m3, 𝑉1 = 3𝑥10−3 m3 𝑃3 = 278.57𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝑃1 = 80𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑇1 𝑉2 = 𝑇2 𝑉3
Isothermally 𝑉2 = 2𝑉1 = 6𝑥10−3 300𝑥(6𝑥10−3 )0.4 = 𝑇2 (1.5𝑥10−3 )0.4
Isothermal 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇1 → 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇1 𝑇2 = 522.3𝐾
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 Final pressure = 278.5𝑐𝑚𝐻𝑔 and final
80𝑥3𝑥10 = 𝑃2 𝑥6𝑥10−3
−3 temperature = 522.3𝐾
UNEB 2011 Q 6
di) Distinguish between isothermal and a adiabatic changes (02marks)
ii)An ideal gas at 180C is compressed a adiabatically until the volume is halved.
Calculate the final temperature of the gas.
(Assume specific heat capacities of the gas at constant pressure and volume are 2100Jkg-1K-1 and
1500Jkg-1K-1 respectively) An[383.98k] (4marks)
UNEB2010 Q.6
a)i)State the difference between isothermal and adiabatic expansion of a gas
ii)Using the same axes and point, sketch the graph of pressure verses volume for a fixed mass of gas
undergoing isothermal and a adiabatic change (3marks)
𝑣1
b)Show that the work W done by a gas which expands reversibly from V0 to V1 is given by W= ∫𝑣0 𝑝𝑑𝑣
(4marks)
c)i)State two differences between real and ideal gases
ii)Draw labeled diagram showing P-V isothermal for a real gas above and below the critical
temperature (3mark)
d)Ten moles of a gas initially at 270C and heated at a constant pressure 1.0x105 Pa and the volume
increased from 0.250cm3 to 0.375m3. Calculate the increases in internal energy [assume Cp = 28.5Jmol-
K ] (6mark) An [3.012x104J]
1 -1
UNEB 2009 Q.6

a)i)State Boyle’s law (01mark)

ii)Describe an experiment that can be used to verify Boy led law. (06mark)
c)i)What is meant by reversible process
ii)State the conditions necessary for isothermal and adiabatic process to occur
d)A mass of an ideal gas of volume 2000m3 at 144K expands adiabatically to a temperature of 137K.
Calculate the new volume (take 𝛾 = 1.40) (3mark) An [226.47cm3]
UNEB 2008 Q.6

a)Describe an experiment to verify Newton’s law of cooling
c)ii)Nitrogen gas is trapped in a container by a movable piston. If the temperature of the gas raised
from 00C to 500C at a constant pressure of 4x105Pa and the total heat added is 3x104J. Calculate the
work done by the gas. An[8.57x103]
𝐶𝑃
(Molar heat capacity of nitrogen at constant pressure is 29.1Jmol-1k-1 𝐶𝑉
= 1.4)
UNEB 2007 Q,7

a)
F
area A . The piston is in equilibrium under the
action of a force F as shown above. Show that
Ideal gas
P, V
Cylinder the work done W by the gas when it expands
𝑣2
A fixed mass of an ideal gas confined in a from V1 to V2 is given by W= ∫𝑣1 𝑝𝑑𝑣
cylinder by a friction less piston of cross section
b)State the first law of thermodynamics and use it to distinguish between isothermal and adiabatic
changes in a gas.
c)The temperature of one mole of helium gas at a pressure 1.0x105Pa increases from 200C to
1000Cwhen the gas is compressed adiabatically. Find the final pressure of the gas (take 𝛾 = 1.67)
An [1.83x105Pa]
UNEB 2001 Q.6

a)i)Explain what happens when a quantity of heat is applied to a fixed mass of gas (02marks)
ii)Derive the relation between the principal molar heat capacities Cp and Cv for an ideal gas
(05marks)
b)i)What is an adiabatic process (1mark)
ii)A bicycle pump contains air at 290K. The piston of the pump is slowly pushed in until the volume of
the air pump. The outlet is then sealed off and the piston suddenly pulled out to full extension. If no air
𝐶
escapes. Find its temperature immediately after pulling the piston (take 𝐶𝑃 = 1.4) An[152.3K]
𝑉

CHAPTER4: KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

4.1: Brownian motion
It’s a continuous random and haphazard motion of fluid particles caused by repeated collision of
particles exerting a resulting force on each other which changes in a magnitudes and direction
Kinetic theory of matter states that Matter is made up of small particles called molecular atoms
that are in continuous random motion and the speed of movement of the particles is directly
proportional to temperature.
Explain why gas fills container in which it is placed and exerts pressure on the walls using
kinetic theory of gases.
 A gas contains molecules with a negligible intermolecular forces and are free to move in all
directions. As they move they collide with each other and with the walls of the container. The
movement makes them fill the available space and the collisions with the walls constitute the
pressure exerted on the wall
Explain using kinetic theory why the pressure of fixed mass of gas rises when its
temperature is increased at constant volume.
 When gas temperature increases, the average kinetic energy of molecules increases, they make
more frequent collisions with the walls of the container. This implies greater pressure of the gas.
In addition pressure increases as a result of a higher rate of change of momentum at each
collision.
𝟏
4.2: Derivation of expression of pressure exerted on container by the gas (P =𝟑ρ𝑪𝟐 )
In deriving this expression, the following assumptions are considered;
 Intermolecular forces of attraction are negligible
 Molecules make perfectly elastic collisions
 The volume of molecules is negligible compared to the volume of container.
 The duration of collision is negligible compared with time between collisions.
𝟏
Derivation of expression 𝑷 = 𝟑 𝝆𝑪𝟐
Consider a molecule of mass, m moving in a ∴ 𝑁 𝑈 2 = 𝑈12 + 𝑈22 … … + 𝑈𝑁2
cube of length, l at a velocity, u 𝑁𝑚𝑈 2 𝑁𝑚
m u P = 𝐿3 = ρ𝑈 2 since ρ= 𝐿3
L The molecules do not show any preferences in
Change in momentum = 𝑚𝑢 – (−𝑚𝑢) = 2𝑚𝑢 moving parallel to any direction.
2𝑚𝑢
Rate of change in momentum= 𝑡 𝐶 2 = 𝑈 2 + 𝑉 2 + 𝑊 2 and 𝑈 2 = 𝑉 2 = 𝑊 2
2𝐿 𝐶 2 = 3𝑈 2
But time, t between collisions= 𝑢 1
2𝑚𝑢1 𝑚𝑢2 1 ∴ 𝑈2 = 𝐶 2
Force on the wall by molecule, 𝐹1 = 2𝐿 = 3
( ) 𝑙 𝟏
𝑢1
𝑷 = 𝟑 𝝆𝑪𝟐
For N molecules, force on the wall, F
𝑚𝑢2 1 𝑚𝑢2 2 𝑚𝑢2 𝑁 𝑁𝑚
𝐹= + + ⋯⋯ Since density, ρ = 𝑉
where m is mass of one
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝐹 𝑚 2 molecule
Pressure, 𝑃 = 𝐴 = (𝑢 1 + 𝑢22 + ⋯ ⋯ 𝑢2𝑁 ) 1 𝑁𝑚
2
𝑙3 𝑃 = 3 𝑉 𝐶2
since 𝐴 = 𝑙
1
but 𝑈 2 =
2
𝑈12 +𝑈22 ………+𝑈𝑁 𝑃𝑉 = 3
𝑁𝑚𝐶 2
𝑁
Examples

1) Given that density of oxygen is 0.098𝑘𝑔𝑚−3at a pressure of 1.0 x 105𝑁𝑚−2. Calculate the root mean
square speed of oxygen
Solution
𝟑𝑷 3 𝑥1𝑥105
𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = √ 𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = √ = 1749.64𝑚𝑠 −1
𝝆 0.098
2) Calculate the root mean square speed of molecule of an ideal gas at 130℃, given that the density of
the gas at pressure of 1.0 x 105𝑁𝑚−2and temperature of 0℃ is 1.43𝑘𝑔𝑚−3
Solution
P1 = 1.0 x 103, T1 = 273K, 𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑎𝑡 273𝐾 = √209.79𝑥103
𝟑𝑷
ρ = 1.43𝑘𝑔𝑚−3, 𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = √ 𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑎𝑡 273𝐾 √𝟐𝟕𝟑
𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑎𝑡 273𝐾 =? 𝝆 =
𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑎𝑡 403𝐾 √𝟒𝟎𝟑
T2 = 403K, 𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑎𝑡 403𝐾 √𝟐𝟎𝟗.𝟕𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 √𝟐𝟕𝟑
1 2 3𝑥1.0𝑥105 = 𝟒𝟎𝟑
𝑃1 = 3 𝜌𝐶1 𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑎𝑡 273𝐾 = √ 𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑎𝑡 403𝐾 √
1.43 𝐶𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑎𝑡 403𝐾 = 556.4878𝑚/𝑠
EXERCISE:44
1) The density of air is 1.3kg𝑚−3. Calculate the root 4)
The density of nitrogen at s.t.p is 1.25kg𝑚−3.
mean square speed of air molecules in a containerCalculate the root mean square velocity of
in which the pressure is 1.0 x 105𝑁𝑚−2.An(480m/s)nitrogen molecules at 227℃ An(666m/s)
2) The density of nitrogen at s.t.p is 1.251kg𝑚−3. 5)
The root mean square speed of nitrogen at 127℃ is
Calculate the root mean square velocity of 600m/s. Calculate the root mean square speed at
nitrogen molecules at s.t.p An(493m/s) 1127℃ An(1.12x103m/s)
3) The root mean square speed of helium at s.t.p is 6)
Calculate the temperature at which the root
1.3kg𝑚−3. Calculate the density of helium. mean square speed of oxygen molecules is twice
An(0.179 kg𝒎−𝟑 ) as great as their root mean square speed at 27℃
An(1200K)
4.4: Deductions of Dalton’s law of partial pressures using kinetic theory
𝟏 3𝑃1 𝑉 3𝑃2 𝑉
𝑷 = 𝟑 𝝆𝑪𝟐 𝑁1 = and 𝑁2 =
𝑚1 𝐶 2 1 𝑚2 𝐶 2 2
𝑁𝑚
Since density, ρ = where m is mass of N = 𝑁1 + 𝑁2
𝑉
one molecule 3𝑃𝑉 3𝑃1 𝑉 3𝑃2 𝑉
= +
1 𝑚𝐶 2 𝑚1 𝐶 21 𝑚2 𝐶 2 2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑚𝐶 2
3 At constant temperature
3𝑃𝑉 ½ m𝐶 2 = ½𝑚1 𝐶 21 = ½ 𝑚2 𝐶 2 2
∴𝑁=
𝑚𝐶 2 Hence P = P1 + P2
If the gas has two components 1 and 2
4.4: Real gases

Real gases obey ideal gas equation only when they are at very low pressure and at high temperatures.
Note: At high temperature and low pressure real gases behave like ideal gases.
 At high temperature the average kinetic energy of the molecules is high and intermolecular
separation increases, intermolecular forces are so weak such that they become negligible and
thus the gas behaves like an ideal gas.
 At low pressure for a fixed number of molecules, volume increases. So the molecules will occupy
a negligible volumes compared with that of the container. Hence the gas will behave like an
ideal one
Properties of real gases

 Intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion are not negligible
 Volumes of molecules are not negligible compared to volume of container

 The collision in real gases are inelastic
 They do not obey gas laws and equations
4.5: Pressure against volume curve for a real gas compressed below critical temperature
Pressure  At higher pressures (BC), some of the vapour
D
Liquid condenses and we have liquid plus saturated
C
Liquid + saturated
B Unsaturated vapour
vapour but pressure remains constant as
vapour
O
A
Volume
volume reduces
 At much higher pressures (CD), all the vapour
 In region AB, there is unsaturated vapour condenses into a liquid and there is a very small
which fairly obeys Boyle’s law at low pressures. change in volume for a large pressure increase.
4.6: Vander-waal equation

Vander Waal modified the ideal gas equation by taking into account two of assumption made
by kinetic theory to be valid.
𝐚
Therefore Vander Waal’s equation is given by (𝐏 + 𝐕𝟐
) (𝐕 − 𝐛) = 𝐧𝐑𝐓
𝐚
Accounting for the terms 𝐕 𝟐 and b
𝒂
 caters for pressure defect, since in real gases the intermolecular forces of attraction are not
𝑽𝟐
negligible. Therefore the observed pressure is actually less than the pressure in the ideal case by
an amount
 The factor b accounts for co-volume, since the volume of the molecules of a real gas is not
negligible compared to the volume of the gas.
4.7: Vapours
A vapour is gaseous state of substance below its critical temperature. A vapour can either be
saturated or unsaturated
A gas is a gaseous state of substance above it’s critical temperature
Supper saturated vapor is one whose rate of evaporation exceeds its rate of condensation.
4.7.1: Saturated and Unsaturated Vapour

 A saturated vapour is one which is in dynamic equilibrium with it’s own liquid.
Saturated vapours do not obey gas laws
 Unsaturated vapour is one which is not in dynamic equilibrium with it’s own liquid.
Un saturated vapours approximately obey gas laws
4.7.2: Saturated vapour pressure (s.v.p)

S.V.P of a liquid is the maximum constant pressure exerted by the vapour in dynamic
equilibrium with its liquid
(a) : Explanation of occurrence of S.V.P using kinetic theory

Fixed piston  Consider a liquid confined in the container
Saturated Vapour pressure with fixed piston. The liquid molecules are
vapour
evapouration
moving randomly with mean kinetic
condensation energy determined by liquid temperature.

The most energetic molecules have the surface of the liquid and re-enter the liquid
sufficient K.e to overcome the attraction by by condensation.
other molecules and leave the surface of  A state of dynamic equilibrium is attained when
liquid to become vapour molecules by a the rate of condensation equals to rate of
process of evaporation . evapouration. At this point the density of vapour
 The molecules of the vapour are also moving and hence vapour pressure is maximum and
randomly with a mean kinetic. The vapour constant at that temperature of the vapour and
molecule collide with walls of the vessel giving this is called S.V.P.
rise to vapour pressure and others bombard
(b) : Effect of volume change on S.V.P at constant temperature

 When the volume of saturated vapour is decreased at constant temperature, the density of
vapour increases and the rate of condensation increases.
 As a result more molecules return to the liquid than leave it. The number of molecules in the
vapour continue to fall until dynamic equilibrium is again restored with SVP having the
original value.
(c) Effects of increasing temperature on SVP at constant volume

If a liquid is in dynamic equilibrium with its vapour, an increase in temperature increases the mean
kinetic energy of molecules and hence evapouration rate increases. The vapour density increases,
implying increase in the rate of condensation until a dynamic equilibrium is restored. There are now
more molecules in the vapour phase than previously that are moving faster and hence higher
pressure.
4.8: Experiment to verify variation of S.V.P with temperature

 Atmospheric pressure, H is obtained  The saturated vapour pressure, 𝑃 = 𝐻 ± ℎ is
 Tap is opened and pressure varied a vacuum calculated
pump to a suitable value  The procedure is repeated for to obtain
 The tap is closed and the liquid is heated until
corresponding values of P and 𝜃
it boils.
 A graph of P against 𝜃 is plotted. The graph
 The temperature θ of the vapour is determined
shows P increases with temperature.
using a thermometer and noted.
 The difference, h in mercury levels is noted from
the manometer.
4.9: Boiling
This is defined as the process by which a liquid turns to vapor at constant temperature (boiling point)
Boiling point of liquid is the constant temperature at which saturated vapour pressure is equal to
external atmospheric pressure.
Explanation of boiling using kinetic theory

 Molecules of a liquid though moving randomly have attractive forces between them. When a
liquid is heated molecules move faster and forces of attraction are weakened until they
overcome at the boiling point temperature.

 At boiling point the saturated vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the external pressure
(atmospheric pressure plus hydrostatic pressure plus the pressure due to surface tension). The
liquid molecules with enough energy escape from the bulk to the atmosphere
Effect of pressure on boiling point of a liquid

Increase of pressure raises the boiling point. Boiling takes place when SVP just exceeds external
pressure. SVP increases with temperature so increase external pressure and therefore increase in boiling
point
Effect of altitude on boiling point of a liquid
Boiling takes place when SVP just exceeds external pressure. Atmospheric pressure reduces with increase
in altitude, therefore boiling point of a liquid decreases with increase in altitude,
Question: Explain why at a given external pressure a liquid boils at a constant temperature.
A liquid boils when saturated vapour pressure is equal to the external pressure. But since the
saturated vapour pressure is dependent on the temp of the liquid, then it implies that for a
given external pressure the boiling will occur at a constant temperature.
Question: Explain why the temperature of a liquid does not change when the liquid is boiling.
At boiling point, there is change in state to vapour and all the heat supplied is used to do work
by breaking the molecular bonds of the liquid. The temperature will not change until all the
bonds are broken
NB:
 Water can be made to boil at temperature less than 100 ̊C by boiling it at higher altitude or
boiling it when it is free of impurities.
 Addition of impurities raise the boiling point of a liquid since impurities absorb some of the
supplied heat making the liquid to boil at a higher temperature than its normal boiling point
thus faster cooking.
4.10: Evapouration
This is the process by which a liquid become a vapour and leaves a liquid surface.
It can take place at all temperatures and only at the surface but it is greatest when the liquid
is at it’s boiling point.
Explanation using kinetic theory

 Evaporation occurs when the most energetic molecules at the liquid surface escape.
 The molecules that remain are those with low kinetic energy. Since mean kinetic energy of the
molecules is directly proportional to absolute temperature, the liquid cools
Ways of increasing evapouration

 Increasing surface area of liquid
 Increasing temperature of the liquid
 Reducing air pressure above the liquid
 Causing a drought to remove vapour molecule before they have any chance to retain the
liquid.
Differences between evapouration and boiling

 Boiling occurs through out the volume of the liquid while evapouration occurs at the surface.
 A liquid boils at single temp for any given external pressure whereas evaporation occurs at any
temperature.

4.11: Melting
This is defined as the process by which a solid turns to liquid at constant temperature called
melting point i.e.
Melting point is constant temperature at which a solid substance liquidizes at constant atmospheric
pressure
Question: Explain why the temperature of a solid does not change when the solid is melting.
During melting, the heat energy supplied is used to weaken the intermolecular forces and increase
separation between molecules. This increases the potential energy of the molecules but the mean
kinetic energy of the molecules remain constant consequently the temperature remaining constant.
Question: Explain what happens when a fixed mass of ice is raised from 0℃ to 10℃
AT 0℃ the bonds between ice are weakened and ice melts. Between 0℃ and 4℃ water contracts.
Beyond 4℃ water expands
Related explanations
 Metallic utensils being good conductors of heat, they absorb heat (from food) which would be carried
away by the volatile liquid to the cooling fins thus delaying the refrigerating process. Such utensils
are not recommended to be used in refrigerators.
 Milk in a bottle wrapped in a wet cloth cools faster than that placed in a bucket exposed to a
drought. This is because the wet cloth speeds up the rate of evaporation thus more cooling.
 It advisable for a heavily perspiring person to stand in a shade other than drought because drought
speeds up evaporation thus faster cooling which may lead to over cooling of the body and eventually
this over cooling may lower the body’s resistance to infections.
 When taking a bath using cold water, the individual feels colder on a very shiny day than on a rainy
day because on a shiny day, the body is at high temperatures such that on pouring cold water on the
body, water absorbs some of the body’s heat thus its cooling. Yet on a rainy day the body is at a
relatively low temperature implying that less heat is absorbed from it when cold water is poured on it.
 Two individuals; A (suffering from serious malaria) and B (normal) taking a bath of cold water at
the same time of the day, A feels colder than B because the sick person’s body is at relatively higher
temperature than of a normal person. When cold water is poured on the sick person’s body, much
heat is absorbed from it compared to that absorbed from a normal person thus more coldness.
 Two normal identical individuals; A (takes a bath of water at 35 ̊C) and B (takes a bath of water
at 25 ̊C) after the bath, A experience more coldness than B. This is because Water at 35 ̊C raises the
body’s temperature more than that at 25 ̊C. This means that after the bath, the individual who takes
a bath of water at 35 ̊C looses more heat to the surrounding than what one who takes a bath of
water at 25 ̊C would loose to it.
 Water bottles are made of plastic other than glass and not fully filled because when water cools, it
expands such that ice takes up a bigger volume. The un filled space is to cater for increase in volume
on solidification and the bottle is made plastic to with stand breaking due to increase in volume
 A cloudy film forms on screens of cars being driven in rain because of the condensation of the excess
water vapor in atmospheric moist air as a result of exceeding its dew point.
UNEB 2019 Q.6

(a) (i) What is meant by a reversible process? (02marks)
(𝒊𝒊) Distiguish between saturated vapour and unsaturated vapour (02marks)
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Explain why evaporation causes cooling (03marks)

(b) Describe an experiment to determine the temperature dependence of saturated vapour pressure of
water (07marks)
(c) (i) State Daltons law of partial pressures (01mark)
(𝑖𝑖) A sealed container liquid water, water vapour and air all at 27oC. the total pressure inside the
container is 69cmHg. When the temperature is now raised to 85oC, the total pressure changes to
96cmHg. If the saturated pressure vapour of water at 27oC is 5cmHg, calculate the saturated vapour
pressure of water at 85oC. An[19.63cmHg] (05marks)
UNEB 2017 Q.6
(a) (i) What is meant by Boiling point (01mark)
(ii) Explain why boiling point of a liquid increases with increase in the external pressure (04marks)
(b) (i) Explain how the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas can be increased at
 Constant temperature. (03marks)
 Constant volume. (03marks)
(a) (i) Sketch a pressure versus volume curve for a real gas undergoing compression. (02marks)
(ii) Explain the main features of the curve in (c)(i) above (03marks)
(b) The cylinder of an exhaust pump has a volume of 25𝑐𝑚3. If it is connected through a valve to a flask
of volume 225𝑐𝑚3 containing air at a pressure of 75cmHg, calculate the pressure of the air I the flask
after two strokes of the pump, assuming that the temperature of the air remains constant (04marks)
An(60.8cmHg)
UNEB 2016 Q.6

(a) (i) State Dalton’s law of partial pressures (01mark)
(ii) The kinetic theory expression for the pressure P, of an ideal gas of density 𝜌, and mean square
𝟏
speed, 𝑐 2̅ is 𝑷 = 𝝆𝑪𝟐. Use the expression to deduce Dalton’s law (05marks)
𝟑
(b) (i) What is meant by isothermal process and adiabatic process. (02marks)
(ii) Explain why a diabatic expansion of a gas causes cooling. (03marks)
(c) A gas at a temperature of 17℃ and pressure of 1.0𝑥105 𝑃𝑎 is compressed isothermally to half its
original volume. It is then allowed to expand adiabatically to its original volume.
(i) Sketch on a P-V curve the above processes. (02marks)
(ii) If the specific heat capacity at constant pressure is 2100𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1 and at constant volume
is 1500𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1, find the final temperature of the gas. An(219.8K) (04marks)
(d) (i) What is meant by a saturated vapour (01mark)
(ii) Explain briefly the effect of altitude on the boiling point of a liquid (02marks)
UNEB 2014 Q.5

(a) (i) State two differences between saturated and unsaturated vapours (02marks)
(ii) Sketch graphs of pressure against temperature for an ideal gas and for saturated water vapour
originally at 0℃ (03marks)
−1 −1
(b) The specific heat capacity of oxygen at constant volume is 719𝐽𝑘𝑔 𝐾 and its density at standard
temperature and pressure is 1.49𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 . Calculate the specific heat capacity of oxygen at a constant
pressure 𝑨𝒏(𝟗𝟕𝟕. 𝟗𝑱𝒌𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 ) (04marks)
(c) (i) With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe an experiment to determine saturated vapour
pressure of water (05marks)
(ii) State how the experimental setup in (c) (i) may be modified to determine a saturated vapour
pressure above atmospheric pressur3e (01mark)
(d) (i) Define an ideal gas (01mark)
(ii) State and explain the conditions under which real gases behave as ideal gas (04marks)

CHAPTER5: HEAT TRANSFER

There are 3 ways of heat transfer namely;
 Conduction  Radiation  Convection
5.1: Conduction
This is the process of heat transfer through a substance from region of high temperature to low
temperature without the bulk movement of the molecules.
It is mainly due to collision between atoms that vibrate about their fixed positions
5.1.2: Mechanisms of heat conduction

a) In non metallic solids and fluids (poor conductors).
When one end of a poor conductor is heated, atoms at the hot end vibrate with increased
amplitudes, collide with neigbouring atoms and lose energy to them. The neighbouring atoms also
vibrate with increased amplitudes, collide with adjacent atoms and lose energy to them. In this way,
heat energy is transmitted from one end to the other.
b) In metals (good conductors).

 Metals have free electrons. When heated the electrons at the hot end gain more energy and
transfer energy as they collide with atoms in solid lattice.
 The mechanism of heat transfer by atomic vibrations also occurs in good conductors but its
effect is much smaller
Question: Explain why metals are better conductor than non metallic solids.
In metals heat is carried by inter atomic vibration just like in non- metallic solid. But in addition to
this, metals have free electrons in their lattice that move with very high velocity when heated since
they are light. So they pass on their heat energy due to collision with the atoms in metallic lattice and
this occurs at faster rate
5.1.3: Thermal conductivity or coefficient of thermal conductivity (K)

Thermal conductivity is the rate of heat flow through material per unit cross-sectional area per unit
temperature gradient
S.I unit of K is 𝑊 𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
Examples
1. An aluminum plate of cross section area 300cm2 and thickness 5cm has one side maintained at 100oC
by steam and another side by 30oC .The energy passes through the plate at a rate of 9kW.Calculate
the coefficient of thermal conductivity of aluminum.
Solution
𝐿
𝑄 5𝑥10−2 𝑥9000
𝐾 = 𝑡 𝐾 = 300𝑥10−4 𝑥(100−30) = 214.29 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
𝐴(𝜃2− 𝜃1 )
2. Calculate the quantity of heat conducted through 2𝑚2 of a brick wall 12cm thick in 1 hour, if the
temperature on one side is 18℃ and on the other side is 28℃. Thermal conductivity of brick
0.13 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
Solution
𝑄 𝐾𝑏 𝐴(∆𝜃) 0.13𝑥2(28 − 18) 𝑄 = 7.8𝑥104 𝐽
= 𝑄= 𝑥1𝑥3600
𝑡 𝐿𝑏 12𝑥10−2
5.1.6: Heat flow through several surfaces

i) Surface in Series
Examples
1) wall 6m by 3m consists of two layers A and B of thermal conductivities 0.6 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1and
0.5 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 respectively. The thickness of layer is 15.0cm.The inner surface of layer A is at
temperature of 20oC while outer layer B is at temperature of 10oC. Calculate
(i) The temperature of interface of A and B. (ii) The rate of heat through wall
Solution
0.6𝐴(20 − 𝜃) 0.5𝐴(𝜃 − 10)
Ɵ0C =
0.15 0.15
0
KA=0.6 KB=0.5 0 𝜃 = 15.45℃
20 C 10 C 𝑄 𝐾 𝐴(20−𝜃) 0.6𝐴(20−𝜃)
ii) 𝑡
= 𝑎 𝐿 = 15𝑥10−2
0.15m 0.15m 𝑎
𝑄 0.6𝑥6𝑥3(20−15.45)
𝑄 𝐾𝑎 𝐴(20−𝜃) 𝐾𝑏 𝐴(𝜃−10) = = 324𝐽𝑠 −1
= = 𝑡 15𝑥10−2
𝑡 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑏
2) A sheet of rubber and a sheet of card board, each 2mm thick, are pressed together and their outer
faces are maintained respectively at 0℃ and 25℃. If the thermal conductivities of rubber and
cardboard are respectively 0.13 and 0.05 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 , find the quantity of heat which flows in 1 hour
across the composite sheet of area 100c𝑚2
Solution
𝑄 𝐾𝑅 𝐴(𝜃 − 0) 𝐾𝐵 𝐴(25 − 𝜃) 𝜃 = 7℃
= = 𝑄 0.13𝐴(𝜃 − 0)
𝑡 𝐿𝑅 𝐿𝐵 =
𝑄 0.13𝐴(𝜃 − 0) 0.05𝐴(25 − 𝜃) 𝑡 2𝑥10 −3
= −3
= −3 0.13𝑥100𝑥10 −4 (𝜃
− 0)
𝑡 2𝑥10 2𝑥10 𝑄= 𝑥1𝑥60𝑥60
0.13𝐴(𝜃 − 0) 0.05𝐴(25 − 𝜃) 2𝑥10 −3
= 𝑄 = 1.64𝑥10 𝐽4
2𝑥10−3 2𝑥10−3
3) A copper rod 2m long and of diameter 3cm is lagged. One end is maintained at 300oC, the other end is
placed against 3cm thick card board disk of same diameter as the rod. The free end of disk is
maintained at 40oC .Calculate;
(i) Steady state temperature at copper card board junction.
(ii) Quantity of heat flowing against junction in 10 minutes.
(Thermal conductivity of copper and card board are 380 and 0. 2𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 respectively).
Solution
2
22 −2
7 (3𝑥10 )
𝑄 = 1.183𝑥𝑡 = 1.183𝑥10𝑥60 = 709.8
380𝑥 [ ](300−291.19)
4
𝑄
𝑡
= 2
= 1.183𝐽𝑠 −1
ii) Surface in parallel

1) A small green house consists of 34m2 of glass of thickness 3.0mm and 9.0m2 of concrete wall of thickness
0.080m. On a sunny day, the interior of the green house receives a steady 25kW of solar radiation.
Estimate the difference in temperature between inside and outside of the green house. The
temperature inside and outside may be assumed uniform and heat transfers downwards into the
ground inside the green house may be neglected.(Thermal conductivity of glass and concrete are 0.85
𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 , 1.5 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 respectively)
Solution
0.85𝑥34(𝜃2− 𝜃1 ) 9𝑥1.5(𝜃2− 𝜃1 )
ɵ 2 Glass ɵ 1
25000 = +
Concrete
0.003 0.08
𝜃2 − 𝜃1 = 2.55℃
𝑄 𝐾𝐺 𝐴(𝜃2− 𝜃1 ) 𝐾𝐶 𝐴(𝜃2− 𝜃1 )
= +
𝑡 𝐿𝐺 𝐿𝐶

i) Surface not in series (Y shaped)

BK
B θ4 𝑄 𝐾𝐴 𝐴(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) 𝐾𝐵 𝐴(𝜃2− 𝜃4 ) 𝐾𝐶 𝐴(𝜃2− 𝜃3 )
= = +
θ1
A KA
Θ2
𝑡 𝐿𝐴 𝐿𝐵 𝐿𝐶
C K
C
θ3
Example
Rods of copper, brass and steel are welded together to form Y-Shaped figure. The cross sectional area
of each rod is 2cm2 .The end of copper rod maintained at 100oC and the ends of brass and steel rod at
0oC, assume that there is not heat loss from surface of rod and that length of rods are 46cm, 13cm and
12cm respectively. Calculate the;
(i) temperature of junction. (ii) heat current in the copper rod
(thermal conductivities of copper, brass and steel are respectively 385 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 , 109 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1and
50.2 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
Solution
0 Θ 385(100 − 𝜃)
0
0
C 109(𝜃 − 0) 50.2(𝜃 − 0)
100 C K C
= +
0
0 0.46
C
0.13 0.12
8369565– 836.9565 𝜃 = 418.33 𝜃 + 838.46 𝜃
𝑄 𝐾 𝐴(100−𝜃) 𝐾 𝐴(𝜃−0) 𝐾 𝐴(𝜃−0)
𝑡
= 𝐶 𝐿 = 𝐵 𝐿 + 𝑆 𝐿 𝜃 = 39.97℃
𝐶 𝐵 𝑆
𝑄 𝐾𝐶 𝐴(100−𝜃) 3852𝑥10−4 (100−39.97)
𝑡
= 𝐿𝐶
= 0.46
= 10.05 Js-1
5.1.7: Relationship between rate of heat flow and latent heat of vapourisation.
𝑄 𝐿 = Latent heat of
= 𝑀𝐿.
𝑡
Vapourisation
Where 𝑀 = Mass per unit time
Examples
1) An Iron saucepan containing water which boils steadily at 100oC stands on a hot plate and heat is
conducted through the base of the pan of area 4m2 and uniform thickness 2 x 10-3m. If water
evaporate at a rate of 0.09 kg/min. Calculate the surface temperature of out side surface of the
pan.(Thermal conductivity of Iron = 66 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 and 𝐿v = 2.2 x 106 JK-1)
Solution
2) A copper kettle has Circular base of radius 10cm and thickness 3mm, the upper surface of base is
covered with a uniform layer of soot 1mm thick. Kettle contains water which is boiled to boiling point
by an electrical heat. In steady state 5g of steam are produced each minute. What is the temperature
of the lower surface of the base assuming that heat conduction from the side of the kettle can be
ignored ( thermal conductivity of copper and soot respectively are 390 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 and
13.0 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 and 𝐿𝑣 = 2.26 x 106J𝑘𝑔−1 .)
Solution 0.188333 = 0.4084𝜃2 − 0.4084𝜃1 … … . .1
2
Ɵ10C 390𝜋𝑥(10𝑥10−2 ) (𝜃 −100)
1
Also: 188.333 =
KS=13 Kc=390 3𝑥10−3
Ɵ20C 1000C
0.564999 = 12.2522𝜃1 − 12.2522𝑥100. . … 2
0.001m 0.003m
𝑄 5𝑥10−3
𝜃1 = 100.46℃
𝑡
= 𝑀𝐿 = 60 𝑥 2.26 𝑥 106 = 188.333 Put into (1);
𝑄 𝐾𝑠 𝐴(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) 𝐾𝑐 𝐴(𝜃1− 100) 0.1883 = 0.4084𝜃2 − 0.4084𝑥100.46
= = 𝜃2 = 105.06℃𝐶
𝑡 𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑐
2
13𝜋𝑥(10𝑥10−2 ) (𝜃2 −𝜃1 )
188.333 = 1𝑥10−3
EXERCISE: 46

1) A well lagged composite metal bar of uniform The metal conductors A and B each of radius 20cm
cross section area 2cm2 is made by joining 40cm and thickness 5mm and 10mm respectively are
rod of copper to 25cm rod of Aluminium. The placed in contact as shown above. The upper
extreme ends of the bar are maintained surface of A and lower surface of B are maintained
respectively at 100o C and 0oC respectively. at temperature of 120oC and 200o C respectively.
Calculate; Calculate;
(i) The temperature of junction of two rods. (i) Temperature of interface
(ii) Rate of heat flow (ii) Rate of hard flow through A
(Thermal conductivity of copper and Aluminum An(138.9oC, 99.75 x 103w)
−1 −1
is 386 and 210 𝑊𝑚 𝐾 respectively). (Thermal conductivities of A and B are 210
An ( i ) 53.𝟓℃ (ii) 8.9745J and 130 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 respectively)
2) A concrete floor of a hall has dimensions of 10.0m 4) Ice is forming on the surface of a pond. When it
by 8.0m.It is covered with carpet of thickness is 4.6cm thick, the temperature of the surface
2.0cm.The temperature inside the hall is 22oC while of the ice in contact with air is 260K, while the
that of the surrounding just below the concrete is surface in contact with the water is at
12oC.Thermal conductivity of concrete and carpet temperature 273K. calculate the;
are 1 and 0.05 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1respectively and thickness (i) rate of heat per unit are from the water
of concrete is 10cm. Calculate (ii) Rate at which the thickness of the ice is
(i) Temperature at the interface of concrete increasing
and Carpet ( if the thermal conductivity of the ice is
(ii) The rate at which flow through the floor. 2.3 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 and specific latent heat of
o
An( 14 C , 1600W ) fusion of ice is 3.25𝑥105 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 ,
3) 𝜌 𝑜𝑓 H2 O = 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 ).
0
120 C An(6.5𝑥102 𝑊𝑚−2 , 2.0𝑥10−3 𝑚𝑚𝑠 −1)
A 5mm
B 10mm
2000C
5.1.8: Determination of thermal conductivity K

(a) Determination of thermal conductivity K of a good conductor of heat e.g copper
using searle’s method
Searle’s method is best suited for a good conductor because it achieves measurable temperature
gradient and measurable heat flow and this can be obtained by good conductor.
 A long copper bar of cross-sectional area A is used. 𝑄
=
𝐾𝐴(𝜃2 −𝜃1 )
where k is thermal conductivity
 It carries a heater at one end and copper coil 𝑡 𝑙
soldered at the other end. of copper metal
 Two thermometers are inserted in the holes  The mass m of water flowing out per second
drilled in the bar at a known separation 𝑙 through the coil is measured and recorded.
𝑄
 The holes are smeared with mercury for good 𝑡
= 𝑚𝑐(𝜃4 − 𝜃3 ) where c is specific heat
thermal contact capacity of water
 Water is allowed to flow through the copper  Therefore thermal conductivity, k of a good
coil and the heater is switched on. conductor is got from
 When the thermometers read steady 𝑀𝐶𝐿(𝜃4 −𝜃3 )
temperatures 𝜃1, 𝜃 2, 𝜃 3 and 𝜃 4 , recorded from 𝐾 = 𝐴(𝜃 −𝜃
2 1)
thermometers 𝑇1, 𝑇 2, 𝑇 3 and 𝑇 4 respectively.
(b) Determination of thermal conductivity (K) of a poor conductor e.g rubber,cork, glass
using chest or lee disk method.
For a poor conductor, the material has to be made thin so that a measurable temperature gradient
can be obtained and an adequate heat flow

steam Steam chest  The mass, m of slab B of specific heat capacity,

c is determined.
T1, T2 are thermometers 𝑄
= 𝑚𝑐𝑠
Slab A X T2 𝑡
Specimen disc  Thermal conductivity, k of the disc is got from
T1 𝑘 𝜋𝑑 2 (𝜃2 −𝜃1 )
Slab B 𝑚𝑐𝑠 = 4 𝑙
 A sample in the form of a disc of small thickness
𝑙 and diameter, D is used.
5.2: RADIATION
Thermal radiation is a means of heat flow from hot places to cold places by means of electromagnetic
waves.
Radiation emitted by a hot body is a mixture of different wavelength. The amount of radiation for a
given wavelength depends on the temperature of the body. At lower temperature, the body emits
mainly infrared and at high temperatures the body emits ultraviolet, visible in addition to infrared
5.2.2:Properties of infrared radiation(electromagnetic radiations)

 Move at a speed of light (3x108ms-1)
 It can be reflected and refracted just like light
 Cause an increase in temperature when absorbed by matter
 It can cause photo electric emission surface
 It affects special types of photographic plates and it enables pictures to be taken in dark
 It is absorbed by glass but is transmitted by rock salt and quartz
5.2.3:Detection of infrared radiations

(a) Bolometer
R1 R2  The radiation is allowed to fall on the bolometer
Rheostat Bolometer which is then absorbed and the temperature
strip
increases
Radiation
 The new resistance of the bolometer is also
 A bolometer is connected to a wheatstone measured. An increase in resistance obtained
bridge circuit and its resistance measured. detects infrared radiations
(b) Ether thermoscope

Ether vapour
Blackened glass
Clear glass tube
liquidether
(c) Thermopile
Thermopile consists of many thermocouples connected in series
Shield to prevent radiation
reaching junction B
 Radiation falling on junction A is absorbed and
Highly polished
A A- Hot junction temperature rises above that of junction B.
B B- Cold junction
Radiation
A
A B
B
mV  An 𝐸. 𝑚. 𝑓 is generated and is measured by mill
A
voltmeter connected directly to the thermopile and
deflects as a result.

5.2.4: PREVOST’S THEORY OF HEAT EXCHANGE

Its states that, when a body is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its surrounding, its rate of
emission of radiations to the surrounding is equal to its rate of absorption of radiations from the
surrounding.
It is concluded in provosts theory that a good absorber of radiation, must also be a good
emitter otherwise its temperature would rise above that of its surrounding.
5.2.5: EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE WHICH SURFACE ARE GOOD ABSORBERS AND POOR
ABSOBERS OF HEAT RADIATION
P
 A thermopile is made to face the various
finishes of the cube at equal distances and each
G
time the deflection on the galvanometer noted.

 The galvanometer deflection is greatest when
Metalic box containing hot Thermo pile fitted with
water blackened conical mouth piece
 A metal cube whose sides have a variety of the thermopile faces the dull black surface and
finishes dull black, white highly polished is used less when it is facing the highly polished surface
 The metal cube is filled with water and water is  This means that a highly polished surface is a
kept boiling at by a constant supply of heat poor radiator and the dull black surface is the
better radiator.
5.2.6: BLACK BODY RADIATION
A black body radiation is the radiation whose quality (wave length) depends only on the temperature
of the body.
Spectral curves for black body radiation
 As the temperature increases, the intensity for
intensity Locus of λmax
every wavelength increases but the intensity for
T3>T2>T1
T3
a shorter wavelength increases more rapidly
T2  At each temperature, there is a maximum
T1 intensity for a particular wavelength.
O λmax Wavelenght λ  λmax decreases as temperature increases
Wein’s displacement law

It states that the wavelength λmax, for which the radiation emitted by a black body has maximum
intensity is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the body
1
i.e λmax α 𝑇 or λmax T = constant
wein’s displacement constant = 2.9𝑥10−3 𝑚𝐾
Examples
(i) Calculate the wavelength of the radiation emitted by a black body at 15𝑥106 K
Solution
λmax T = 2.9𝑥10−3 2.9𝑥10−3 λmax = 1.93x10−10 m
λmax =
15𝑥106
 in the middle spectrum visible) and eventually to blue hot (λmax in blue region)
Why center of fire appears white

This is because temperature is highest at the center of the fire and this corresponds to the energy
intensity where all wavelength radiations are emitted. The combination of all the colours at this
temperature makes the fire appear white

Question. State black body radiation laws. (Weins displacement law and Stefan-Boltzmann’s law )
5.2.8:BLACK BODY
A black body is one which absorbs all radiations of every wavelength falling on it, reflects and
transmits none.
Examples
 Furnace  Star  Sun
5.2.9: Approximation of a black body OR realization of black body

 A small hole is punched in a tin which is
Incident radiation
blackened inside.
Small hole
 When a radiation is incident through the hole,
it undergoes multiple reflections
Rough blackened
surflace  At each reflection energy is lost due to many
reflections and all energy is lost reflections.
5.3: STEFAN’S LAW (STEFAN- BOLTZMAN’S LAW)

 It states that “the total power radiated per unit surface area of a black body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature” (PαT4)
OR
 Total energy radiated by a blackbody per unit surface area per unit time is directly
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. (EαT4)
5.3.1:Expression for power radiated by black body

From Stefan’s law
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐼.𝑉𝑡
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
= 𝜎T4 = 𝜎T4 𝑃 = 𝑆 𝜎𝑇 4
𝑆.𝑡
Examples
1) A cylinder has radius 10−2m and height 0.75𝑚𝑚. Calculate the temperature of cylinder if it is assumed
to be lamp of power 1kW. 𝝈 = 5.67𝑥10−8 𝑾𝒎−𝟐 𝒌−𝟒
Solution
𝑃 = 𝑆 𝜎𝑇 4 𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ 𝑇 = (3.74262𝑥10
1
14 )4
1000 = 5.67𝑥10−8 𝑥2𝜋𝑥10−2 𝑥0.75𝑥10−3 𝑥𝑇 4 T = 4398.435K
𝑇 4 = (3.74262𝑥1014 )
2) A cylindrical bulb filament of length 0.5𝑚 and radius 1.0𝑥 10−4 𝑚 emits light as black body. 0.4𝐴 melts
the filament when connected across 240V. Calculate;
(i) The melting point of the filament
(ii) The wave length of the radiation emitted at maximum intensity/emission at its melting point.
Solutions
i) 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝑆 𝜎𝑇 4 𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ T = 1523.648K
0.4𝑥240 = 5.67𝑥10−8 𝑥2𝜋𝑥1.0𝑥10−4 𝑥0.5𝑥𝑇 4 ii) λmax T = 2.9𝑥10−3
𝑇 4 = (5.3894𝑥1012 ) 2.9𝑥10−3
1
λmax = 1523.648
𝑇 = (5.3894𝑥1012 )4 λmax = 1.90μm

5.3.2: Expression for net power for a body in the surrounding

If a black body of surface area S is at absolute temperature 𝑇0 placed in an environment which is at
lower temperature T.
Pnet = 𝑺 𝝈𝑇04 − 𝑺 𝝈𝑇 4
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑆 𝜎(𝑇04 − 𝑇 4 ) For T0>T
Examples
1) Calculate the net loss of heat energy from space craft of surface area 25𝑚2 and temperature of
300K if the radiation that it receives form the sun is equivalent to at temperature in the space
50K. Assume that the space craft behaves as a perfect black body.
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑆 𝜎(𝑇04 − 𝑇 4 ) 𝑃 = 25𝑥5.67𝑥10−8 𝑥(𝑇04 − 𝑇 4 ) 𝑃 = 1.15𝑥104 𝑊
2) A small blackened solid copper sphere of radius 2cm is placed in evacuated enclosure those walls
are kept at 1000C. find the rate at which energy must be supplied to sphere to keep its
temperature constant at 1270C.
Solution Pnet = 4πx(2x10-2)2x5.67x10-8(4004-3734)
T0=1000C = 373𝐾, 𝑇 =1270C = 400𝐾 Pnet = 1.779𝑊
4 4) 2
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑆 𝜎(𝑇0 − 𝑇 and 𝑆 = 4 π𝑟
Note
If the body is not a black body, then the energy it emits at any temperature will be less than that
emitted by a black body of similar surface area at the same temperature. The emission equation is
modified as;
𝑃 = 𝑒𝑆 𝜎𝑇 4 where 𝑒 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑃𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑆 𝜎(𝑇04 − 𝑇 4 ) For T0>T
Emissivity (e):
is defined as the ratio of total power emitted per squared meter of a given body to that emitted per
squared meter of a black body at the same temperature as the body.
Examples
1. A 100W electric bulb has a filament which is 0.60m long and has a diameter of 8.0𝑥10−5 𝑚. estimate
the working temperature of the filament if its total emissivity is 0.70.
Solution
𝑃 = 𝑒𝑆 𝜎𝑇 4 and 𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
100 = 0.70𝑥2𝜋𝑥4𝑥10−5 𝑥0.6𝑥5.67𝑥10−8 𝑥𝑇 4
𝑇 = 2.02𝑥103 𝐾
2. The surface area of a domestic hot water radiator made of iron 2mm thick is 4𝑚2 . If the water in the
pipes is maintained at 60℃ and the temperature of the room is 20℃, calculate the quantity of heat
supplied to the room per hour. (Assume the emissivity of the radiator surface is 0.4). An(2.3𝑥1010 𝐽)
5.3.3: SOLAR POWER / SOLAR CONSTANT

A solar power is the amount of energy received from the sun per second per meter squared.
Expression for solar constant

𝑃𝑠 = 𝑆𝜎𝑇𝑠4 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑛
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
Where S is its surface area of sun (4𝜋𝑟𝑠2 )
𝑟𝑠 is The radius of the sun 𝟒𝛑𝒓𝟐𝒔 𝛔𝑇𝑠4
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑛, P𝑠 = 4𝜋𝑟𝑠2 σ𝑇𝑠4 𝟒𝛑𝑹𝟐

Examples
1) The energy intensity received by a spherical planet from star is 1.4 x103Wm-2. The star is of radius
7.0x105km and 14.0x107km from the planet. Calculate the surface temperature of star and state any
assumptions made.
Solution
Solar power = 4π𝑅
4π𝑟𝑠2 σ𝑇𝑠4 Assumption
2
2 -The star behaves as a black body
(7.0𝑥105 𝑥1000) 𝑥5.67𝑥10−8 𝑇𝑠4
1.4x10 =3 -The star is a perfect sphere
(14.0𝑥107 𝑥1000)2
-All heat exchanges are by radiation
𝑇 = 5605.976𝐾
2) The flux of solar energy incident on the earth surface is 1.36 𝑥103Wm-2. If the sun’s radius is 7.0x108m.
It’s distance from the earth is 1.52x1011m. ( speed of light=3.0𝑥108 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝜎 = 5.67𝑥10−8 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −4 ).
Calculate;
(i) temperature of the surface of the sun
(ii) total power emitted by the sun (iii) rate of loss of the mass by the sun
Solution
4π𝑟𝑠2 σ𝑇𝑠4 power = 4.06𝑥1026W
(i) Solar power = 4π𝑅 2
2 (iii) 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
(7.0𝑥108 ) 𝑥5.67𝑥10−8 𝑥𝑇𝑠4
1400 = 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑚𝑐 2
(1.52𝑥1011 )2
𝑚 4.06𝑥1026
𝑇𝑠 = 5841.3𝐾 = = 4.5𝑥109 𝑘𝑔𝑠 −1
2 4 𝑡 (3.0𝑥10 8 )2
(ii) P𝑠 =4π𝑟𝑠 σ𝑇𝑠
P𝑠 = 4𝜋𝑥(7.0𝑥108 )2 𝑥5.67𝑥10−8 (5841.3)4
5.3.4: EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SUN AND THE EARTH

The power radiated by the sun is given by Earth also behaves like a black body, then the
𝑃𝑠 = 4π𝑟𝑠2 σ𝑇𝑠4 power radiated by the earth is
Where 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑠urface temperature of sun , 𝑃𝐸 = 4π𝑟𝐸2 σ𝑇𝐸4 -------------------------- [2]
𝑟𝑠 = radius of sun 4π𝑟 2 σ𝑇 4
4π𝑟 2 σ𝑇 4 = 𝑠 𝑠 x π𝑟 2 𝐸 𝐸 4π𝑅2 𝐸
4π𝑟 2 σ𝑇 4
The solar power = 4π𝑅𝑠
2
𝑠
𝑟𝑠2 4
The power received by the earth =solar power x 𝑇𝐸4 = 𝑇
4𝑅 2 𝑠
area of earth 𝒓𝒔 𝟐
= solar power x π𝑟𝐸2 𝑻𝟒𝑬 = ( ) 𝑻𝟒𝒔
𝟐𝑹
Where rE – radius of earth
4π𝑟𝑠2 σ𝑇𝑠4
power received by the earth = 4π𝑅2
x π𝑟𝐸2 -- [1]
Examples
1) Estimate the temperature of surface of earth if its distance from the sun 1.5x1011m. Assume that the sun
is sphere of radius 7.0x108m at temperatures 6000k
Solution
4π𝑟𝑠2 σ𝑇𝑠4
Solar power = 4π𝑅 𝑟𝑠2 4
2 𝑇𝑒4 = 𝑇
2 𝑠
4π𝑟𝑠2 σ𝑇𝑠4 2
4𝑅
Power received by earth = 4π𝑅2 x π𝑟 e 2
1
(7𝑥108 ) 𝑥60004 4
Power radiated by earth= 4π𝑟𝑒2 σ𝑇𝑒4 Te= { 4(1.5𝑥1011 )2 }
at equilibrium: Power radiated =power received Te= 290𝐾
4π𝑟 2 σ𝑇 4
4π𝑟𝑒2 σ𝑇𝑒4 = 4π𝑅 𝑠 2
2 x π𝑟 e
𝑠
2) Assume that the sun is sphere of radius 7.0x108m at temperatures 6000k. Estimate the temperature of
surface of mars if its distance from the sun 2.28x1011m.
Solution

4π𝑟𝑠2 σ𝑇𝑠4 4π𝑟𝑠2 σ𝑇𝑠4

Solar power = 4π𝑅2
4π𝑟𝑚2 σ𝑇𝑚4 = 4π𝑅2
x π𝑟𝑚2
Power received by mars = 4π𝑅
4π𝑟 2 σ𝑇 4
2 𝑟𝑠2 4
2 x π𝑟 m
𝑠 𝑠
𝑇𝑚4 = 𝑇
Power radiated by mars =4π𝑟𝑚2 σ𝑇𝑚4 4𝑅 2 𝑠
1
2
At equilibrium: Power radiated =power received (7𝑥108 ) 𝑥60004 4
Tm= { 4(2.28𝑥1011 )2 } = 235.08𝐾
Exercise:49
1) The element of an electric fire, with an output of 5) A certain 200W tungsten filament lamp
1.0kW, is a cylinder 25cm long and 1.5cm in operates at a temperature of 1500℃. Assuming
diameter. Calculate its temperature when in use , that it behaves as a perfect black body
if it behaves as a blackbody. estimate the surface area of the filament An
(Stefan constant = 5.7x10-8Wm-2K-4) An(1105K) [3.56𝒄𝒎𝟐 ]
2) Estimate the surface temperature of the earth 6) Find the net rate of energy lost by radiation
assuming that it is radioactive equilibrium with form the following black bodies
the sun. (radius of sun 7.0x108m, surface (a) A sphere of radius 10cm at a temperature
temperature of sun 6000K, distance from the of 500℃ in an enclosure whose
earth to the sun 1.5x1011m, σ =5.7x10-8Wm-2K-4) An temperature is 20℃ An [2505W]
[289K] (b) A person of surface area 1.2𝑚2 at a
3) The normal operating condition of a variable- temperature of 37℃ in an enclosure whose
intensity car head lamp is 2.5A and 12V. The temperature is 0℃. Comment on your
temperature of the filament is 1750℃. The answer An [251W]
intensity is now altered so that the lamp runs at 7) A black body at 1000K emits radiation with
2.2A and 12.5V. Calculate the new operating maximum energy emitted at a wavelength of
temperature assuming that the filament behaves 25000nm. Calculate the wavelength at which
as a black body An [1706K] maximum energy is emitted by the following
4) A black body radiates heat at 2W𝑚−2 when at assuming that they all behave as black bodies
0℃. Find the rate of fall in temperate of a copper (a) A piece of iron heated in a Bunsen flame
sphere of radius 3cm when at 1000℃ in air at 0℃. to 800℃ An [3125nm]
( assume that the density of copper is (b) A star with a surface temperature of
8930𝑘𝑔𝑚 −3and its specific heat capacity is 385 7000℃ An [357nm]
Jkg-1K-1) An [4.34K𝒔−𝟏 ] (c) The plasma in a fusion reaction at 106 ℃
An [2.5pm]
5.3.6:GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

 Short wavelength radiation from the sun passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by
plants and sand leading to higher earth temperature.
 Earth re-radiates long wavelength which is trapped by green house gases. Continued
accumulation of this radiation implies higher earth temperature and with time may lead to
global warming.
5.3.7: THERMAL CONVECTION

Is a process of heat transfer through a fluid from high temperature to low temperature due to
actual movement of medium.
Heated fluid becomes less dense and is replaced by more dense fluid.
Mechanism of convection
When a fluid is heated underneath, it expands and becomes less dense than the fluid above.
The warm less dense fluid rises to the top and the cooler more dense from above moves
downwards to take its place. The circulating current of the fluid heats up the whole fluid

5.3.8:SEA BREEZE
During the day land heats faster than the sea, hot air expands and rises from the land. Cool air
from the sea blows towards the land to replace up rising air, hence sea breeze occurs
5.3.9:LAND BREEZE
At night land cools faster than the sea, the sea still retains its warmth. warm less dense air from
the sea rises and cool air from the land replaces it, hence land breeze occurs
Explain why cloudy nights are warmer than cloudless nights

During day, earth absorbs heat from sun. at night earth radiates heat into atmosphere. On cloudy
night clouds reflect heat back to the earth and it feels warm. On cloudless night radiated heat is lost to
atmosphere and earth feels colder
UNEB 2020 Q.7

(𝑏) (i) Two cylindrical bodies A and B made of the same material but the length of A is twice that of B
and the cross sectional area of B is a third that of A. If the ends of A and B are subjected to the
same temperature difference, find the ratio of the rates of heat flow through A to the rate of
heat flow through B. An (3:2) (03marks)
(ii) In the determination of thermal conductivity of copper, when water flows round the cool end of a
copper rod at a rate of 600cm3 per minute, its temperature increases by 3.3℃. The temperature at
two points, a distance 5.2cm apart, along the copper rod are 70℃ and 30℃ repectively. Find the
thermal conductivity of copper if the radius of the rod is 1.2cm. An (398.5Wm-1K-1) (04marks)
(𝒄) Describe an experiment to measure thermal conductivity of cork (07marks)
UNEB 2019 Q.5

(a) (i) State any three properties of ultraviolet radiation (03marks)
(ii) What is a black body?. (01mark)
(b) A cylindrical metal rod with a well insulated surface has one end blackened and then exposed to
thermal radiation from a body at a temperature 500K. If the equilibrium temperature of the
blackened end is 400K and the length of rod is 10m, calculate the temperature of the other end (
thermal conductivity of the metal = 500𝑊𝑚 −1 𝐾 −1 ), An(358.11K) (04marks)
(𝒅) Explain why cloudy nights are warmer than cloudless nights (04marks)
UNEB 2019 Q.7

(a) Define the following
(i) Thermal conductivity (01mark)
(ii) Specific latent heat of vaporization (01mark)
(b) A boiler with a base made of steel 15cm thick, rests on a hot stove, the area of the bottom of the boiler
is 1.5𝑥103 𝑐𝑚2 . The water inside the boiler is at 100℃. If 750g of water is eveaporated every 5
minutes, find the temperature of the surface of the boiler in contact with the stove ( thermal
conductivity of the steel = 50.2𝑊𝑚 −1 𝐾 −1 , specific latent heat of vapouriastion of water=
2.2𝑥106 𝐽𝐾𝑔 −1 ), An(212.8℃ ) (04marks)
(c) Hot water in a metal tank is kept constant at 65℃ by an immersion heater in the water. The tank
has a lagging all round it of thickness 20mm and thermal conductivity 0.04𝑊𝑚 −1 𝐾 −1 and its surface
area is 0.5𝑚 2 . The heat lost per second by the lagging is 0.8W per degree excess above the
surroundings. Calculate the power of the immersion heater if the temperature of surrounding is 15℃

An(22W) (05marks)
UNEB 2018 Q.6
(a) (i) What is meant by Conduction of heat? (01mark)
(ii) Explain why mercury conducts heat better than water. (03marks)
(iii) Explain the occurrence of land and sea breeze. (06marks)
−3
(b) A copper sphere of radius 7 cm and density 900𝑘𝑔𝑚 , is heated to a temperature of 127℃ and then
transferred to an evacuated enclosure whose walls are at a temperature of 27℃. Calculate the;
(i) Net rate of loss of heat by the coper sphere. (04marks)
(ii) Temperature of the copper sphere after 5 minutes. (04marks)
−1
An(61.122 𝐽𝑠 , 109.3℃)
(c) Explain why heating systems based on the circulation of steam are more efficient than those based on
the circulation of boiling water. (02marks)
UNEB 2018 Q.7
(a) (i) What is meant by a black body (01mark)
(ii) Give two examples of a black body. (01mark)
(b) With the aid of graphs, describe how radiation emitted by a black body varies with wavelength for
two temperatures. (05marks)
(c) (i) Define thermal conductivity. (01mark)
(ii) Describe an experiment to determine the thermal conductivity of glass. (07marks)
(d) Radiation from the sun falls normally on a blackened roof measuring 20𝑚 𝑥 50 𝑚. If half of the solar
energy is lost in passing through the earth’s atmosphere, calculate the energy incident on the roof per
minute. ( Temperature of the sun’s surface = 6000𝐾, radius of the sun= 7.5𝑥108 𝑚, distance of the
sun from the earth= 1.5𝑥1011 𝑚). (05marks)
Solution
Power radiated by sun, 𝑃 = 4π𝑟 2 σ𝑇 4 1000
𝑃 = 𝑥(7.5𝑥108 )2 x5.7𝑥10−8 𝑥60004
Power incident on sphere, 𝑃1 = 2 = 2π𝑟 σ𝑇 2 4 2(1.5𝑥1011 )2
𝐴 𝑃𝑅 = 923,400𝑊
Power received by roof, 𝑃𝑅 = 𝐴1 𝑃1 Energy incident on roof per minute, 𝑃2
2
20𝑥50 2 4 𝑃2 = 923,400𝑥60 = 5.54𝑥107 𝐽
= 𝑥2π𝑟 σ𝑇
4π𝑅 2
UNEB 2017 Q.7
(a) (i) Define thermal conductivity (01mark)
(ii) Explain the mechanism of heat transfer by convection. (03marks)
(b) (i) State Newton’s law of cooling. (01marks)
(ii) Describe briefly an experiment to verify Newton’s law of cooling. (05marks)
(c) A wall is constructed with two types of bricks. The temperature of inner and outer surfaces of the wall are 29℃ and
21℃ respectively . The value of the thermal conductivity for the inner brick is 0.4Wm-1K-1 and that of the outer
brick is 0.8Wm-1K-1
(i) Explain why in steady state, the rate of thermal energy transfer must be the same in both layers
(02marks)
(ii) Calculate the temperature at the interface between the layers, if each layer is 12.0cm thick
An(23.7℃) (04marks)
(d) Explain the green house effect and how it leads to rise of the earth temperature. (04marks)

SECTIONC: MODERN PHYSICS

CHAPTER 1: ATOMIC STRUCTURE
An atom is a neutral particle made of central positive charge ( nucleus) with negative charges ( electrons ) orbiting
around it.
1.1: RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF THE ATOM

Rutherford’s model states: that the positive charge of the atom and nearly all its mass is concentrated in a very
small volume at the centre with electrons in motion in a circular orbit around the nucleus.
RUTHERFORD’S ALPHA PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

Flouescent screen
observed from a fluorescent screen mounted on a
focal plane of a microscope.
P microscope
N
S A
α-particle  Alpha particles produce tiny, but a visible flash of
Evacuated tube
Gold foil
light when they strike a fluorescent screen.
 Alpha particles from a radioactive source were  Surprisingly, alpha particles not only struck the screen
allowed to strike a thin gold foil placed in the centre at A but also at N and some were even found to be
of an evacuated vessel and the scattering of alpha back scattered to P.
particles when they collide with the gold foil was  The greatest flash was observed at position A.
OBSERVATIONS
 Most of the alpha particle went through the gold foil un deflected . This is because the atom of the foil
contains very tiny nuclei and most of the space of an atom is an empty space.
 Few alpha particles were scattered through small angles. This is because of the positive charge (nucleus)
that strongly repelled the alpha particles
 Very few alpha particles were scattered through angles greater than 𝟗𝟎°. This is because positive charge
(nucleus) occupies a very small volume of the atom, making the chance of head on collision very small
Failure of Rutherford’s model of the atom

(1) An orbiting electron is constantly changing it’s direction and therefore has an acceleration. In classical physics
charges undergoing acceleration emit electromagnetic radiation continuously and therefore they would
loose energy. This implies that the electron would spiral towards the nucleus and the atom would collapse
and cease to exist within a short time, yet the atom is a stable structure. Therefore Rutherford’s model can
not explain the stability of the atom.
(2) Since electrons are continuously accelerating around the nucleus, continuous emission spectra should be
emitted by the atom. However experimental observations reveal that it is atomic like spectra which occur.
RUTHERFORD’S 𝜶 −PARTICLE SCATTERING FORMULA

Q2 = Ze
where v is speed before collision
α-particle (2𝑒)(𝑍𝑒)
nucleus 𝑄1𝑄2
Q1 = 2e Electrostatic potential energy= 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟
= 4𝜋𝜀 𝑏
𝑜 0 𝑂
bO 1 (2𝑒)(𝑍𝑒)
At closest distance of approach 𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑏𝑂
Charge on 𝛼 −particle= 2𝑒
𝒁𝒆𝟐 𝒁𝒆𝟐
Charge on gold nucleus= 𝑍𝑒 𝒃𝟎 = OR 𝐊. 𝐞 =
𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑣 2 2𝜋𝜀0 𝐛𝐨
𝑏0 is distance of closest approach
1
Kinetic energy of alpha particle= 2 𝑚𝑣 2
1.2: BOHR’S THEORY OF HYDROGEN ATOM

𝐀 𝐛𝐨𝐡𝐫 atom is one with a small central positive nucleus with electrons revolving around it in only certain allowed
circular orbits and while in these orbits they do not emit radiations.

POSTULATES OR ASSUMPTIONS OF BOHR

(1) Electrons revolve in only allowed orbits and while in these orbits they do not emit radiations
𝒉
(2) In allowed orbits, the angular momentum is an electron is an integral a multiple of 𝟐𝝅where 𝒉 is Planck’s
𝑛ℎ
constant.(𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋 )
(3) When an electron makes a transition between orbits, electromagnetic radiation of definite energy is
emitted (ℎ𝑓 = 𝐸 4 – 𝐸2 )
𝒉
(4) In allowed orbits where the angular momentum is a multiple of the energy is constant
𝟐𝝅
Expression for total energy of an electron

Momentum(mv)
Multiplying both sides of equation (1) by ½
1 𝑒2
2
𝑚𝑣 2 = 8л𝜀0 r
r 𝑒2
e+
F =Mv2
¯r
𝑘. 𝑒 = 8л𝜀0 r
nucleus 𝑒
Also 𝑝. 𝑒 = 𝑥 −𝑒
4л𝜀0 r
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑒2 Total energy 𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝑒 + 𝑃. 𝑒
From circular motion: Force on electron 𝑟
= 4л𝜀0 r2 𝑒2 𝑒 −𝑒 2
2 𝑒2 E= 8л𝜀 r + 𝑥 −𝑒 = … … … … … .3
𝑚𝑣 = 4л𝜀0 r
… … … … … … … . .1 0 4л𝜀0 r 8л𝜀0 r
−𝑒 2
Multiplying both sides of equation (1) by 𝑚𝑟 2 Putting value of r in equation (3): 𝐸 = 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
8л𝜀o( )
лm𝑒2
𝑒2
(𝑚𝑣𝑟)2 = ( ) 𝑚𝑟 2 −𝑒 4 𝑚
4л𝜀0 r 𝐸= 8n2 h2 𝜀0 2
𝑛ℎ
From Bohr’s assumption: 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 2𝜋 Where n is quantum number
𝑛ℎ 2
𝑚𝑟𝑒 2 h is Planck constant
( ) = ( ) 𝜀𝑂 permittivity of free space
2𝜋 4л𝜀0
M is mass of the electron
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀o
𝑟= … … … … … … … .2 e is charge of electron
лm𝑒 2
1.3: HYDROGEN SPECTRUM

When an electron in an atom falls from one of the upper energy levels to one lower, energy is emitted in
form of radiations.
The bigger the energy difference, the greater will be the energy of the emitted radiation. The frequency f of
the emitted radiation is given by
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
Where E- energy difference and h- plancks constant
A diagram of the energy levels in the hydrogen spectrum is shown below
0 = level unless it absorbs energy. Ground state is
n=5
-0.54
-0.85 n=4 also the lowest energy state for the atom.
-1.51 n=3  When the atom absorbs energy is some way, the
-3.39 n=2 electron may be promoted into one of the higher
Energy in eV
-13.6 n=1 energy levels, the atom becomes unstable and it is
−13.6 𝑒𝑉 said to be in Excited state.
Energy 𝐸 = 𝑛2 where 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … ∞  The top level with n = ∞ is the ionization state. An
 The lowest level with n = 1 is called the ground electron raised to this level will be removed from the
state. The electron will always occupy this lowest atom.

HYDROGEN SPECTRAL SERIES

The spectrum of hydrogen contains distinct groups of lines known as spectral series.
n=
the spectrum. This is the lyman series (ultra violet
n=5
n=4 region).
n=3
Paschen series  The series ending on 𝑛 = 2 lies mostly in the visible
Balmer series
n=2 region of the spectrum and is called Balmer series
(visible spectrum)
Lyman series n=1  The series ending on 𝑛 = 3 lies mostly in the infra red
region of the spectrum and is called Paschen series
 The series ending on 𝑛 = 1 shows the largest energy (infra red region)
transitions and gives lines in the ultra violet region of
1.4: Ionisation and Excitation potential

(1) Ionization energy of an atom is the minimum amount of energy required to remove it’s most loosely
bound electron when the atom is in it’s gaseous state.
(2) Excitation energy of an atom is the energy required to raise an electron is in it’s ground state to higher
energy level.
Note: If the energy absorbed is more than that for ionization then the rest appears as kinetic energy of the
electrons from which it’s velocity can be calculated.
Examples
1.
n=
n=6 -0.38
n=5 -0.54
n=4 -0.85
n=3 -1.51
n=2 -3.39
n=1 -13.6eV
Calculate the frequency and wavelength of radiations resulting from the following transitions
a) 𝑛 = 4 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 = 2 b) 𝑛 = 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 = 1
In which region of the electromatic spectrum does each transition lie
Solution
(a) hf = E4 – E2 ℎ𝑓 = −3.39 − −13.6 = 10.21𝑒𝑉
ℎ𝑓 = −0.85 − −3.39 = 2.54𝑒𝑉 10.21𝑥 1.6 x 10−19
𝑓 = 6.6𝑥10−34
= 2.48 𝑥 1015 𝐻𝑧
2.54𝑥 1.6 x 10−19
𝑓 = 6.6𝑥10−34
= 6.16 𝑥 1014 𝐻𝑧 𝐶 3𝑥108
3𝑥108
𝜆 = = = 1.21 𝑥 10−7 𝑚
𝜆 = =
𝐶
= 4.87 𝑥 10−7 𝑚 𝑓 2.48𝑥1015
𝑓 6.16𝑥1014
Vsible spectrum
Ultraviolet region
(b) ℎ𝑓 = E2 – E1
Exercise: 51
1. The ionization potential of the hydrogen atom is (b) The minimum wavelength which the
13.6V. Use the data below to calculate hydrogen atom can emit
(a) The speed of an electron which could just
ionize the hydrogen atom.
(charge on an electron = 1.6 𝑥 10−19 C, ℎ = principal quantum number n associated with each
6.63𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠, m = 9.11𝑥10−31kg, c = 3𝑥108 𝑚𝑠 −1) level and the corresponding values of the energy.
An (2.19 x 106ms-1, 9.14 x 10-8m)
n Energy in eV
5 -0.54
4 -0.85
2. Some of the energy levels of the hydrogen atom are 3 -1.51

A
2 -3.39
shown (not to scale) in the diagram. 1 Ground state -13.6
(i) Why are the energies quoted with negative values

Energy in eV 0.00
-0.54
-0.85
(ii) Calculate the wavelength of the line arising from

-1.51
-3.39
-13.58 Ground state

the transition A, indicating in which region of the
(a) Why are the energy levels labeled with negative electromagnetic spectrum this occurs.
energies (iii) What happens when 13.6eV of energy is absorbed
(b) State which transition will result in the emission of by a hydrogen atom in it’s ground state. An
radiation of wavelength 487nm. Justify your -7
(6.6 x 10 m)
answer by calculation.
4. Calculate the energy released and the wavelength of
(c) What is likely to happen to a beam of photons of
the emitted radiation when an electron falls from
energy (i) 12.07eV (ii) 5.25eV when passed
level 𝑛 = 3 (−1.51𝑒𝑉) to 𝑛 = 2 (−3.41𝑒𝑉)
through a vapour of atomic hydrogen
An (3.0 x 10-19J, 660nm)
3. The diagram below represents the lowest energy
levels of the electron in the hydrogen atom, giving the
1.5: TYPES OF SPECTRA

Spectra are of two types;
 Emission spectra
This is a spectrum in which light is given out by a source.
 Absorption spectra
This is a spectrum in which light from a source is absorbed when it passes through another material
usually a gas or a liquid.
1.6: X-RAYS
These are electromagnetic radiations of very high frequency (short wavelength) produced when cathode rays
strike a metal target.
X-RAY TUBE [PRODUCITON OF X-RAY]
-  The cathode is heated with low voltage and
EHT
Tungsten
electrons are emitted thermionically.
Low
Vacuum
target  Electrons are accelerated by a high p.d towards the
supply anode.
Lead shield  On striking the target, a small percentage of the
Cooling
cathode
Heated X-rays Copper
fins electron energy is converted to X-rays
anode
fillament
 The anode is cooled by the cooling fins.
Explanation of the uses

(i) Used to detect fractures in bones
X-rays are directed to part of the body with a suspected bone fracture, the shadow of the bone is
formed on a photographic film placed on the opposite side of the body
(ii) Used to destroy cancer cell
X-rays are directed to part of the body with a suspected cancer cells, the cells are then destroyed
Explanation of 𝝀𝒎𝒊𝒏

At cut off wavelength, 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 . Electrons from the cathode strike the target and lose all their kinetic energy in
a single encounter with the target atoms. This results in the production of the most energetic x-ray photons
of maximum frequency and corresponding, 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 called cut off wavelength.
From 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑣 𝐶
ℎ = 𝑒𝑣
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛
Examples
1. An x-ray tube operates at 30kV and current through it is 2mA. Calculate
(i) The electrical power input (iii) The speed of electrons when they hit the target
(ii) Number of electrons striking the target (iv) The lower wavelength limit of x-rays emitted
per second
[h= 6.6𝑥10−34Js, e= 1.6𝑥10−19C, C= 3𝑥108 𝑚𝑠 −1 , m= 9.1𝑥10−31 kg]
Solution
(i) Power input = 𝐼𝑉 = 2𝑥10−3 𝑥30𝑥103 =60Js-1 2𝑒𝑉 2𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥30𝑥103
(ii) 𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒 (iii) 𝑢 = √ =√ = 1.03𝑥108 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑚 9.1𝑥10−31
2𝑥10−3 ℎ𝐶 6.6𝑥10−34 𝑥3𝑥108
n= = 1.25𝑥1016 electrons per second (iv) 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥30𝑥103 = 4.13𝑥10−11 𝑚
1.6𝑥10−19
2. The 𝑝. 𝑑 between the target and cathode of an x-ray tube is 50kV and current in the tube is 20mA. If only 1% of
the total energy is emitted as x-rays.
(i) What is the maximum frequency of the emitted radiations
(ii) At what rate must heat be removed from the target in order to keep it a steady temperature.
Solution
i) ℎ𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉 For a steady temp the rate at which heat is supplied
−19
1.6𝑥10 𝑥50𝑥10 8 equals to rate at which heat is removed
19
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 1.21𝑥10 𝐻𝑧 Rate at which heat is supplied to the target 99% of IV
6.6𝑥10−34
ii) 1% of power produces x-ray, therefore 99 99
= 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑉 = 𝑥20𝑥10−3 𝑥50𝑥103 = 990𝐽𝑠 −1
99% of power produces heat 100 100
1.8: X-RAY DIFFRACTION
When a parallel beam of monochromatic x-rays is incident on a crystal of interplanar separation of the same order
as to the wavelength of x-rays, they are reflected from successive atomic planes, superimpose and an interference
pattern is formed.
Constructive interference occurs when the path difference between x-rays scattered by successive planes is an
integral multiple of the wavelength
CONDITION FOR X-RAY DIFRACTION TO OCCUR

 Wave length of x-rays must be of the same order as the interplanar spacing.
 Parallel beam of x-rays must be incident on planes
BRAGG’S LAW FOR X-RAY DIFFRACTION

Braggs law states that for constructive interference of diffracted x-rays to occur, the path difference is an integral
multiple of the wavelength of x-rays. OR
It states that 2𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 where d is interatomic spacing, 𝜃 is glancing angle, 𝜆 is x-ray wavelength and n is order
of diffraction
DERIVATION OF BRAGG’S LAW FOR X-RAY DIFFRACTION
When x-rays are directed to a crystal each atomic plane of a crystal behaves like a reflecting surface.
Where n is an integer and λ is wavelength the x-rays.
P θ
D
θ ∴ 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑛𝜆
A C
d 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Q
B 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
 Constructive interference occurs when the 𝟐𝒅𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒏𝝀
path difference is nλ

CHAPTER 2: PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION

It’s defined as a process by which electrons are released from a clean metal surface when irradiated by
electromagnetic radiations (light) of high enough frequency (energy).
The electrons emitted this way are called photo electrons.
A photon: Is a packet of energy carried by electromagnetic radiations
MECHANISM OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION

The radiation falling on the metal surface is absorbed by the electrons and becomes internal energy which is
sufficient to enable them overcome the inward attraction for the electrons to get loose and fly off the metal surface.
2.1.0:EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT

Ultra violet
radiations
Zinc  When ultraviolet radiations are directed on to the
plate, the leaf is seen to collapse gradually.
Gold leaf electroscope
 This is because the plate and the cap lost charges
(electrons). So the magnitude of the negative charge
 A cleaned zinc plate is placed on a cap of a at the leaf and gold plate decreases thereby
negatively charged gold leaf electroscope. decreasing the divergence of the leaf gradually.
2.1.1:LAWS/RESULTS/OBSERVATIONS OF PHOTO ELECTRIC EMISSION

 For any given metal surface there is a minimum frequency of radiation called threshold frequency
below which no photo electrons are emitted.
 The kinetic energies of photo electrons ranges from zero to maximum and the maximum K.E is
proportional to the frequency of the incident radiation.
 The number of photo electrons emitted per second (photo current) is directly proportional to the
intensity of incident radiation for a given frequency.
 There is no detectable time lag between irradiation of a metal surface and emission of electrons by
the surface.
Terms used
Work function of metal (W0): It is the minimum energy that is needed to just remove an electron from the metal
surface
Threshold frequency (f0): It is the minimum frequency of the incident radiation below which no electron emission
takes place from a metal surface
Stopping potential (Vs): It is the minimum potential which reduces the photo current to zero.
Examples
1. Work function of potassium is 2.25eV. Light having wavelength of 360nm falls on the metal. Calculate;
(i) Stopping potential
(ii) The speed of the most energetic electron emitted
[ℎ = 6.60𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠, 𝑐 = 3𝑥108 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑒 = 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶]
Solution 6.6𝑥10−34 𝑥3𝑥108
−2.25𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
360𝑥10−9
−19
W0= 2.25𝑒𝑉 = 2.25𝑥1.6𝑥10 J, λ = 360𝑥10 𝑚 −9 𝑉𝑆 = 1.6𝑥10−19
= 1.188𝑉
𝐶 2
∴ ½ m𝑣max = eVs
ℎ − 𝑊0
𝑉𝑠 = 𝜆 2𝑒𝑉𝑠 2𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥1.88
𝑒 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 =√ 𝑚 = √ 9.1𝑥10−31 = 6.46𝑥105 𝑚𝑠 −1
2. If a surface has a work function of 3.0eV
(a) Find the longest wave length of light which will cause the emission of photo electrons on it.

(b) What is the maximum velocity of the photo electrons liberated from the surface having a work
function of 4.0eV by ultraviolet radiations of wave length 0.2μm.
2.1.3: An experiment to measure stopping potential

Incident  The beam of radiation is passed through a colour
radiation Photo cell
filter on to the cathode.
Colour filter
A C  The ammeter gives the photocurrent due to
emitted electrons
Potential divider V  The applied p.d is increased negatively until the
for varying P.d ammeter register zero reading.
 The 𝑝. 𝑑 (𝑉𝑠 ) for which the photocurrent is zero is
recorded from the voltmeter
 The cathode C is made positive with respect to the
 This p.d 𝑉𝑠 is known as the stopping potential
anode by the potential divider.
2.1.4: An experiment to verify Einstein’s equation or determine planck’s constant

Incident
radiation Photo cell
Colour filter
A C
Potential divider V
for varying P.d
UNEB 2019 Q.9

(𝑐) (i) An electron of charge –e and mass m moves in a circular orbit round a central hydrogen nucleus of
charge +e. Derive an expression for the total energy of the electron in a n orbit of radius r. (05marks)
(ii) Why is the enrygy always negative?. (01mark)
(𝑑) (i) What is meant by excitation potential of an atom? (01mark)
(ii) Some of the energy levels in the mercury spectrum are shown below
A 0
B -5.5eV
C -10.4eV
Calculate the wavelength of the radiation emitted when electron makes a transition from level A to level C
An(1.19𝑥10−7 𝑚) (03marks)
UNEB 2018 Q.9
(a) (i) State the differences between X-rays and cathode rays. (03marks)
(ii) Describe using a labelled diagram, the mode of operation of an X-ray tube. (06marks)
(i) What is the difference between soft and hard X-rays. (01mark)
(b) (i) What is the main distinction between work function and ionisation energy (02marks)
(ii) An electron of charge, e, enters at right angles into a uniform magnetic field of flux density B and rotates at
𝐵𝑒
a frequency , f, in a circle of radius, r. Show that the frequency, f, is given by 𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑚 (03marks)
(c) An x-ay beam is produced when electrons are accelerated through 50 𝑘𝑉 are stopped by the target of an x-ray
tube. When the beam falls on a set of parallel atomic planes of a certain metal at a glancing angle of 16° , a
first order diffraction maximum occurs. Calculate the atomic spacing of the planes. (05marks)
An( 4.5𝑥10−11 𝑚)

UNEB 2017 Q.9

(a) What are X-rays? (01mark)
(b) (i) With the aid of a diagram explain how X-rays are produced in an x-ray tube (05marks)
(ii) State the energy changes that take place in the production of X-rays in an X-ray tube (02marks)
(c) In an X-ray tube, the electron strike the target with a velocity of 3.75𝑥107 𝑚/𝑠 after travelling a distance of
5.0cm from the cathode. If a current of 10mA flows through the tube, find the
(i) Tube voltage An(4003V) (02marks)
16
(ii) Number of electrons striking the target per second An( 6.25𝑥10 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠) (02marks)
(iii) Number of electrons within a space of 1cm length between the anode and the cathode. (05marks)
An( 3.3𝑥107 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠)
(d) Briefly explain one medical application of X-rays (03marks)
UNEB 2017 Q.10

(a) State Bohr’s postulates of the atom (03 marks)
(b) Explain the occurrence of the emission and absorption line spectra (06 marks)
(c) Explain the main observations in Rutherfordd’s 𝛼 −particle scattering experiment. (06 marks)
(d) A beam of alpha particles of energy 3.5 MeV is incident normal to a gold foil.
(i) Calculate the least distance of approach to the nucleus of the gold atom given its atomic number is 79.
An( 6.5𝑥10−14 𝑚) (04marks)
(ii) State the significance of the value of the least distance of approach (01 marks)
UNEB 2016 Q.8

(c) (i) Explain briefly diffraction of X-rays by a crystal and derive Bragg’s law. (06marks)
(ii) A second order diffraction image is obtained by reflection of X-rays at atomic planes of a crystal for a
glancing angle of 11°24′ . Calculate the atomic spacing of the planes if the the wavelenght of X-rays is
4.0𝑥10−11 𝑚. An (2.02𝑥10−10 𝑚) (06marks)
UNEB 2016 Q.9

(a) State Bohr’s model of an atom (02 marks)
(b) An electron of mass, m and charge, -e, is considered to move in circular orbit about a proton
(i) Write down the expression for the force on the electron. (02marks)
(ii) Derive an expression for the total energy of the electron given the angular momentum of the
𝑛ℎ
electron is equal to 2𝜋 where n is an integer and h is plancks constant. (06 marks)
(c) With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe the operation of the diffusion cloud chamber. (06 marks)
(d) The energy levels of an atom have values
E1 = - 21.4 eV
E2 = - 4.87 eV
E3 = - 2.77 eV
E4 = - 0.81 eV
Eȸ = - 0.00 eV
(iii) Calculate the wavelength of the radiation emitted when an electron makes a transition from 𝐸3
and 𝐸2 An(𝟓. 𝟖𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎. ) (03 marks)
(iv) State the region of the electromagnetic spectrum where the radiation lies. (01 marks)
UNEB 2015 Q.9

(a) (i) State the laws of photoelectric emission (04 marks)
(ii) Explain briefly one application of photoelectric effect (04marks)

(b) In a photoelectric set up, a point source of light of power 3. 2𝑥10−3 𝑊 emits mono-energetic photons of
energy 5.0eV. The source is located at a distance of 8.0m from the center of a stationary metallic sphere of
work function 3.0eV and of radius 8. 0𝑥10−3 𝑚. The efficiency of photoelectron emission is one in every
106 incident photons. Calculate the ,
(i) Number of photoelectrons emitted per second (04 marks)
(ii) Maximum kinetic energy in joules, of the photo electrons (02 marks)
(c) (i) State Braggs law of X-ray diffraction (01 marks)
𝑀𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃
(ii) Show that density 𝜌, of a crystal can be given by 𝜌 = 125 𝑁 3
𝐴 (𝑛𝜆)
where 𝜃 is the glancing angle, n is the order of diffraction, 𝜆is the x-ray wavelength and M is molecular
weight of the crystal (05 marks)
Solution
3.2𝑥10−3
(b) (i) Number of photons emitted per second by the lamp= 5x1.6𝑥10−19 = 4.0𝑥1015
2
4.0𝑥1015 𝑥 𝜋𝑥 (8.0𝑥10−3 )
Number of photons incident per second on the sphere= 4πx(0.8)2
= 1.0𝑥1011
1.0𝑥1011
Number of electrons emitted per second = 106
= 1.0𝑥105
(iii) Max k.e = 5 − 3 = 2𝑒𝑉
= 2x1.6𝑥10−19 = 3.2𝑥10−19 𝐽
UNEB 2014 Q.8

(a) State Rutherford’s model of the atom (02marks)
(b) Explain how Bohr’s model of the atom addresses the two main failures of Rutherford’s model
UNEB 2014 Q.9

(a) What is photo electric emission (01marks)
(b) (i) Describe a simple experiment to demonstrate photo electric effect (04marks)
(iv) When a clean surface of metal in a vacuum is irradiated with light of wavelength 5.5𝑥10−7 𝑚,
electrons just emerge from the surface. However when light of wavelength 5.0𝑥10−7 𝑚 is incident on
the metal surface, elections are emitted each with energy3.62𝑥10−20 𝐽. Find the value 0f Planck’s
constant An(6.64x10-34Js-1) (04marks)
(c) (i) With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe an X-ray tube and how X-rays are produced (05marks)
(ii) Describe how the intensity and quality of X-rays is controlled in an X-ray tube. (02marks)
(d) An X-ray tube operated at 𝟏. 𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑽 and the current through it is 𝟏. 𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑨. Find the,
(i) Number of electrons crossing the tube per second. An(6.25x1015s-1) (02marks)
-22
(ii) Kinetic energy gained by electrons travelling the tube. An(2.4x10 J) (02marks)
UNEB 2013 Q.9
(a) Figure shows some of the energy levels of a hydrogen atom
Principal quantum Energy, eV
6 number, n -0.38
5 -0.54
4 -0.85
3 -1.51
2 -3.39
1 -13.60
(i) Why are the energies for the different levels negative (01marks)
(ii) Calculate the wavelength of the line arising from a transition from the third to the second energy level
An (6.6 x 10-7m) (03marks)
(iii) Calculate the ionization energy in joules of hydrogen An (2.176𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟖 𝑱) (02marks)
(b) Explain the physical process in an X-ray tube that accounts for
(i) Cut off wavelength (03marks)

(ii) Characteristic line (04marks)

(c) Calculate the maximum frequency of radiation emitted by an X-ray tube using an accelerating voltage of
33.0kV An (8𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖 𝑯𝒛) (03marks)
(d) Derive Bragg’s law of X-ray diffraction in crystal (04marks)
UNEB 2013 Q.10

(a) A beam of 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 directed normally to a thin metal foil. Explain why
(i) Most of the 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 passed straight through the foil (02marks)
(ii) Few 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 are deflected through angles more than 90° (02marks)
(b) Calculate the least distance of approach of a 𝟑. 𝟓𝑴𝒆𝑽 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 to the nucleus of a gold atom
(atomic number of gold = 79) An(6.495𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝒎) (04marks)
UNEB 2011 Q.9

a) (i) Explain how X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube
(ii) Explain the emission of X-ray characteristic spectra (03marks)
(iii) Derive the Bragg X-ray diffraction equation (04marks)
(iv) Under what conditions does X-ray diffraction occur (02marks)
UNEB 2010 Q.10

(e) (i) show that when an alpha particle collides head on with an atom of atomic number. The
𝒁𝒆𝟐
closest distance of approach to the nucleus, 𝒁𝟎 is given by 𝒁𝟎 = 𝜋𝜀0 𝑚𝑣 2
Where e is the electronic charge 𝜺𝟎 is the permittivity of free space, m is the mass of the alpha particle and V
is the initial speed of the alpha particle (04marks)
UNEB 2009 Q.10

(a) (i) Explain the observations made in the Rutherford’s alpha particle scattering experiment
(06marks)
(ii) Why is a vacuum necessary in this experiment (01mark)
(b) Distinguish between excitation and ionization energies of an atom (02marks)
(c) Draw a labeled diagram showing the main components of an X- ray tube. (03marks)
(d) An X-ray tube is operated at 50kV and 20mA. If 1% of the total energy supplied is emitted as X-radiation,
calculate the;
(i) Maximum frequency of the emitted radiation (3mk)
(ii) Rate at which heat must be removed from the target in order to keep it at a steady temperature
(03marks)
(e) A beam of X-rays of wavelength 0.20nm is incident on a crystal at a glancing angle of 30o. If the inter
planar separation is 0.20nm, find the order of diffraction.
(An (1.21 x 1019Hz, 990W, n = 1 (first order diffraction))
UNEB 2008 Q.8
(a) What is meant by a line spectrum (02marks)
(b) Explain how line spectra accounts for the existence of discrete energy level in atoms (4mk)
(d) Describe with aid of a labeled diagram, the action of an X-ray tube
(e) An X-ray tube is operated at 20kV with an electron current of 16mA in the tube estimate the;
(i) Number of electrons hitting the target per second (02marks)
(ii) Rate of production of heat, assuming 99.5% of the kinetic energy of electrons is converted to heat (e
= 1.6 x 10-19C) An (1.0 x 1017 electron per second, 318.4W) 02mks)

CHAPTER 3: NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

The nucleus is the central positively charged part of an atom.
Nuclei contain protons and neutrons which are collectively referred to as nucleons (nuclear number).
3.1.0: ATOMIC NUMBER Z, MASS NUMBER A AND ISOTOPES

Atomic number Z of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of the element.
Mass number A of an atom is the number of nucleons in its nucleus.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Isotopes of an element whose chemical symbol is represented by 𝑿 can be distinguished by using the symbol
𝑨
𝒁𝑿
3.1.1: EINSTEIN’S MASS – ENERGY RELATION

Einstein showed from his theory of relativity that mass (m) and energy (E) can be changed from one form to
another.
The energy ∆E produced by a change of mass ∆M is given by the relation.
∆𝐄 = ∆𝑴𝑪𝟐
8 −1
Where C is the speed of light (𝐶 = 3 𝑥 10 𝑚𝑠 )
3.1.2: UNIFIED ATOMIC MASS UNIT [u]

It is defined as 1⁄12 of the mass of carbon−12 atom.
mass=
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 1𝑢 = 1.494 𝑥 10−10 𝐽
𝑁𝐴
1𝑥12 𝑥 10 −3 1𝑒𝑉 = 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐽
mass = 6.02𝑥1023 = 1.993𝑥10−26 1.494 𝑥 10−10
1𝑢 = 𝑒𝑉
1unified atomic mass = 1⁄12 𝑥 1.993𝑥10−26 1.6𝑥10−19
= 933.75 𝑥 106 𝑒𝑉
1𝑢 = 1.66 𝑥 10−27 𝑘𝑔
1𝑢 = 931𝑀𝑒𝑉
From Einstein’s mass – energy relation: ∆𝐸 = 𝑀𝐶 2
1𝑢 = 1.66𝑥 10−27 𝑥 (3 𝑥 108 )2
3.1.3: MASS DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY

a) MASS DEFECT
It is defined as the mass equivalence of the energy required to split the nucleus into its constituent particles.
OR
It is the difference in the mass of the constituent nucleons and the nucleus of an atom.
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 = (𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒐𝒏𝒔) − (𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎)
b) BINDING ENERGY (B.E)

 Binding energy of the nucleus is the energy required to break up the nucleus into it’s constituent nucleons
 Bind energy per nucleon is the ratio of the energy needed to split a nucleus into it’s constituent nucleons to
the mass number.
𝑩𝑬
𝐁. 𝐄 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐧𝐮𝐜𝐥𝐞𝐨𝐧 =
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫
Examples
1. Given atomic mass of 𝟐𝟑𝟖
𝟗𝟐𝑼 = 238.05076𝑢
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 1.00867𝑢, 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1.00728𝑢 and 1𝑢 = 931𝑀𝑒𝑉

Find; a) mass defect b) B.E per nucleon for 𝟐𝟑𝟖

𝟗𝟐𝑼
Solution
∆𝑚 =(mass nucleons)–(mass of nucleus) b) B.E per nucleon =
𝑩𝑬
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫
number of protons = 92
B.E = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑥 931𝑀𝑒𝑉
number of neutrons = (238 – 92) = 146
= 1.88482 𝑥 931 = 1754.77𝑀𝑒𝑉
∆𝑚 = (146 𝑥 1.00867 + 92 𝑥 1.00728) − (238.05076) 1754.77
= 239.93558 − 238.05076 B.E per nucleon = 238
= 7.373𝑀𝑒𝑉
∆𝑚 = 1.88482𝑢
EXERCISE 55
1. Given the mass of the nucleus of the isotope 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 1.008665𝑢
𝟕
𝟑𝑳𝒊 = 7.014351𝑢 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1.007275𝑢
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 1.008665𝑢 1𝑢 = 931𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1.007275𝑢 Find the binding energy per nucleon.
1𝑢 = 931𝑀𝑒𝑉 An(7.97MeV)
Find the binding energy per nucleon.
An(5.586MeV)
2. Given the mass of the nucleus of the isotope
𝟏𝟔
𝟖𝑶 = 15.994915𝑢
3.1.4: VARIATION OF B.E PER NUCLEON WITH MASS NUMBER

 Binding energy per nucleon for very small and large
nuclides is small.
B.E per nucleon  A few peaks for low mass numbers are for lighter
nuclei that are comparatively stable.
Fusion fission
 The binding energy per nucleon increases sharply to
a maximum at mass number 56
0
Mass number A
 For A> 56 binding energy per nucleon gradually
56
decreases
3.1.5: Explanation of fusion and fission using the graph
 During nuclear fusion two light nuclei unite to form a heavier nucleus of a smaller mass but a higher
binding energy per nucleon. The mass difference is accounted for by the energy released.
 During Nuclear fission, a heavy nucleus splits to form two lighter nuclei of smaller masses but a higher
binding energy per nucleon. The mass difference is accounted for by the energy released
3.2.0: RADIO-ACTIVITY (RADIOACTIVE DECAY)

Radioactivity is the random and spontaneous disintegration of a radioactive atom into more stable nuclei with
emission of radiations.
Note:
(i) Heavy nuclides are generally unstable if there are too many neutrons or too many protons. This is
because too many protons increases electrostatic repulsion between themselves. This force may not be
counter balanced by the nuclear force. Hence nucleus becomes unstable
(ii) Radioactive decay is random because it is impossible to predict which particular nucleus will decay next
and radioactive decay is spontaneous because you cannot influence the rate of decay by physical and
chemical change.
RADIOACTIVE –ISOTOPES
Are radioactive atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass numbers

USES OF RADIOACTIVITY(radio-active isotopes)

 Treatment of cancer
 Used in carbon dating
 Detection of leaks in pipes
 Production of energy in nuclear reactors
 Measurement of thickness of metal sheet during manufacture
 In automobile industry to test the quality of steel in manufacture of cars
 Tracers to investigate flow of fluids in chemical plants
 In construction to gauge the density of the road surface
3.2.1: ENERGY OF DISINTEGRATION (Q-value)

If the total mass of reactant is greater than the total mass of products then the reaction is exothermic
otherwise its endothermic
Examples
206 4
2. Consider the equation 82𝑃𝑏 + 𝑄 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 202
80𝐻𝑔
Atomic mass of 𝐻𝑔 = 201.971𝑢
Atomic mass of 𝐻𝑒 = 4.003𝑢
Atomic mass of P𝑏 = 205.969𝑢
Calculate i) Q –value ii) kinetic energy of the 𝛼-particle
Solution
i) 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 931𝑀𝑒𝑉 𝑀
ii) 𝐾. 𝑒𝛼 = 𝑀+𝑚𝛼
𝑄
𝑄 = ((201.971 + 4.003) – 205.969) 𝑥 931𝑀𝑒𝑉 202
Q-value = 4.66𝑀𝑒𝑉 𝐾. 𝑒𝛼 = (202+4) 4.66 = 4.57𝑀𝑒𝑉
EXERCISE 55
1. 210 206 210
84𝑃𝑜 decays to 82𝑃𝑏 by emission of 𝛼 – particles 2. Beta particle emmission from 83𝐵𝑖 can be
of single energy described by the equation
(i) Write down the symbolic equation for the 210
83𝐵𝑖 →
210 0
84𝑃𝑜 + −1𝑒 + 𝛾 + 𝑄
reaction Mass of 21083𝐵𝑖 = 209.98411𝑢,
(ii) Calculate the energy in 𝑀𝑒𝑉 released in of 210 𝑃𝑜 = 209.982866𝑢
84
each disintegration Calculate the value of Q
(iii) Explain why this energy does not all (i) In Joules
appear as kinetic energy of the alpha (ii) In MeV.
particle. An (𝟏. 𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟑 𝑱, 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝑴𝒆𝑽)
(iv) Calculate the kinetic energy of the alpha
3. A nucleus 23 23
10𝑁𝑒 , 𝛽 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦𝑠 to give the nucleus of 10𝑁𝑎.
particle 23
210𝑃𝑜 = 209.93673𝑢 Mass of 10𝑁𝑒 = 22.994466𝑢,
206𝑃𝑏 = 205.929421𝑢 of 23
11𝑁𝑎 = 22.989770𝑢
4𝐻𝑒 = 4.001504𝑢 Calculate the energy of the emitted electron.
1𝑢 = 931𝑀𝑒𝑉 An (5.40MeV, 5.30MeV) An( 𝟒. 𝟑𝟕𝑴𝒆𝑽)
3.2.3: NUCLEAR FISSION

Nuclear fission is the disintegration of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei accompanied by release of
energy.
Application of fission
 In the production of neutrons
 In production of atomic bombs

Condition for fission

 It requires an energetic particle like a neutron
Example
Calculate the energy released by 1kg of 235
92𝑈 under going fission according to
148
235
92𝑈 + 1
0 𝑛 → 57𝐿𝑎 + 85 1
35𝐵𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + Q
Mass of 235𝑈 = 235.1𝑢, Mass of 148𝐿𝑎 = 148.0𝑢, Mass of 10𝑛 = 1.009𝑢, Mass of 85𝐵𝑟 = 84.9𝑢
Solution
𝑚
Mass of reactants = 235.1 + 1.009 = 236.109𝑢 Number of atoms = M 𝑁𝐴 atoms
Mass of products= (148.0 + 84.9 + (3 𝑥 1.009)) 1𝑥6.02 𝑥 1023
= 235.927𝑢 1 kg contains = = 2.562 𝑥 1024 atoms
235 x 10−3
Energy released= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑥 931𝑀𝑒𝑉 One atom released =2.71 x 10-11J
= (236.109 – 235.927) 𝑥 931𝑀𝑒𝑉 2.562 x 1024 atoms =2.71 x 1011 x 2.562 x 1024J
= 169.442𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 6.943 x 1013J
Energy released = 169.442 𝑥 106 x 1.6 x 10-19J Energy released by 1kg of uranium = 6.943 x 1013J
= 2.71 𝑥 10-11J
3.2.4: NUCLEAR FUSION

Nuclear fusion is the union of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus accompanied by release of energy.
Energy is released in the process.
Condition for fusion

 High temperatures (in excess of 108K) are required to provide the nuclei which are to fuse with the energy
needed to overcome their mutual electrostatic repulsion.
Note
 Fusion is the basis of hydrogen bond
 Solar energy is produced by the process of fusion.
Example
1. 21𝐻 + 21𝐻 → 32𝐻𝑒 + 10𝑛
Calculate the amount of energy released by 2kg of Deuterium given
(2𝐻 = 2.015𝑢, 1𝑛 = 1.009𝑢, 3𝐻𝑒 = 3.017𝑢)
Solution
𝑚
Mass of reactant = 2.015 + 2.015 = 4.03𝑢 Number of atoms = 𝑁 atoms
M 𝐴
Mass of products = 3.017 + 1.009 = 4.026𝑢 2𝑥6.02 𝑥 1023
Mass defect = 4.03 – 4.026 = 0.004𝑢 = 2 x 10−3 =6.02 x 1026 atoms
Energy released = 𝑀𝑐 2 = 0.004 x 1.66 x 10-27 x (3 x 108)2 1 atom of 21𝐻 = 2.988 x 10-13J
-13
= 5.976 x 10 J 6.02 x 1026 atoms = 2.988 x 10-13 x 6.02 x 1026
2
Energy released by 2 atoms of 1𝐻 = 5.976 x 10 J -13 = 1.799 x 1014J
Energy released by 1 atom of 2𝐻 =
5.976 x 10 −13
Energy released by 2kg = 1.799 x 1014J
1 2
2
Energy released by 1 atom 1𝐻 = 2.988 x 10-13J
3.2.6: DETECTION OF IONISING RADIATIONS

1. CLOUD CHAMBERS
The cloud chamber is used to show tracks of the radioactive particles rather than to measure the intensity of
the cloud chambers are;

(a) Wilson cloud chamber

Illumination
Glass plate
 Dusts particles are carried away by drops forming on
air after a few expansions. The dust free air is
Pad containing Radioactive source
alcohol subjected to a controlled adiabatic expansion, where
Piston
by it becomes super saturated and it is exposed to
 The piston is moved down quickly so that the air in the radioactive source.
the chamber undergoes an adiabatic expansion  Water droplets collect round the ions producing
and cools. tracks viewed through the glass plate
(b) DIFFUSION CLOUD CHAMBER
Perspex lid temperature so that there is a temperature
Felt pad soaked in alcohol gradient between the top and bottom.
s  The air in the chamber is saturated with alcohol
vapour from the felt pad. The vapour diffuses
Radioactive source illumination downwards into the cooler region until the air above
becomes supersaturated with alcohol.
 The radioactive source, S is opened and ionises the
Metalic base air molecules
Dry ice (solid Co2)  The saturated vapour condenses on the ion formed.
Sponge The path of the ionizing radiations is traced by a
 The base of the chamber is maintained at a very series of drops of condensation.
low temperature by solid carbondioxide and air in  The thickness and length of the path indicates the
the upper part of the chamber is at room extent to which ionization has taken place.
Nature of the tracks in cloud chamber

(i) Alpha particles produce thick, short and straight continuous tracks
(ii) Beta particles produce, thin longer and wavy tracks
(iii) Gamma rays produce irregular and faint tracks
2. THE GEIGER – MULLER TUBE / (GM) TUBE

Gm tube is a very sensitive type of ionization chamber which can detect single ionizing events
Argon+Halogen gas Insulator  The electrons move very fast to the anode and the
positive ions drift to the cathode.
To scalar
Thin mica
R  When electrons reach anode, a discharge occurs and
window Thin metal wire
a current flows in the external circuit.
Cathode C
(Anode)  A p.d is obtained across a large resistance R which
 When Ionising radiations enter the G.M tube is amplified and passed to a scale
through the thin mica window, argon atoms  The magnitude of the pulse registered gives the
are ionised extent to which ionisation occurred.
3. THE IONISATION CHAMBER

Radioactive source
Gause
 The ions produced are accelerated by E.H.T to their
Air at low pressure Wire anode respective electrodes
 The electrons move towards the anode and the
Metal cathode electrometer positive ions towards the cathode.
 Current flows in the external circuit which is
insulator + -
E.H.T amplified and detected by electrometer
 Ionizing radiations enter through the thin wire gauze  The pulse per second (count rate) gives a measure of
and ionises the air molecules. the intensity of radiation
3.2.7: THE RADIOACTIVE –DECAY LAW [𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆−𝝀𝒕 ]

Activity is the number of decays per second. OR it is the number of radiations emitted per second.
𝑨 = 𝝀𝑵
Where A is activity or count rate per second. The S.I unit for activity (A) is Becquel (𝐵𝑞)
Decay constant is the fraction of radioactive atoms which decay per second.
3.2.8: HALF LIFE [𝒕𝟏 ]

𝟐
Half life of a radioactive element is the time taken for half of the atoms to decay
Relation between half life and decay constant

If 𝑁0 is the number of original atoms 1 −𝜆𝑡1⁄ 1
𝑁0 = 𝑒 2 𝐼𝑛 ( ) = − 𝜆𝑡1⁄
at 𝑡 = 𝑡1 , 𝑁 = 2 2 2
2 2 Taking logs to base e on both sides −𝐼𝑛(1⁄2) 𝐼𝑛2
−λt
From 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 1 −𝜆𝑡1⁄ 𝑡1⁄ = =
𝑁𝑜 −𝜆𝑡1⁄
𝐼𝑛( ) = 𝐼𝑛𝑒 2 2 𝜆 𝜆
= 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 2 2 0.693
2 𝑡1⁄ =
2 𝜆
Note: Activity A at any one given time t is given by 𝑨 = 𝑨𝟎 𝒆−𝝀𝒕
Measurement of half-life
(a) Half-life of short lived isotopes
 Place a source of ionising radiation near the
A GM-tube window. Note and record the count
True
count rate rate at equal time intervals
A  For each count rate recorded, subtract the
2 background countrate to get true count rate.
A
 A graph of true count rate against time is
4 T1 T2
plotted
0 t1 t2 time  Find the time 𝑇1 taken for acitivity to reduce to
𝐴 𝐴
 Switch on the G.M.T, note and record 2
and time 𝑇2 taken for activity to reduce to 4
𝐴 1
the background count rate 𝐴𝑂 . from 2 . Half life=2 (𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
Note: Background count rate is the activity detected by GM-tube in the absence of a radioactive source
Examples
1. An isotope of krypton 87 87
36𝐾𝑟 has a half-life of 78 minutes. Calculate the activity of 10𝜇g 0f 36𝑘𝑟
Solution

𝑚 𝐼𝑛2
Number of atoms = 𝑁 atoms But 𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁 = 78𝑥60 𝑥6.9𝑥1016
M 𝐴
6𝑥1023 𝐴 = 1.022x1013Bq
= 𝑥10𝑥10−6 =6.9x1016atoms
87
2. What mass of radium -227 would have an activity of 1x106Bq. The half life of radium-227 is 41minutes
(NA=6x1023mol-1)
Solution
𝑚
𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁 Number of atoms = 𝑁 atoms
𝐼𝑛2 M 𝐴
1x106 = (41𝑥60) 𝑁 𝑚=
227
𝑥3.55𝑥10 = 1.34𝑥10−12 𝑔
9
9 6𝑥1023
𝑁 = 3.55x10 atoms
3. A radioactive source contains 1.0𝜇g of plutonium of mass number 239. If the source emits 2300 alpha
particles per second. Calculate the half life of plutonium, assume [𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −λt ]
Solution
𝑚
Number of atoms = 𝑁𝐴 atoms 2300 = 𝜆𝑥2.519𝑥1015
M
6.02𝑥1023 𝐼𝑛2
= 2.39 𝑥10−6 = 2.519 x 1015atoms 2300 = ( ) 𝑥2.519𝑥1015
𝑡1⁄
2
Since it emits 2300 alpha particles per second, then 2.519𝑥1015 𝐼𝑛2
𝐴 = 2300𝑠 −1 𝑡1⁄ = 2300
= 7.591𝑥1011 𝑠
2
𝐴 = 𝜆𝑁
4. A small volume of a solution which contains a radioactive isotope of sodium had an activity of 12000
disintegration per minute when it was injected into a blood stream of a patient. After 30 hours, the
activity of 1.0cm3 of the blood was found to be 0.50 disintegration per minute. If the half life of the
sodium isotope is taken as 15 hours, estimate the volume of blood in a patient
Solution
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑂 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 3000
𝐼𝑛2 =
0.5
𝐴 = 12000𝑒 − 15 𝑥30 = 3000𝑚𝑖𝑛−1 = 6000𝑐𝑚 3
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚
Total volume of blood = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 1𝑐𝑚3 Therefore volume of blood in a patient= 6litres
3.2.9: CARBON DATING

 Carbon-14 is radioactive with half life , 𝑡1⁄ = 5600 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠. It is absorbed by plants during
2
photosynthesis, when plants dies carbon-14 starts to decay.
 The activity, 𝐴𝑂 of living plants is measured. The acitivity A of dead plants is also measured.
𝐼𝑛2
The age, t of the dead plant is deduced from 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑂 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 where 𝜆 = 𝑡
1⁄
2
Examples
1. Wood from a buried ship was forced to have a specific activity of 1.2𝑥102 𝐵𝑞𝐾𝑔−1 due to 14𝐶 whereas
a comparable living wood has a specific activity of 2𝑥102 𝐵𝑞𝐾𝑔−1. What is the age of the ship? [half
life of 14𝐶 = 5.7𝑥103 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠]
Solution
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑂 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 1.2 −𝐼𝑛2
𝐼𝑛2 𝐼𝑛( ) = 𝑡
−
𝑡1⁄
𝑡 2 (5.7𝑥103 )
2 2
1.2𝑥10 = 2𝑥10 𝑒 2
𝑡 = 4.2𝑥103 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
2. A radioactive source has a half life of 20s and an initial activity of 7𝑥1012 𝐵𝑞. Calculate its activity
after 50s have elapsed
Solution
−𝐼𝑛2
𝑨 = 𝑨𝟎 𝒆−𝝀𝒕 𝐴 = 7𝑥1012 𝑒 20 𝑥50 = 1.24𝑥1012 𝐵𝑞

EXERCISE: 56
1. A certain 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡icle the track in a cloud chamber (b) At a certain time, two radioactive sources R
has length of 37mm. Given that the average energy and S contain the same number of
required to produce an ion pair in air is 5.2x10-18J radioactive nuclei. The half life is 2hours for
and that 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡icles in air produce on average R and 1 hour for S, calculate
5x103 such airs per mm of track. Find the initial (i) The ratio of the rate of decay of R to
energy of the 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡icle . Express your answer in that of S at this time
𝑀𝑒𝑉 [e=1.6x10-19C] An(6.0MeV) (ii) The ratio of the rate of decay of R to
2. Calculate the count rate produced by 0.1𝜇𝑔 of that of S after 2 hours
(iii) The proportion of the radioactive
caesium-137( The half of Cs-137=28years)
nuclei in S which have decayed in 2
An(𝟑. 𝟒𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟓 Bq)
hours An [1:2, 1:1, 75%]
3. The radioactive isotope 218 84𝑃𝑜 has a half life of 6. The isotope of bismuth of mass number 200 has
3minutes, emitting 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡icles according to a half life of 5.4x103s. It emits alpha particles with
the equation; an energy of 8.2x10-13J.
218 𝑥
84𝑃𝑜 → 𝛼 + 𝑦𝑃𝑏 (a) State the meaning of the term half life
(i) What are the values of x and y (b) Calculate for this isotope;
(ii) If N atoms of 218 84𝑃𝑜 emit 𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡icles at a (i) Decay constant
rate of 5.12x10-4s-1, what will be the rate of (ii) The initial activity of 1x10-6 mole of
emission after 1⁄2 hour. An(50s-1) the isotope
4. An isotope of the element radon has a half life (iii) the initial power output of this
of 4days . A sample of radon originally contains quantity of the isotope
1010 atoms.[Take 1day to be 86x103s]. Calculate; [NA = 6x1023mol-1] [Hint, power = activity x
(i) The number of radon atoms remaining Energy] [An 1.3x10-4s-1, 7.7x1013S-1, 63W]
after 16days 7. The radioactive isotope 60𝐶𝑜 decays to 60𝑁𝑖
(ii) The radioactive decay constant for radon which spontaneously decays to give two
(iii) The rate of decay of the radon sample after gamma-ray photons, the half life of 60𝐶𝑜 is
16days 5.27years.
An(6.3x108atoms, 2x10-6s-1, 1.3x103Bq) (i) find the activity of 20g of 60𝐶𝑜
5. (a) What is meant by the decay constant λ and (ii) estimate the power obtainable from 20g
the half life 𝑇1⁄ for a radioactive isotope?. of 60𝐶𝑜
2
Show from first principles that 𝜆𝑇1⁄ = 0.69 [Mass of 60𝐶𝑜= 59.93381U, mass of 60𝑁𝑖 =
2
59.93079U] [An 8.35x1014s-1, 3.76x102Js-1]
UNEB 2020 Q.8

(a) What is meant by the following as applied to radioactivity? .
(i) Activity. (01mark)
(ii) Decay constant (01mark)
(b) (i) Explain briefly, why radioactivity is refered to as random and spontaneous. (02marks)
(ii) The half life of 230
92𝑇ℎ is 2.4𝑥1011
𝑠. Find the number of disintegrations persecond that occur in 1g of 230
92𝑇ℎ
9 -1
An(7.559x10 s ) (05marks)
(c) (i) Describe, with the aid of a labelled diagram, how the Wilson cloud chamber can be used to detect ionizing
radiation. (06marks)
(iii) Explain the difference in the patterns of the tracks seen in the chamber when 𝛼 − and 𝛽 −particles are
present in the chamber. (02marks)
(d) (i) What is meant by mass defect (01mark)
(𝑖𝑖) Calculate, in MeV , the energy released when a helium nucleons are produced by fusing two protons and
two neutrons. (04marks)
Mass of a 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 1.00898𝑢
Mass of 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1.00759𝑢
Mass of ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 4.00277𝑢

(1𝑢 = 931𝑀𝑒𝑉) An(28.2745MeV)
UNEB 2019 Q.10
(a) What is meant by the following as applied to radioactivity? .
(i) Activity. (01mark)
(ii) Half life of a radioactive material. (01mark)
(b) Using the radioactive decay law 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 , show that the half-life 𝑇1⁄ is given by:
2
0.693
𝑇1⁄ = 𝜆
(03marks)
2
(c) With the aid of a diagram, describe action of an ionization chamber. (06marks)
(d) What is meant by unifed atomic mass unit and electron volt (02marks)
(e) (i) The nucleus 212
83𝐵𝑖 decays by alpha emission as follows 212
83𝐵𝑖 → 208
81𝑇𝑖 + 4
2 𝐻𝑒
Calculate the energy released by 2g of 212
83𝐵𝑖 (05marks)
(𝑖𝑖) Explain two uses of radiactive isotopes. (04marks)
UNEB 2018Q.8
(a) Define the following .
(i) Binding energy. (01mark)
(ii) Unified Atomic Mass Unit. (01mark)
(b) Explain how energy is released in a nuclear fusion process. (03marks)
UNEB 2018Q.10
(a) State two differences between alpha and beta particles. (02marks)
(b) Describe with the aid of a diagram, the structure and mode of the operation of an ionization chamber.
(06marks)
(c) (i) Explain the application of carbon-14 in carbon dating. (03marks)
(ii) A sample of dead wood was found to have an activity of 20 units due to 14𝐶 . Recent wood gave an activity of
47.8units, estimate the age of the wood [half life of 14𝐶 = 5600years]. An. 7.04𝑥103 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
(03marks)
(d) The photoelectric work function of potassium is 2.25𝑒𝑉. Light having a wavelength of 360mm falls on
potassium metal.
(i) Calculate the stopping potential (04marks)
(ii) Calculate the speed of the most energetic electrons emitted by the metal. (02marks)
Ans [−𝟐. 𝟐𝟓𝑽, 𝟖. 𝟖𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒎/𝒔]
UNEB 2017Q.8
(a) What is meant by the following.
(i) Radioactivity. (01mark)
(ii) Isotopes (01mark)
(b) (i) Define mass defect. (01mark)
(ii) State the condition for a heavy nucleus of an atom to be unstable. (01mark)
(iii) Explain your answer in (b) (ii) (02marks)
(c) A sample of 226 88𝑅𝑎 emits both 𝛼 −particles and 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠. A masss defect of 0.0053u occurs in the decay
(i) Calculate the energy released in joules Ans [𝟕. 𝟗𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟑 𝑱] (03marks)
(ii) If the sample decays by emission of 𝛼 −particles, each of energy 4.60MeV and 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠, find the frequency
of the 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠 emitted. Ans [𝟖. 𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝑯𝒛] (04marks)
(d) (i) Sketch a graph showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number, clearly showing the
fusion and fission regions (02marks)
(ii) Use the sketch in (d) (i) to explain how energy is released in each of the processes of fusion and fission
(03marks)
(e) State two
(i) Applications of radioisotopes (01mark)

(ii) Health hazards of radioisotope (01mark)
UNEB 2016 Q.8

(b) (i) Distinguish between mass defect and binding energy. (02mark)
(ii) Sketch a graph of nuclear binding energy per nucleon versus mass number of naturally occurring isotopes
and use it to distinguish between nuclear fission and fussion. (04marks)
(c) Describe with the aid of labelled diagram, Milikan’s oil drop experiment to determine charge on an oil drop.
(07marks)
UNEB 2015 Q.10
(a) with reference to a Geiger-Muller tube, define the following
(i) quenching agent (01mark)
(ii) back ground count rate (01mark)
(b) (i) with the aid of a labelled diagram, describe the operation of Geiger-Muller tube (01mark)
(ii) Explain how the half-life of a short lived radioactive source can be obtained by use of a Geiger-Muller tube
(04marks)
(c) A radioactive isotope 32 15𝑃 which has a half-life of 14.3 days, disintegrates to form a stable product. A sample of
the isotope is prepared with an initial activity of 2.0𝑥106 𝑠 −1 . Calculate the,
12
(i) Number of 32 15𝑃 atoms initially present An[3.57x10 atoms] (03marks)
(ii) Activity after 30 days An[4.67x105s-1] (03marks)
32 11
(iii) Number of 15𝑃 atoms after 30 days An[8.33x10 atoms] (02marks)
(Assume𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎 𝒆−λ𝒕 )
UNEB 2011 Q10

a) What is meant by unified atomic mass unit (1 mark)
b) (i) Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion (2 marks)
ii) State the condition necessary for each of the nuclear reactions in b(i) to occur
c) (i) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe the operation of an ionization chamber (6 marks)
ii)Sketch the curve of ionization current against applied p.d and explain its main features(4 marks)
139
d) A typical nuclear reaction is given by 235 1
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 →
95 1
42𝑀𝑜 + 57𝐿𝑎 + 2 0𝑛 + 7 −1𝑒
0
Calculate the total energy released by 1g of uranium

139
mass of 10𝑛 = 1.009𝑢, of −10𝑒 = 0.00055𝑢, 95 92𝑀𝑜 = 94.906𝑢, 𝑜𝑓 57𝐿𝑎 = 138.906𝑢
235
92𝑈 = 235.044𝑢. 1𝑢 = 1.66𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔 Ans [𝟖. 𝟑𝟖𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝑱]
UNEB 2010 Q 10
a) (i) What is meant by mass defect? (1 mark)
(ii) Sketch a graph showing how binding energy per nucleon varies with mass number and explain its main
features (3 marks)
56
iii)Find the binding energy per nucleon of 26𝐹𝑒 given that mass of 1proton = 1.007825U.
Mass of 1neutron=1.008665U, [1U = 931MeV] [Ans 7.7Mev]
b) With the aid of a diagram, explain how an ionization chamber works (6 marks)
UNEB 2003 Q10

a) What is meant by the following terms
i)Nuclear number
ii)Binding energy (2mk)
a) Calculate the energy released during the decay of 220
86𝑅𝑎 nucleus into 216
84𝑃𝑜 and an alpha-particle
220 216 4
Mass of 86𝑅𝑎 = 219.964176𝑢, Mass of 84𝑃𝑜 = 215.955794𝑢,Mass of 2𝐻𝑒 = 4.001566𝑢
(1𝑢 = 931𝑀𝑒𝑉) Ans [6.35MeV]

CHAPTER 4: CHARGED PARTICLES

4.1:CATHODE RAYS
These are streams of fast moving electrons that travel from cathode to anode when a 𝑝. 𝑑 is connected
across the plate.
4.1.0: Production of cathode rays by discharge tube method.

 At atmospheric pressure, the tube is clear with Negative glow Faraday s dark space Positive glow
_
nothing observed cathode
+
anode
_ + Crooke s dark space
cathode anode  Four regions form with the positive column occupying
the larger part of the tube. The positive column forms
striations when pressure is reduced further, the dark
 At a pressure of 100 mmHg, streamers of luminous
spaces swell and positive column shrinks
gas appear between the electrodes. Between
 At 0.1 mmHg, Crookes’ dark space becomes distinct
10 mmHg and 0.1 mmHg, the discharge becomes and the cathode glow appear round the cathode
a steady glow spreading through the tube.  At 0.01mmHg, Crookes’ dark space fills the glass tube
and the tube fluoresces due to electron movement.
Limitations of the discharge tube method
 When cathode rays strike the anode they may produce x-rays which are dangerous
 A very high 𝑝. 𝑑 is needed across the electrodes which can be hazardous to handle
 The gas is needed at appropriate low gas pressure which is difficult to attain
4.1.1:THERMIONIC EMISSION
 Thermionic emission is a process by which electrons are emitted from a hot metal surface.
4.1.2: MECHANISM OF THERMIONIC EMISSION

 Metals contain free electrons in their lattice that are loosely bound to their parent nuclei.
 As the temperature of the metal is raised, velocities of the electrons increase, some of the surface electrons
acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the electrostatics attraction force of the atomic nucleic and
consequently escape from the metal surface.
4.1.3: MODERN CATHODE RAY TUBE [PRODUCTION OF CATHODE RAYS]

Fluorescent screen  The cathode is heated by a low p.d and produces
Cathode Anode
electrons by thermionic emissions.
Low supply
 The electrons are focused by the cathode and

p.d
accelerated by EHT to the fluorescent screen which

_ + gives a glow when they strike the screen.
Evacuated tube EHT Tungsten filament
 It is the beam of fast moving electrons from the
cathode which constitute the cathode rays.
4.1.5:TO STUDY PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS
1: Straight line movement
Cathode +
Vacuum  Electrons emitted from a heated cathode, are
Low
Shadow of accelerated by the anode and directed towards a
Maltase
voltage cross maltase cross placed in the center of the a glass tube.
supply
Anode _  A sharp shadow of the maltose cross is cast on a
screen at the end of the tube. This shows that
Maltase crossFlourescent screen
cathode rays travel in a straight line

4.1.6: Electron dynamics (motion of an electron)

(i) Motion in an Electric field
When an electron moves horizontally into a uniform electric field, it describes a parabolic path. This parabolic
motion is brought by the electric force [F=Ee] experienced by electrons in the direction of that of the field.
Note
The horizontal motion of the electron is not affected by the field. A charge gains energy when it moves in the
direction of an electric field and after leaving the plate the electron moves in a straight line
a) Speed of an electron
Suppose an electron of charge e and mass m is emitted from a hot cathode and accelerated by an electric
field of potential 𝑉𝑎 towards the anode, then;
Kinetic energy gained by the electron =work done on an electron by the accelerating p.d 𝑉𝑎
½ 𝑚𝑢2 = 𝑒 𝑉𝑎
2𝑒𝑉𝑎
Or u = √ 𝑚
Note 𝑉𝑎 must be accelerating 𝑝. 𝑑 and not 𝑝. 𝑑 between the plates
b) Displacement of an electron in an electric field

Consider an electron of charge e and mass m entering an electric field horizontally with a speed u.
𝑉𝑒
Y Vy
VR Put into equation 3: a= ------------ [4]
𝑚𝑑
+ θ
Using 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑡 2
U
y 𝑉𝑒 2
Electron U θ (↑): [u=0m/s], y= 1⁄2 𝑡 -------- [5]
beam X 𝑚𝑑
L 𝑥
- (→): [a=0m/s2], t= ------------------ [6]
𝑢
V
Force on the electron; F= 𝐸𝑒 = 𝑒------------[1] 𝑉𝑒 𝑥 2
𝑑 put into equation 5: 𝑦 = 1⁄2 ( )
𝑚𝑑 𝑢
V
Where E is electric field intensity, E= 𝑽𝒆
𝑑
𝒚=( ) 𝒙𝟐
V- 𝑝. 𝑑 between the plates 𝟐𝒎𝒅𝒖𝟐
d- distance of separation of plates Since (
𝑉𝑒
) is constant, then 𝑦 ∝ 𝑥 2 then the
2𝑚𝑑𝑢2
By Newton’s 2nd law; F=ma ------------------ [2]
V motion is parabolic
Equating 1 and 2 Ma= 𝑑 𝑒
c) Velocity of an electron in an electric field

Using 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑥
𝑉𝑦 =
(↑): [u=0m/s], 𝑉𝑦 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑑𝑢
d) Formula when the electron just leaves the plate

Just an electron leaves the plate 𝑥=𝑙
𝑉𝑅 = √𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑢2
𝑉𝑒𝑙 2 𝐸𝑒
𝑦=( ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = ( ) 𝑙2
2𝑚𝑑𝑢 2 2𝑚𝑢2 Direction with which the electron emerges :
𝑉𝑒𝑙 𝐸𝑒𝑙 𝑉𝑦
(↑): [u=0m/s], 𝑉𝑦 = or 𝑉𝑦 = 𝑚𝑢 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑚𝑑𝑢 𝑢
Velocity with which the electron leaves the plate:
Examples

1. An electron is accelerated from rest through a p.d of 1000V. what is;

(a) Its kinetic energy in 𝑒𝑉
(b) Its kinetic energy in joules (c) Its speed
Solution c) ½ mu2 = 𝑒𝑉𝑎
a) 𝑉𝑎 = 1000𝑉: ⇛ 𝑘. 𝑒 = 1000𝑒𝑉 2𝑒𝑉 2𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥1000
−19 −16 𝑢 = √ 𝑚 𝑎 = √ 9.11𝑥10−31 =1.874x107m/s
b) 𝑘. 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑉𝑎 = 1.6𝑥10 𝑥1000 = 1.6𝑥10 𝐽
2. A beam of electrons, moving with velocity of 1.0x107ms-1, enters midway between two horizontal parallel
plates P, Q in a direction parallel to the plates. P and Q are 5cm long, 2cm apart and have a 𝑝. 𝑑 V applied
between them. Calculate V if the beam is deflected so that it just grazes the edge of the upper plate P
Solution
𝑑
Vy 𝑦= 2
= 1𝑐𝑚 since the beam is directed midway
VR
𝑉𝑒𝑙 2
P + θ u 𝑦=
y 2𝑚𝑑𝑢2
V d θ 𝑣𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥 5 2
0.01 = 2 (100) x(1𝑥107 )2
L 2𝑥9.11𝑥10−31 ( )
Q - 100
𝑉 = 91.1𝑉
3. Two parallel metal sheep’s of length 10cm are separated by 20mm in a vacuum. A narrow beam of electrons
enters symmetrically between them as shown.
10cm
Beam 20mm
When a 𝑝. 𝑑 of 1000V is applied between the plates the electron beam just misses one of the plates as it
emerges. Calculate the speed of the electrons as they enter the gap [Take the field between the plates to
be uniform] [𝑒⁄𝑚 for the electron = 1.8𝑥1011 𝐶𝑘𝑔−1 ]
Solution
𝑑 0.02 𝑣𝑒𝑡 2
Since the beam enters symmetrically 𝑦 = 2
= 2
= 0.01𝑚 using y= 2𝑚𝑑
𝑑 = 0.02𝑚, 𝐿 = 0.1𝑚, 𝑉 = 1000𝑉 when the beam just emerges 𝑡 =
𝑙
u 𝑢
1000𝑥(0.1)2 𝑒
0.01m
u 0.01 = x( )
2𝑥0.02𝑥𝑢2
𝑚
Vy VR 1000𝑥(0.1)2 𝑥1.8𝑥1011
0.01 =
𝑒
but specific charge 𝑚 =1.8x1011Ckg-1 2𝑥0.02𝑥𝑢2
2 15
𝑢 = 4.5𝑥10
𝑢 = 6.71𝑥107 𝑚𝑠 −1
(ii) Motion is a magnetic field

When an electron beam having a common velocity x Uniform magnetic field B
x
enters a uniform magnetic field, the electrons x
x x
downwards
V
experience a constant magnetic force 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑒𝑉 at x x x
Electron x
right angles to both B and V according to Fleming left beam x Circular deflection
hand rule and the ion describes a circular path of x x
F=Bev
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣
radius r given by ( = 𝐵𝑄𝑣) hence 𝑟 =
𝑟 𝐵𝑄
Examples
1. An electron is moving in a circular path at 3.0x106ms-1 in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 2.0x10-4T.
Find the radius of the path [mass of electron=9.1x10-31kg,charge on electron= 1.6x10-19C]

Solution
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑥3𝑥106
∴ = 𝐵𝑄𝑣 𝑟 = r = 2𝑥10−4 𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
= 0.0853m
𝑟 𝐵𝑄
2. Electrons accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 3000V enters a region of uniform magnetic
field, the direction of the field being at right angles to the motion of the electrons. If the flux density is 0.01T,
calculate the radius of the electron orbit. [Assume that the specific charge e/m for the electron =1.8x1011Ckg-1]
Solution
4.2.0:POSITIVE RAYS
These are streams of positively charge particles that pass through a perforated cathode
4.2.1: Production of positve rays

 Positive rays are produced when cathode rays in a discharge tube collide with gaseous atoms and strip off
(knock out) some electrons from the atoms.
 The positive ions formed are accelerated to the cathode and these streams of positive ions constitute rays.
4.3.0: SPECIFIC CHARGE OF AN ION

This is the ratio of charge to mass of an ion. S.I unit is 𝐶 𝑘𝑔−1
4.3.1: Determination of the specific charge of ions using a Bain bridge mass spectrometer
Source of 𝐸
S
ions 𝑢=
1
𝐵1
S
Velocity
2
 The selected ions pass through S3 and enter a
selector - x x + Area of crossed electric
x
x
x S
B xx
x
3
1 and magnetic field Photographic deflection chamber with a uniform magnetic field of
plates
Deflecting
x x x x x x
x x x
x
x xx x
x x x
x
x flux density, 𝐵2
x
x x x xx x x
chamber
x x
x x x
Path of ions  The ions move along a semi circular path and strike
B x
2 x x x
the photographic plate where they are detected. The
 Streams of ions from a source is directed through slits radius, r of the path described is measured and
S1 and S2 into the velocity selector where there are recorded.
crossed electric field of intensity, E and magnetic field 𝑚𝑢2 𝑄 𝑈
of flux density, 𝐵1  In a circular path, B2Qu= 𝑟 , that is 𝑚 = 𝐵 𝑟
2
 Ions of charge, Q pass through the selector un  On substituting for u, the charge to mass ratio is got
deflected with velocity, u given by 𝐵1 𝑄𝑢 = 𝐸𝑄, that is 𝑄 𝐸
from 𝑚 = 𝐵 𝐵 𝑟
1 2
Examples
1. A beam of protons is accelerated through a 𝑝. 𝑑 of 10kV and is allowed to enter a uniform magnetic field B of
0.5T perpendicular to their path. Find the radius of the circle they travel. [𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1.67𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔,
𝑒 = 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶]
Solution
𝑚𝑢2
2𝑒𝑉𝑎 In the magnetic field : 𝑟
= 𝐵𝑒𝑢
𝑢=√
𝑚 𝑚𝑢 1.6𝑥10−27 𝑥1.38𝑥10 6
𝑟= = = 0.029𝑚
𝐵𝑒 0.5𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
2𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 𝑥10𝑥103
𝑢=√ = 1.38𝑥106 𝑚𝑠 −1
1.67𝑥10−27

2. In a Bain bridge mass spectrometer singly ionized atoms of 35Cl, 37Cl pass into the deflection chamber with a
velocity of 105ms-1. If the flux density of the magnetic field in the deflecting chamber is 0.08T, calculate the
difference in the radii of the path of the ion. [1𝑢 = 1.67𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔, 𝑒 = 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶]
Solution
Let 𝑟1 be radius for 35Cl and 𝑟2 be radius for 37Cl 35𝑥1.66𝑥10−27 𝑥105
−27 𝑟1 = = 0.454𝑚
1𝑢 = 1.66𝑥10 𝑘𝑔 0.08𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
−27 5
35𝑢 = (1.66𝑥10−27 𝑥35)𝑘𝑔 𝑟2 =
35𝑥1.66𝑥10 𝑥10
= 0.480𝑚
−27 0.08𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
37𝑢 = (1.66𝑥10 𝑥37)𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑢2
Difference 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 0.48 − 0.454 = 0.026𝑚
𝑟
= 𝐵𝑒𝑢
4.3.2: DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC CHARGE OF AN ELECTRON BY J.J THOMSON’S EXPERIMENT

The charge per unit mass or specific charge of an electron can be measured by the apparatus below.
Cathode Cylindrical Magnetic field B  Electrons are emitted thermionic ally by the filament
filament anode - into the paper and are accelerated towards the cylindrical anode.
Flourescent  With no electric and no magnetic fields applied at
X X XX X spot screen
Low voltage O plate X, the electron beam strikes the screen at point
supply X X X X X
X O which is noted
High resistance
voltmeter V
+
Y  separation
plate
Accelerating voltage Va
Examples
1. Two plates are 2cm long and separated by a distance of 0.5cm in a uniform magnetic field of flux density
4.7𝑥10−3 𝑇. An electron beam incident midway between the plates is deflected by magnetic field through a
distance of 10cm on a screen placed 24cm from the end of the plate. When a 𝑝. 𝑑 of 1000V is applied to the
plate , the electron is restored to the un deflected position. Calculate the specific charge of the electron
Solution
2. An electron beam in which the electrons are 2x107ms-1 enters a magnetic field in a direction perpendicularly to
the field direction. It is found that the beam can pass through without change of speed or direction. When an
electric field of strength 2.2x104Vm-1 is applied in the same region at a suitable orientation. [e=1.6x10-19C]
(i) Calculate the strength of the magnetic field
(ii) If the electric field were switched off, what would be the radius of curvature of the electron path.
Solution
4.4.0: MILIKAN’S OIL DROP EXPERIMENT FOR MEASUREMENT OF CHARGE

Small hole
Constant  The distance, 𝑥 fallen in time, t is obtained and
temperature bath
te1rminal velocity 𝑉𝑡 of the drop is determined.
Oil spray 4 4
Light A At terminal velocity: 3x𝜋r3𝜌𝑜 g= 3 πr3𝜌𝑎 g+6πηr𝑉𝑡
beam Drop
microscope B
X-ray 𝟏
𝟗𝜼𝒗𝒕 𝟐
Metal plate 𝒓=[ ]
𝟐𝒈(𝜌𝑜 − 𝜌𝑎 )
 Oil is sprayed above the upper metal plate.
 A P.d is applied across the plates and is adjusted until
 With no P.d between the plates, one oil drop is
the drop becomes stationary. P.d V and separation d
observed as it falls between the plates.

𝑉 𝜌𝑎 is density of air
between plates are measured and recorded, 𝐸 = 𝑑 is
calculated 𝜼 viscosity of air
4 4  Using several drops, the charge on each drop is
x𝜋r3𝜌𝑜 𝑔 = 3 πr3𝜌𝑎 g+𝐸𝑄
3 obtained. The charge on each drop is an integral
𝟏
𝟔𝛑𝛈𝑉𝑡 𝟗𝜼𝑉𝑡 𝟐 multiple of e which is the electron charge
𝑸 = 𝑬
[𝟐𝒈(𝜌 −𝜌 ]
𝑜 𝑎)
𝜌𝑜 is density of oil
Examples
1. In Millikan’s experiment an oil drop of mass 1.92x10-14kg is stationary in the space between the two horizontal plates
which are 2x10-2m apart, the upper plate being earthed and the lower one at a potential of -6000V. Neglecting
the buoyancy of the air. Calculate the magnitude of the charge.
Solution
Upthrust
U
Electric force But u=0 [neglecting air buoyancy]: 𝐸𝑄 = 𝑚𝑔
Fe
𝑚𝑔𝑑
𝑄= since 𝐸 = 𝑣/𝑑
𝑣
Mg 1.92𝑥10−14 𝑥9.81𝑥2𝑥10−2
𝑄= 6000
=6.28x10-19C
At terminal velocity:𝑀𝑔 = 𝑈 +Fe
2. Calculate the radius of drop of oil of density 900kgm-3 which falls with a terminal velocity of 2.9x10-2ms-1 through air
of viscosity 1.8x10-5Nsm-2. Ignore the density of air, if the charge on the drop is -3e. What p.d must be applied
between two plates 5cm apart for the drop to be held stationary between them [e=1.6x10-19C]
Solution
Upthrust Viscous force Upthrust Electric force
U F U Fe
a ms-2
Mg Mg
u=0 and at terminal velocity: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 u=0 and at terminal velocity: 𝑚𝑔 = 𝐸𝑄

4
6πηrvt = πr3ρ0g 𝐸 = v⁄d and Q = 3e
3
4 3
9𝜂𝑣𝑡 9𝑥1.8𝑥10−5 𝑥2.9𝑥10−2 -5
𝑚𝑔𝑑 3 πr ρ0 g
𝑟 = √2𝑔𝜌 = √
2𝑥900𝑥9.81
=1.63x10 m 𝑉= =
0 𝑄 3𝑄
For the drop to be held stationary then there is no 22
4𝑥 7 𝑥(1.63𝑥10−5 )3 𝑥900𝑥9.81𝑥5𝑥10−2
viscous drag 𝑉=
3𝑥3𝑥1.6𝑥10−19
7
𝑉 = 1.67x10 V
−12
3. An oil drop of mas 3.25𝑥10 𝑔 falls vertically with uniform velocity through the air between parallel plates which
are 2cm apart. When a p.d of 1kV is applied to the plates, the drop moves towards the negatively charged plate, its
path being inclined at 45° to the vertical. Explain why the vertical component of its velocity remains unchanged and
find the charge on the drop
Solution
F
θ
F E
(↑): 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 … … … … … . .2
+ θ - 𝑣𝑄
V 2÷1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
mg 𝑚𝑔𝑑
The drop falls steadily due to viscosity of the air since the 𝑚𝑔𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑄=
electric force is horizontal and has no (↑) component 𝑣
−15
𝑉𝑄 3.25𝑥10 𝑥9.81𝑥0.02𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛45
(→): 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐸𝑄 = … … … … … … . .1 𝑄=
𝑑 1000

𝑄 = 6.38𝑥1019 𝐶
Exercise :60
1. A spherical oil drop of radius of 2x10-6m is held stationery applied to the plates. The same drop can be held
between two parallel metal plates to which a 𝑝. 𝑑 of stationary between the plates when a voltage of 23.7V is
4500V is applied , the separation of the plates is 1.5cm, applied between them. If the drop has a diameter of 1
calculate the charge on the drop if the density of oil is mm and the plate are 10mm apart. Calculate
800kgm-3. Assume no air resistance. An[8.76x10-19 C] (i) Charge on the drop
2. In milikans oil drop experiments, a charged droplet falls (ii) New velocity of the drop when a potential
with a velocity of 0.04𝑚𝑚 𝑠 −1 when no voltage is difference of 50V is applied between the plates
An[2.86x10-15 C, 4.4x𝟏𝟎−𝟓 m𝒔−𝟐 ]
UNEB 2020 Q.10

(a) Define Specific charge of a positive ion and state its unit (02marks)
(b) With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe Bainbridge spectrometer can be used to determine the specific
charge of positive ions. (06marks)
(c) A beam of positive ions accelerated through a potential difference of 2,000V enters a region of uniform
magnetic flux density B. The ions describe a circular path of radius 3.2cm while in the field. If the specific
charge of the ions is 8.5𝑥107 𝐶𝑘𝑔−1, derive an expression for the charge to mass ratio of the ions and use it
to calculate the value of B An(0.214T) (05marks)
(d) State the use of each of the following features of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (C.R.O)
(i) Anode system (01mark)
(ii) Y-plates (01mark)
(iii) The grid (01mark)
(e) An electron with energy 5keV moves in the direction of an electric field of internsity 1.6𝑥10 𝑉𝑚−1 . What
4
distance will the elctron move before coming to rest An(0.3125m) (04marks)
UNEB 2019 Q.8
(a) (i) What are cathode rays? (01mark)
(ii) State two properties of cathode rays (01mark)
(iii) Explain two disadvantages of using the distube in producing cathode rays (02marks)
(b) With the use of a labelled diagram, describe Milikan’s experiment to determe charge on an oil drop
(07marks)
(c) A beam of electrons is accelerated through a potential difference of 1.98kV and directed mid-way between
two horizontal plates of length 4.8cm and separated by a distance of 2.0cm. The potential difference
applied between the plats is 80.0V
(f) Calculate the speed of the electrons as they enter the plates An (𝟐. 𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ) (03marks)
(g) Explain the motion of the electron between the plates (02marks)
(h) Find the speed of the electron as they emerge from the region between the plates
An (𝟐. 𝟔𝟒𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 ) (04marks)
UNEB 2018 Q.18
(a) Explain what is observed in a discharge tube when the pressure is gradually reduced to low values
(05marks)
(b) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe the operation of a Bainbridge spectrometer in the
determination of charge to mass ratio. (07marks)

(c) An ion of mass 2.6𝑥10−26 𝑘𝑔 moving at a speed of 4.0𝑥104 𝑚𝑠 −1 enters a region of uniform maganetic
field of flux density 0.05T. Calculat the radius of the circle described by the ion. An[0.13m] (03marks)
UNEB 2013 Q.8

(a) Explain briefly how positive rays are produced (03marks)
(b) An electron of charge, 𝒆 and mass, 𝒎, is emitted from a hot cathode and then accelerated by an electric
field towards the anode. If the potential difference between the cathode and anode is 𝑽, show that the
𝟐𝒆𝑽
speed of the electron. U. is given by 𝒖 = √( 𝒎
) (03marks)
(c) An electron starts from rest and moves in an electric field intensity of 2.4𝑥103 V𝑚−1. Find the;
(i) Force on the electron. An (𝟑. 𝟖𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟔 𝑵) (02marks)
𝟏𝟒 −𝟐
(ii) Acceleration of the electron An (4.22𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒔 ) (02marks)
𝟔 −𝟏
(iii) Velocity acquired in moving through a 𝑝. 𝑑 of 90V An (5.62𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒔 ) (02marks)
(d) A beam of electron each of mass, m, and charge, e, is directed horizontal metal plates separated by a
distance, d.
(i) If the 𝑝. 𝑑 between the plates is V, show that the deflection y of the beam is given by
𝟏 𝒆𝑽
𝒚= ( ) 𝒙𝟐
𝟐 𝒎 𝒅 𝒖𝟐
Where, 𝑥, is the horizontal distance travelled (06marks)
(ii) Explain the path of the electron beam as it emerges out of the electric field (02marks)
UNEB 2010 Q.8
(a) (i) With the aid of a labeled diagram, describe what is observed when a high tension voltage is applied
across a gas tube in which pressure is gradually reduce to very low values (05marks)
(ii) Give two applications of a discharge tubes (01mark)
(b) Describe Thomson’s experiment to determine the specific charge of an electron (06marks)
(c) In Millikan’s oil drop experiment, a charged oil drop of radius 9.2x10-7𝑚 and density
800 kgm-3 is held stationary in an electric field of intensity 4x104Vm-1.
(i) How many electron charges are on the drop [04marks]
(ii) Find the electric field intensity that can be applied to move the drop with velocity 0.005ms-1
upwards (density of air =1.29kgm-3, η=1.8x10-5Nsm-1) [04marks] An[4, 2.48x106 Vm-1]
UNEB 2003 Q.8

(b) Explain how Millikan’s experiment for measuring the charge of the electron proves that the charge is
quantized.
(c) A beam of positive ions is accelerated through a 𝑝. 𝑑 of 1000V into a region of uniform magnetic field of flux
density 0.2T. While in the magnetic field it moves in a circle of radius 2.3cm. Derive an expression for the
charge to mass ratio of the ions and calculate its value. An[9.45x107Ckg-1]
UNEB 2002 Q.9

(a) (i) What are cathode rays? [01mark]
(ii) An electron gun operating at 3x103V is used to project electrons into the space between two oppositely
charged parallel plates of length 10cm and separation 5cm, calculate the deflection of the electrons as
they emerge from the region between the charged plates when the 𝑝. 𝑑 is 1000V.
An[1.66x102m] [04marks]

CHAPTER 5: ELECTRONIC DEVICES

5.1.0: THE CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
Grid Deflecting systemFluorescent screen  Cathode is heated and emits electrons thermionic ally.
Electron gun The electrons are focused and accelerated by the
Cathode
anodes to the screen. Grid controls number of
Y-plates X-plates electrons reaching the screen hence brightness of the
Low p.d
Electron beam
spot
 Y-plates deflect electron beam vertically and X-plates
Zinc sulphide deflect electron beam horizontally.
E.H.T E.H.T Graphite  The screen glows to form a spot when struck by
coating
Cylindrical anode electrons. Graphite coating shields electrons from
external fields and conducts stray electrons to the
earth.
USES OF THE CRO
 It is used to display wave forms  Used to measure phase differences
 It measures voltage (AC or DC)  Measures small time intervals
 Measures frequencies
Advantages of CRO over a voltmeter

 It measures both AC and D.C voltage unlike a voltmeter measures only D.C voltage unless a rectifier is used
 It has an instantaneous response since the electron beam behaves as a pointer of negligible inertia.
 It draws very little current since it has nearly infinite resistance to DC and a very high impedance to AC
 It has no coil to burn out.
Time base
 This is a circuit connected to the x-plates of a C.R.O and provides a saw tooth 𝑝. 𝑑 that sweeps the electron
beam across the screen at a constant speed.
P.d across sweep
Fly back
X-plate
Time
Measurement of the frequency of an A.C signal using a C.R.O

 The time base is set at 𝑋𝑚𝑠𝑐𝑚−1  The distance, d between successive crests is measured
 A signal is applied on the Y-plate to obtain a and recorded
wave as shown below  The period of the wave , 𝑇 = (𝑋𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑥10 −3 𝑥𝑑
1
d
 The frequency of the wave, 𝑓 = 𝑇
Examples
1. If the voltage gain is 20Vcm-1 and an alternating voltage connected to Y-plate products a vertical trace of
12cm long with time base off. Find the peak value of the voltage and its r.m.s value
Solution
2𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑔 𝐿 20𝑥12 𝑉 120
Vr.m.s = 02 = 2 = 84.85𝑉
𝑉0 = = 120𝑉 √ √
2
2. An alternating p.d applied to the Y-plate of an oscilloscope produces five complete waves on a 10 cm length
of the screen when the time base setting is 10𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑚−1. Find the frequency of the alternating voltage.
Solution

(𝑋𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑥10 −3 𝑥𝑑 10𝑥10 −3 𝑥10 1 1

𝑇= = 𝑓= =
5 5 𝑇 0.02
𝑇 = 0.02𝑠 𝑓 = 50𝐻𝑧
3. The sketch below shows part of the deflecting system of a cathode ray oscilloscope. At the point A, a beam
of electrons has a velocity of 3x107ms-1 along the axis of the system. The plates which are 4cm apart provides
a uniform electric field in the space between them. Edge effects may be neglected, P is at a potential of
+200V with respect to Q
P
A u screen
Q
10cm 40cm
Find the position at which the electron beam strikes the screen (𝑒⁄𝑚 = 1.76𝑥1011 𝐶𝑘𝑔−1)
Solution
𝑆 𝑣𝑦
P S Equating 1 and 2: 𝑙 =
u 𝐷+ 𝑢
d θ screen 2
𝑣𝑦 𝑙
Q L
2 D S= (𝐷 + )
10cm 𝑢 2
𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑙
L=10x10-2m, d=4x10-2m, D=40x10-2m, V=200, But Vy= (𝐷 + )
𝑚𝑑𝑢2 2
𝑆
Tan 𝜃 = 𝑙 ------------------------- [1] 𝑆=
200𝑥1.76𝑥1011 𝑥10𝑥10−2 𝑥
x [4𝑥10 −2
+
10𝑥10−2
]
𝐷+ 4𝑥10−2 𝑥(3𝑥107 )2 2
2
𝑣𝑦
But also 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑢
------------------- [2] 𝑆 = 0.044𝑚
4. The figure below shows two metal plates 8cm long and 2cm apart. A fluorescence screen is placed 50cm
from the one end of the plates. An electron of kinetic energy 6.4𝑥10−16 𝐽 is incident midway between the
plates
2cm e
screen
8cm 50cm
Calculate the 𝑝. 𝑑 which must be applied across the plates to deflect the electron 4.2cm on the screen.
Assume that the space through which to electron moves is evacuated. [𝑒 = 1.6𝑥10−19 𝐶, 𝑚 = 9.1𝑥10−31 𝑘𝑔
Solution
𝑉 = 156𝑉
Exercise: 61
1.
Electron gun
2cm
3. A C.R.O consists of two metal plates 3.5cm long and
2.5cm apart with the upper plate being positive. An
5mm
electron is projected along the axis of a C.R.O at a

5KV 15cm
Calculate the deflection sensitivity (deflection of spot velocity of 1.5𝑥107 𝑚𝑠 −1 in a uniform electric field of
in mm per volt potential difference) of the cathode
ray tube from the following data. 3𝑥104 𝑉𝑚−1. Calculate;
Electrons are accelerated by a potential difference of (i) How far above the axis the electron will be
5kV between the cathode and anode. [length of when its leaves the space between the plates
deflection plates =2cm, separation of deflector plates (ii) How far above the axis the electron beam
=5mm, distance of mid point of deflector plates from will strike the screen, if the fluorescence screen
screen =15cm] An [6x10-2mmV-1] is placed 15cm from the one end of the plates
(i) Deflection of electron beam on the screen. An[1.07, 11.7cm]
UNEB 2020Q.9
(𝑑) (i) Explain the of thermionic emission [03marks]

(ii) The gain control of a cathode ray oscilloscope is set at 0.5Vcm-1 and an alternating voltage produced a a
vertical line of length 2.0cm with time base off. Find the root mean square value of potential difference.
An(0.354V) [02marks]
UNEB 2019 Q.9
(𝑏) (i) Draw a well labeled diagram to show the main parts of a C.R.O [03marks]
(ii) Describe how a C.R.O can be used as an a.c voltmeter [02marks]
UNEB 2016Q.10
(c)(i) What is a time base as applied to a cathode ray oscilloscope. (01mark)
(ii) Draw a sketch graph showing the variation of time base voltage with time. (01mark)
(a) An alternating p.d applied to the Y-plate of an oscilloscope produces five complete waves on a 10 cm length of
the screen when the time base setting is 10𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑚−1 . Find the frequency of the alternating voltage. An(50Hz)
UNEB 2011 Q.8
(a) (i) Describe with the aid of a well labeled diagram, the structure and mode of operation of CRO
(ii) State the advantages of CRO over a moving coil voltmeter [02marks]
UNEB 2004 Q.8
(a) (i) Describe with the aid of a labeled diagram the main features of a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
(ii) State two uses of a CRO [01marks]
(iii) The gain control of a CRO is set on 0.5Vcm-1 and an alternating voltage produces a vertical trace of 2cm
along with the time base off. Find the root mean square value of the applied voltage. An[0.354V]
UNEB 2005 Q.9
(b) Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the structure and mode of operation of a cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO) [06marks]
(c) A CRO has its y-sensitivity set to 20Vcm-1, a sinusoidal input voltage is suitably applied to give a steady time
base switched on so that the electron beam takes 0.01s to traverse the screen. If the trace seen has a peak –
to-peak height of 4cm and contains two complete cycles. Find the
(i) r.m.s value of the input voltage [03marks]
(ii) frequency of the input signal An[14.14V, 200Hz] [02marks]
5.2.0: SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are materias whose electrical conductivities are higher than those of insulators but less than those of
conductors.
Commonly used semiconducting materials include silicon, germanium, carbon and gallium arsenide.
Intrinsic semiconductors
This is a pure semiconductors with nothing added to it.
In the intrinsic semiconductor at very low temperatures, all the valence electrons are involved in boding, and the
crystal is a perfect insulator because there are no electrons available for conduction. At higher temperatures some of
the valence elctrons have sufficient energy to break away from the bonds and move about the structure. The higher
temperature, the greater the number of free electrons, hence semiconductors have a negative temperature
coefficients of resistance, i.e their electrical resistivities decrease with increasing temperature.
When an electron jumps into a conduction band it leaves behind it a space or a hole in the valence band. This hole
is effectively positive and since an electron can jump into it from from another part of the valence band, it is as if
the hole itself was moving. Conduction can take place either by electrons moving within the conduction band or by
positive holes moving within the valence band.
Extrinsic semiconductors

Extrinsic Semiconductors is a semiconductor to which a very small amount of impurity has been added by a
procces called doping.
The extent to which a semiconductor conducts electricity is considerably affected by the presence of impurities.
Doping
Doping is the introduction of controlled amounts of pentavalent materials into one half of a group IV
semiconductor and trivalent materials on the other half of a group IV semiconductor. The first half has electrons as
the majority charge carriers and therefore called n-type while the second half has holes as the majority charge
carriers forming the p-type.
Types of extrinsic semiconductors
(i) n-type
This a semiconductor in which electrons are majority carriers. It is made by doping with a pentavalent
material such as phosphorus.
(ii) p-type
This a semiconductor in which holes are majority carriers. It is made by doping with a trivalent material such
as alluminium
5.2.1: THE p-n JUNCTION DIODE

A p-n junction is formed by melting the boundaries of a p-type and n-type semiconductors and joining them.
At the boundary, holes drift from the p-type towards the n-type material and at the same time electrons drift
from the n-type to the p-type. The diffusion of holes and electrons across the boundary (depletion layer) sets up
a potential barrier which prevents further change, the p-type region becoming slightly negative and the n-type
becoming slightly positive.
Depletion layer
- +
- +
p-type - + n-type
- +
- +
It is the existence of the junction between the two types of semiconducting material which gives the device its
ability to rectify.
When a rectifier is connected to a supply, its supposed to conduct and when it does so its said to be forward
biased. And when connected in a reverse way it fails to conduct therefore its said to be reverse-biased.
Hole p-type n-type Electron Hole p-type n-type Electron
Forward bias Reverse bias
5.2.2: Characteristics of a p-n junction diode

I(mA)
 When in forward biased direction, as the p.d across
Forward bias it is increased, there is a large flow of electrons and
0
current increases almost linearly.
V(V)
 In reverse bias direction, the current is very small due
Reverse bias
minority charge carriers flow until the diode breaks
down
5.2.3: Advantages of semiconductor diodes over thermionic diode

 They require less voltage to operate
 Semiconductor diodes do not waste much energy as heat
 They are quick and cheap to make

 They are small and portal

5..3.1: RECTIFICATION
Rectification involves converting Alternating current to Direct current.
This can be done by use of
 Thermionic diodes.  Semiconductor diode
The junction diode has low resistance to current flow when forward biased, but has high resistance to current
flow when it is reverse biased.
Circuit symbol
Current flows easily in this direction
a) Full wave rectification

A D3
B
D1
cycle, diodes 1 and 2 conduct and current takes the
F
D x
path ABCRDEF
 During the next half cycle when F is positive and A
C
D2
R
is negative diodes D3 and D4 conduct while D1 and

D4
E
D2 do not conduct in this cycle and current (I) flows
m.A
y
 Four diodes are arranged in a bridge network as through path FECRDBA. The current through R is
shown above. If A is positive during the first half in the same direction throughout and it can be
measured by moving coil ammeter.
5.4.0: THE JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR)

A junction transistor is a single crystal of semiconducting material doped in such a way that a piece of p-type
material is sandwiched between two pieces of n-type material, or such that a piece of n-type is between two pieces
of p-type .
The three regions of the junction transistor are called the emitter, the base and the collector
Types of junction transistors

i) n-p-n transistor. Current is mainly due to electrons flowing from emitter to collector.
ii) p-n-p transistor. Current is mainly due to movement of holes from emitter to collector.
Symbols
The arrows show direction of conventional current
E C E C
B B
P-n-P type n-p-n type
The transister can be connected into a circuit in three different ways
• Common Emitter mode- has both Current and Voltage Gain.

• Common Base mode - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
• Common Collector mode - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.
5.4.1:Common – emitter mode (CE mode) for n-p-n transistor

When a transistor is in use the base-emitter junction is normally forward biased and the base-collector junction is
reverse biased. In the case of n-p-n transistor, the base must be positive with respect to the emitter and the
collector must be positive with respect to the base

The circuit can be used to obtain three types of

characteristics
(1) Input characteristics
(2) Out put characteristics
(3) Transfer characteristic
5.4.2: IB Against VBE(Input characteristics)

IB IB varies exponentially with VBE
∆ 𝑉𝐵𝐸
Input resistance 𝑅𝐼𝑁 = ∆ 𝐼𝐵
0
VBE
5.4.3: Collector current (IC) Against collector emitter voltage (VCE) (Output characteristics)
IC
At Higher VCE, IC varies linearly with VCE for a given
IB3
IB2
base current IB. the linear part of the characteristics is
IB1
IB3 IB2 IB1 used as amplifier circuit so that the output voltage
variation is undistorted.
0 ∆ 𝑉𝐶𝐸
VCE Load resistance 𝑅𝐿 = ∆ 𝐼𝐶
For small VCE the output current IC increases
slightly with VCE.
5.4.4: A graph of IC Against IB (Transfer characteristics)
I
C
Output current IC varies fairly linearly with the input
current IB.
Current transfer ratio 𝛽or (current gain)
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝐼𝑐
0 𝛽= =
IB 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝐼𝐵
5.4.5: Transistor as a voltage amplifier The small A.C voltage Vin is applied to the base
emitter circuit and causes a small change in base
current 𝐼𝐵 which produces a large change 𝐼𝑐 in the
collector current flowing through the load R
Numerical calculations
From the circuit diagram above, the current flowing out of the transistor must be equal to the currents flowing into
the transistor
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝐵 .
Current gain is given by;
𝐼
𝛽 = 𝐶⁄𝐼
𝐵
Also
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑉𝐶𝐸
Voltage amplification or voltage gain
This is the ratio of output voltage 𝑉0 to the input 𝑉0
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
voltages 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛

Input voltage; 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝐵 (𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑟 ) Output voltage; 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿 … … … … [4]

𝑅𝑖𝑛 - input resistance of the base-emitter junction 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜 = 𝛽 ( ) 𝑅𝐿
𝑟- internal resistance of the input source 𝑅𝑖𝑛 +𝑟𝑠
𝐼𝐵 = 𝑅
𝑉𝑖𝑛
… … … … … [1] 𝑉0 𝛽 𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝑛 +𝑟
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑟
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵 … … … … . [2]
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝛽𝑅𝐿
𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽 ( ) … … … … [3] 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑟 𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑟
Examples
1. An n-p-n Transistor has a DC current gain, (Beta) value of 200. Calculate the base current 𝐼𝐵 required to
switch a resistive load of 4mA.
Solution
𝐼
𝛽 = 𝐶⁄𝐼
−3
𝐼𝐵 = 4𝑥10 ⁄200 = 20𝜇𝐴
𝐵
2. An n-p-n Transistor has a DC base-bias voltage of 10V and an input base resistance of 100𝑘𝛺. Calculate the
base current into the transistor if the base-emitter voltage drop is 0.7𝑉
Solution
𝑉𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸 . 10 = 𝐼𝐵 𝑥100,000 + 0.7 𝐼𝐵 = 93𝜇𝐴
3. The input resistance of a certain n-p-n transistor in the common emitter connection is 1𝑘𝛺. The small current
amplification transfer ratio is 100. The internal resistance of the emitter- base junction is negligible and the
load resistor is 2.5 𝑘𝛺. Find the voltage gain
Solution
𝛽𝑅𝐿 100𝑥2500
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = 250
𝑅𝑖𝑛 + 𝑟 1000 + 0
Trial exercise
1. An n-p-n Transistor has a DC base-bias voltage of 9V and base current of 20𝜇𝐴. Calculate the base
resistance, if the base-emitter voltage drop is 0.8𝑉. An 410𝑘𝛺
2. Determine the voltage amplification of a transistor with current amplification of 100, if the input
resistance is 1𝑘𝛺, the load resistor is 2.2 𝑘𝛺 and the value of the resistor in the base circuit is 20𝑘𝛺 An 10.5
5.5.0: LOGIC GATES AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Logic gates are the switches that turn ON or OFF depending on what the user is doing.
The output is either ON (1) or OFF (0) depending on the input.
NOT gate /INVERTOR gate

In the NOT gate, the output is high only when its input is not high
Circuit symbol Truth table
Input Output
S F S F
0 1
1 0
NOR gate
It has two inputs and the output is high only when both inputs are not high
Input Output
A B F
A
F 0 0 1
B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
OR gate

It has two inputs and the output is high if one input or both inputs are high
Input Output
A B F
A
F 0 0 0
B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
AND gate
It has two inputs and the output is high only if one input is high and the other is also high
Input Output
A B F
A
F 0 0 0
B 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
NAND gate
It has two inputs and the output is high if one input is low or both are low
Input Output
A B F
A
F 0 0 1
B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Examples
1. Complete the truth table for the simple combination of logic gates below
B C D E
A A
C 0 0
B
0 1
E 1 0
1 1
D
Solution
B C D E
A
0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 1
2. Complete the truth table for the simple combination of logic gates below
A D E F
D A B C
B 0 0 0
F 0 0 1
0 1 0
C E 0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1
3. Complete the truth table for the NOR gate combination

C D E
A C A B
0 0
0 1
E
1 0
1 1
B D
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
In 1847 George Boole devised a simple method of analysing logic circuits and summarized as below
OR gate; Output= 𝐴 + 𝐵 NAND gate; Output= ̅̅̅̅̅𝐴. 𝐵
AND gate; Output= 𝐴. 𝐵 NOR gate; Output= ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴+𝐵
NOT gate; Output= 𝐴 ̅
Examples
A A.B A A+B
AND OR X=(A.B)+C OR
B AND X=(A+B).C
C B
(i) C
(ii)

A
A
X= A + B A A +B
B X= A + B
B
(iii)
(iv)
Examples
1.
2. Use Boolean algebra to solve the circuit for the inputs 𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 1, 𝐶 = 0, 𝐷 = 1

A A
AND AND A.B
B B A.B( C+D)
AND AND
C NOT C NOT C C+D

OR OR
D D
Solution Final ouput; 𝐴. 𝐵(𝐶̅ + 𝐷) = 𝐴. 𝐵. 𝐶̅ + 𝐴. 𝐵. 𝐷

= 1.1.1 + 1.1.1
=1+1=1
Drawing logic circuits from Boolean expression

Laws of boolean algebra
Rules of boolean algebra

Demorgans rule

Example
Determine the out put expression for the circuit belowand simplify using Demorgans rule
Universality of NAND and NOR gates
UNEB 2020 Q.9

(a) (i) What is meant by a p-n junction as applied to semiconductors? (01mark)
(ii) Explain the term doping as applied to a p-n junction diode. (03marks)
(b) (i) Explain, with the aid of a labelled diagram, the I-V charateristics of a junction diode
(03marks)
(ii) Describe how full wave rectification can be achieved using a bridge rectifier. (04marks)
(c) The input resistance of a certain n-p-n transistor in the common emitter connection is 3𝑘𝛺. The small
current amplification transfer ratio is 100. The internal resistance of the emitter- base junction is
negligible and the load resistor is 6 𝑘𝛺. Find the voltage gain. An 200 (04marks)
UNEB 2019 Q.9

(c) (i) What is meant by thermionic emission? (01mark)
(ii) Describe how full-wave rectification of a.c can be achieved using four semiconductor
diodes (06marks)
UNEB 2012 Q 10
(a) With the aid of a labeled diagram explain full wave rectification [07marks]
(b) i) Sketch the output characteristics of a transistor [02marks]
(ii) Identify on the sketch in e(i) the region over which the transistor can be used as an amplifier.
[01mark]
UNEB 2007 Q.8
(a) (i) Describe the structure of a junction transistor [02marks]
(ii) Sketch and describe the collector-current against the collector-emitter voltage characteristics
of a junction transistor [03marks]
Please get a complete copy of the book at Ushs 25,000 in

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Pass A’ level Physics 1 in Two days

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 1

For Further assistance, do not hesistate to consult the

Students who need online or face to face tutorials can

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 2

CHAPTER1: DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL QUANTITY

1.1.1: Derived quantities

1.1.2: DIMENSIONS OF A PHYSICAL QUANTITY

Or It refers to the power to which fundamental quantities are raised.

1.1.3: USES OF DIMENSIONS

a) Checking validity of equations (dimensional consistency)

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 3

UNEB 2016 N0 1 (a)

UNEB 2010 N0 4 (d)

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 4

CHAPTER 2: COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2 = √0.52 + 2.062 = 2.12𝑁

45o 60o 60o 30o

above the horizontal] Find the resultant force acting at 0 An[3.4N at

UNEB 2019 No1

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 5

(a) LINEAR MOTION

Equations of uniform acceleration

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 6

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 7

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠 Total time = (2.53 + 1.53) = 4.06𝑠

UNEB 2014 No 1(c)

UNEB 2013 No 3(d)

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 8

(c) PROJECTILE MOTION

TERMS USED IN PROJECTILES

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 9

which makes an angle of 450 with the horizontal 2m

and its flight takes 4.00s. stating any assumptions 20m

(i) The horizontal distance travelled Calculate

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 10

CHAPTER 4: NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

LAW III: To every action there is an equal but opposite reactions.

Rocket engine propulsion

4.1.2: LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 11

4.1.3: WHY LONG JUMPER BEND KNEES

4.1.4: LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

By principle of conservation of momentum

4.1.5: Proof of the law of conservation of momentum using Newton’s law

Onyait Justine Edmond +256775263103 12

𝑚1 𝑢 1 = 𝑚1 𝑣𝑃 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑄 In elastic collision of Q and R:

𝑚1 (𝑢 1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 𝑣2 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) 𝑣22

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elastic collision with a body of mass M initially 300

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Application of law of conservation of momentum

region where the effect of gravity can be

4.1.9: BALLISTIC PENDULUM

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Determination of velocity of a bullet using a ballistic pendulum

embedded in it. The block swings to one suede

2. A circular ring is tied to a roof using a string of 4h

length, 𝑙 and displaced such that it makes an

UNEB 2019 NO.1