Sources and Stone Age

Palaeolithic Period: Hunters and gatherers
Man in appeared in India as early as 1.4 mya – evidence from Bori, Maharashtra
Early tools – Crude chipping discovered throughout except alluvial plains of

Indus, Ganga and Yamuna rivers.
No knowledge of cultivation and house building till 9000 BC

Phases in the Palaeolithic Age
The Palaeolithic Age in India is divided into three phases in accordance with
the type of stone tools used by the people and the nature of climatic change.
Early or Lower Palaeolithic
• Covers the greater part of the ice age
• India it is not older than 600,000 years - Bori in Maharashtra
• People use hand axes, cleavers, and choppers - more or less similar to those
of western Asia, Europe, and Africa
• Used - chopping, digging, and skinning
• Early Old Stone Age sites - valley of river Son or Sohan in Punjab, now in
Pakistan, Belan valley in UP, Didwana (All 3 phases), Chirki-Nevasa in
Maharashtra, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh, Bhimbetka near Bhopal
• Principally been food gatherers, hunting and lived also on fish and birds
Middle Palaeolithic
Industries were largely based upon flakes or small

pieces of stone - blades, points, borers, and scrapers, all made of flakes
Geographical horizon - several places on the river Narmada, south of the

Tungabhadra river, Belan valley (UP), lies at the foothills of the Vindhyas
Upper Palaeolithic phase
• The climate was less humid, coinciding with the last phase of the ice age
when the climate became comparatively warm.
• It marks the appearance of new flint industries and men of the modern type
• In India, the use of blades and burins, which have been found in AP,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, central MP, southern UP, Jharkhand and adjoining
areas.
• Caves and rock shelters for use by human beings in the Upper Palaeolithic
phase have been discovered at Bhimbetka
The Mesolithic Age: Hunters and Herders
• Transitional phase between the Palaeolithic

and Neolithic ages.
• People lived on hunting, fishing, and food

gathering, and later domesticated animals.
• The Mesolithic age was marked by microliths,

or tiny tools.
• Geographical Spread and Sites - Bagor in

Rajasthan (microlithic industry) and
Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh, both provide
early evidence of animal domestication around
5000 BC
• Agriculture - cultivation of plants around

7000–6000 BC in Rajasthan, based on studies
of Sambhar, a former salt lake.
Neolithic age: Food Producers
• Neolithic age began around 9000 BC.
• In the Indian subcontinent, the earliest known Neolithic settlement is

Mehrgarh in Baluchistan, Pakistan, dated to 7000 BC.
v Located on the bank of the Bolan river in the Kochi plain, also
known as the ‘bread basket’ of Baluchistan.
Early Inhabitants and Agriculture
• Early settlers raised domestic animals and produced cereals.
• Settlement was disturbed by floods around 5500 BC but resumed

agricultural activities around 5000 BC using stone and bone tools.
• Produced wheat and barley from the outset.
• Domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats; initially, goats predominated

but later cattle became more numerous.
• Granaries and Dwellings: Cereals were stored in
granaries, often made of mud bricks, which were also
used for constructing dwellings.
v Many compartmented mud-brick structures appear

to be granaries.
• Progress in pottery: up to 5000 BC, pots were not

made, but after 4500 BC, the potter’s wheel was
introduced, leading to painted pottery.
Key Sites
Burzahom:
• Located 16 km north-west of Srinagar.
• Inhabitants lived in lake-side pits, engaged in hunting,
fishing, and agriculture.
• Used coarse grey pottery.
• Unique practice of burying domestic dogs with their
masters.
• Earliest date around 2700 BC.
Gufkral: South west of Srinagar - Practised agriculture and

animal husbandry.
Chirand (Bihar):
• Located 40 km west of Patna.
• Known for bone implements made of antlers.
• Late Neolithic settlement with about 100 cm rainfall.
• Established at the junction of the Ganges, Son, Gandak, and
Ghaghra rivers.
• Marked by a paucity of stone tools.
• Bones recovered date to around 2000 BC.
North-Eastern Neolithic Culture:

Neolithic tools found in Assam hills and Garo hills in Meghalaya.
Key Sites:
• Settlements in the Vindhyas and Kaimur hills.
• Mirzapur and Allahabad districts (UP): Notable for rice
cultivation in the fifth millennium BC.
• Senuwar (Rohtas district): Important site in the Kaimur
hilly area.
• Taradih: Close to the Bodh-Gaya temple.
Neolithic Settlements in South India
Neolithic Sites:
South India has the largest number of Neolithic settlements due to the
availability of stone, with over 850 sites in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and
Tamil Nadu.
Important sites include:
• Karnataka: Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodekal, Sanganakallu, Piklihal,

Takkalakota.
• Tamil Nadu: Paiyampalli.
• Andhra Pradesh: Utnur.
Dependence on Stone Tools:
• Relied almost entirely on tools and weapons made of stone.
• This limited their ability to establish settlements far from hilly areas.
Chalcolithic Cultures
• Known as the copper–stone phase, it is considered the pre-Harappan phase.

• Primarily rural communities using stone, copper, low-grade bronze, and
occasionally iron.
Geographical Spread:
• Found in south-eastern Rajasthan, western MP, western Maharashtra, and
southern and eastern India.
Important sites:
• Rajasthan: Ahar, Gilund.
• MP: Kayatha, Eran.
• Maharashtra: Jorwe, Nevasa, Daimabad, Chandoli, Songaon, Inamgaon,

Prakash, Nasik
Notable site: Navdatoli (Narmada bank) yielded many cereals and pulses.
Jorwe Culture:
• Dominated modern Maharashtra (except Vidarbha and Konkan) from c.
1400 to 700 BC.
• Rural with some settlements like Daimabad and Inamgaon nearing
urbanization.
• Relied on brown–black soil in semi-arid areas.
• Showed influence from Malwa culture and elements from the southern
Neolithic culture.
Ahar Culture:
• Located in the Banas valley, Rajasthan.
• Known for copper objects, smelting, and metallurgy from c. 2100 to 1500
BC.
• Little use of microlithic tools.
Pottery:
• Used various types of pottery, notably black-and-red ware.
• Prevalent from 2000 BC onwards, often painted with white linear
designs.
• Found across Rajasthan, MP, Maharashtra, Bihar, and West Bengal.
• Included channel-spouted pots, dishes-on-stand, and bowls-on-stand.
• Differences in painted pottery styles indicate cultural diversity.
Settlements and Architecture:
• General construction: wattle and daub, mud-brick, thatched

houses; stone houses in Ahar.
• Ahar and Gilund: spread over 4 hectares in Banas valley,

Rajasthan.
• Daimabad (largest Jorwe site): 20 hectares, housed ~4000

people, fortified with mud walls and stone bastions, notable for
bronze goods.
• Inamgaon: large Chalcolithic settlement with mud houses,

granary, and burial sites; evidence of social hierarchy.
Arts and Crafts: Expert coppersmiths, stone workers, bead

manufacturing from carnelian, steatite, quartz crystal.
Spinning and weaving: spindle whorls found, use of cotton, flax,

silk threads.
Diverse crafts: potters, smiths, ivory carvers, lime makers,

terracotta artisans.
Burial Practices and Religion:
• Burials: urn burials beneath house floors (north-to-south position),

grave goods included pottery and copper objects.
• Religious artifacts: terracotta figures of mother goddess, stylized bull

terracottas.
• Evidence of social inequalities: larger settlements with hierarchical

structures, grave goods indicating wealth.

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Palaeolithic Period: Hunters and gatherers

Early tools – Crude chipping discovered throughout except alluvial plains of

No knowledge of cultivation and house building till 9000 BC

Early or Lower Palaeolithic

• Covers the greater part of the ice age

• India it is not older than 600,000 years - Bori in Maharashtra

• Used - chopping, digging, and skinning

Industries were largely based upon flakes or small

Geographical horizon - several places on the river Narmada, south of the

Upper Palaeolithic phase

• Transitional phase between the Palaeolithic

• People lived on hunting, fishing, and food

• The Mesolithic age was marked by microliths,

• Geographical Spread and Sites - Bagor in

• Agriculture - cultivation of plants around

• Neolithic age began around 9000 BC.

• In the Indian subcontinent, the earliest known Neolithic settlement is

Early Inhabitants and Agriculture

• Early settlers raised domestic animals and produced cereals.

• Settlement was disturbed by floods around 5500 BC but resumed

• Produced wheat and barley from the outset.

• Domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats; initially, goats predominated

v Many compartmented mud-brick structures appear

• Progress in pottery: up to 5000 BC, pots were not

Gufkral: South west of Srinagar - Practised agriculture and

North-Eastern Neolithic Culture:

Important sites include:

• Karnataka: Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodekal, Sanganakallu, Piklihal,

• Tamil Nadu: Paiyampalli.

• Andhra Pradesh: Utnur.

Dependence on Stone Tools:

• Relied almost entirely on tools and weapons made of stone.

• Known as the copper–stone phase, it is considered the pre-Harappan phase.

• Rajasthan: Ahar, Gilund.

• MP: Kayatha, Eran.

• Maharashtra: Jorwe, Nevasa, Daimabad, Chandoli, Songaon, Inamgaon,

• General construction: wattle and daub, mud-brick, thatched

• Ahar and Gilund: spread over 4 hectares in Banas valley,

• Daimabad (largest Jorwe site): 20 hectares, housed ~4000

• Inamgaon: large Chalcolithic settlement with mud houses,

Arts and Crafts: Expert coppersmiths, stone workers, bead

Spinning and weaving: spindle whorls found, use of cotton, flax,

Diverse crafts: potters, smiths, ivory carvers, lime makers,

• Burials: urn burials beneath house floors (north-to-south position),

• Religious artifacts: terracotta figures of mother goddess, stylized bull

• Evidence of social inequalities: larger settlements with hierarchical

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