Light

Light is a form of energy which produces the sensation of sight on our eyes.
Sources of light are of three types-thermal sources, gas discharge sources
and luminescent sources.
Ray Optics is branch of science which treat Light as straight rays ignoring
its wave characteristics. This approximation is valid when dimensions of
optical instruments are too large compared to wavelength of light.

Characteristics of Light
Light waves are electromagnetic waves, whose nature is transverse.
The speed of light in vacuum is 3 ×10 8 m/s but it is different in different
media.
The speed and wavelength of light change when it travels from one medium
to another but its frequency remains unchanged.

Image is formed If light ray coming from an object meets or appear to

meet at a point after reflection or refraction, then this point is called image
of the object.
Real Image The image obtained by the real meeting of light rays is called a
real image.
Real image can be obtained on a screen.
Real image is inverted.
Virtual Image The image obtained when light rays are not really meeting
but appears to meet only, is called a virtual image.

Reflection of Light
The rebouncing back of light rays into the same medium on striking a highly
polished surface such as a mirror is called reflection of light.

Laws of Reflection
There are two laws of reflection
(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of
incidence all three lie in the same plane.
(ii) The angle of incidence (i) is always equal to the angle of reflection (r ).

Mirror
A smooth and highly polished reflecting surface is called a mirror.
(i) Plane Mirror A highly polished plane surface is called a plane mirror.
Different properties of image formed by plane mirror are given below

 Size of image = Size of object

Magnification = Unity
 Distance of image from the mirror
¿ Distance of object from the mirror
 A plane mirror may form a virtual as well as real image.
 A man may see his full image in a mirror of half height of man.
 When two plane mirror are held at an angle θ , the number of images
of an object placed between them is given as below

( )
∘ ∘
360 360
(a) n= −1 , if is an even integer.
θ θ
∘ ∘
360 360
(b) n=¿ integral part of , when is an odd integer.
θ θ
 If keeping an object fixed, a plane mirror is rotated in its plane by an
angle θ , then the reflected ray rotates in the same direction by an
angle 2 θ.
 Focal length as well as radius of curvature of a plane mirror is infinity.
Power of a plane mirror is zero.
 In the image formed by a plane mirror, the right side of the object
appears as left side and vice-versa. This phenomena is called lateral
inversion.

(ii) Spherical Mirror A highly polished curved surface whose

reflecting surface is a cut part of a hollow glass sphere is called a
spherical mirror. Spherical mirrors are of two types
(a) Concave Mirror A spherical mirror whose bent in surface is
reflecting surface, is called a concave mirror.
(b) Convex Mirror A spherical mirror whose buldging out surface is
reflecting surface, is called a convex mirror.
Some Terms Related to Spherical Mirrors are Given Below
(i) Centre of Curvature (C) It is the centre of the sphere of which the
mirror is a part.
(ii) Radius of Curvature (R) The radius of the hollow sphere of which
the mirror is a part is called radius of curvature.
(iii) Pole (P) The central point of the spherical mirror is called its pole
(P).
(iv) Focus (F) When a parallel beam of light rays is incident on a
spherical mirror, then after reflection it meets or appears to meet at a
point on principal axis which is called focus of the spherical mirror.
(v) Focal Length (f ) The distance between the pole and focus is called
focal length (f ) .
Relation between focal length and radius of curvature is given by

R
f=
2

1
The power of a mirror is given as P= (metre)
f
1 1 1
(vi) Mirror formula = +
f v u
where, f =¿ focal length of the mirror, u=¿ distance of the object and v=¿
distance of the image.

Linear Magnification
The ratio of height of image (I ) formed by a mirror to the height of the
object (O) is called linear magnification (m).
I −v
Linear magnification (m)= =
O u
Areal and Axial Magnification
 The ratio of area of image to the area of object is called areal
magnification.
2
2 Area of image v
Areal magnification ¿ m = = 2
Area of object u
When a small sized object is placed linearly along the principle axis, then its
longitudinal or axial magnification is given by

() ( ) ( )
2 2 2
dv v f f −v
Axial magnification ¿− = = =
du u f −u f

Sign Convention for Spherical Mirrors

(i) All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
(ii) Distances measured in the direction of incident light rays are taken as
positive.
(iii) Distances measured in opposite direction to the incident light rays are
taken as negative.
(iv) Distances measured above the principal axis are positive.
(v) Distances measured below the principal axis are negative.
Note The focal length of concave mirror is taken negative and for a convex
mirror taken as positive.

Rules for Image Formation in Spherical Mirrors

In ray optics, to locate the image of an object, tracing of a ray as it reflects is
very important.
Following four types of rays are used for image formation
Ray 1. A ray through the centre of curvature which strikes the mirror
normally and is reflected back along the same path.

Ray 2. A ray parallel to principal axis after reflection either actually passes
through the principal focus F or appears to diverge from it.

Ray 3. A ray passing through the principal focus F or a ray which appears to
converge at F is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
Ray 4. A ray striking at pole P is reflected symmetrically back in the
opposite side.
Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors

1 Image formation by concave mirror

In case of a concave mirror, the image is erect and virtual when the
object is placed between F and P. In all other positions of object, the
image is real and inverted as shown in the table given below.

Image Formation by Concave Mirror

2 Image formation by convex mirror
Image formed by convex mirror is always virtual, erect and diminished no
matter where the object is. All the images formed by this mirror will be
between pole and focus as shown in the table given below.
Image Formation by Convex Mirror
Refraction of Light
The deviation of light rays from its path when it travels from one transparent
medium to another transparent medium is called refraction of light.

 When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it

bends towards the normal.
 When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it
bends away from the normal.
Cause of Refraction
The speed of light is different in different media.
Laws of Refraction
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of
incidence, all three lies in the same plane.
(ii) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction
sin ⁡i
is constant for a pair of two media, i.e. =¿ constant ( 1 μ 2 )
sin ⁡r
where 1 μ 2 is called refractive index of second medium with respect to first
medium. This law is also called Snell's law.
Refractive Index
The ratio of speed of light in vacuum (c) to the speed of light in any
medium (v) is called refractive index of the medium.
c
Refractive index of a medium, μ=
v
4
Refractive index of water ¿ =1.33
3
3
Refractive index of glass ¿ =1.50
2
When light is reflected by a denser medium, phase difference of π radian
λ T
or path difference of or time difference is produced. This is known as
2 2
Stoke's law. Distance x travelled by light in a medium of refractive index
μ is equal to distance (μx) travelled in vacuum.
μx
Time taken by light to transverse a thickness x= where c=¿ velocity of
c
light in vacuum.
Relative Refractive Index
The refractive index of second medium with respect to first medium

v1
1 μ 2=
v2

where, v 1 is the speed of light in medium 1 and v 2 is the speed of light in

medium 2.

Refraction through a Glass Slab

When a glass slab is placed in the path of a light ray it produces a shift in

the position of object when viewed through it, which is ¿ 1−( 1n ) t .

When object is in denser medium and seen from rarer medium normally

through the plane surface, then apparent depth of object ¿ 1− ( 1n ) × actual

depth of object in denser medium.

Critical Angle
The angle of incidence in a denser
medium for which the angle of
refraction in rarer medium becomes
∘
90 is called critical angle (C) .
Critical angle for diamond ¿ 24 ∘
Critical angle for glass ¿ 42∘
Critical angle for water ¿ 48 ∘
Refractive index of denser medium,

1
μ=
sin ⁡C
 Critical angle increases with temperature.
The refractive index is maximum for violet colour of light and minimum
for red colour of light, i.e. μV > μ R , therefore critical angle is maximum for
red colour of light and minimum for violet colour of light, i.e. C V <C R .
Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
When a light ray travelling from a denser medium towards a rarer
medium is incident at the interface at an angle of incidence greater than
critical angle, then light rays are totally reflected back in to the denser
medium. This phenomena is called TIR.

For total internal reflection to take place following set conditions must be
obeyed

(i) The ray must travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
(ii) The angle of incidence (∠ i) must be greater than critical angle (∠ C) .
Mirage is an optical illusion observed in deserts and roads on a hot day
which is an application of TIR.
Optical Fibres
Optical fibres are also based on the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
Optical fibres consist of several thousands of very long fine quality fibres of
glass or quartz. The diameter of each fibre is of the order of 10−4 cm with
refractive index of material being of the order of 1.5. These fibres are
fabricated in such a way that light reflected at one side of the inner surface
strikes the other at an angle larger than critical angle. Even, if fibre is bent,
light can easily travel along the length. Thus, these are used in transmission
and reception of electrical signals by converting them first into light signals.

Refraction at Spherical surfaces

When two transparent media are separated by a spherical surface, light
incident on the surface from one side get refracted into the medium on the
other side. Spherical surfaces are of two types as shown in figure.

For both surfaces refraction formula is given by

 μ 1 ( μ−1)
− =
v u R

where, μ=¿ refractive index, u=¿ distance of object, v=¿ distance of image
and R = radius of curvature of the spherical surface.
Lens
A lens is a uniform transparent medium bounded between two spherical or
one spherical and one plane surface.

Convex Lens
A lens which is thinner at edges and thicker at middle is called a convex or
converging lens.
Concave Lens
A lens which is thicker at edges and thinner at middle is called a concave or
diverging lens.
Lens Formula

1 1 1
= −
f v u

where, f =¿ focal length of the lens, u=¿ distance of object and v=¿ distance
of image.
Lens Maker's formula

1
f
=(μ−1)
1
(−
1
R1 R 2 )
where, μ = refractive index of the material of the lens and R1 and R2 are radii
of curvature of the lens.
Power of a Lens
The reciprocal of the focal length of a lens, when it is measured in metre is
called power of a lens.
1
Power of a lens, (P)=
f ( metre )
Its unit is diopter (D).
The power of a convex (converging) lens is positive and for a concave
(diverging) lens it is negative.
Laws of Formation of Images by Lens
The position and nature of the image by lens, in any case can be obtained
either from a ray diagram or by calculation.
To construct the image of a small object perpendicular to the axis of a lens,
two of the following three rays are drawn from the top of the object.

(i) A ray parallel to the principal axis after refraction passes through the
principal focus or appears to diverge from it.
(ii) A ray through, the optical centre P passes undeviated because the
middle of the lens acts like a thin parallel-sided slab.

(iii) A ray passing through, the first focus F 1 become parallel to the principal
axis after refraction.

Image Formation by Lens

1 Image Formation by Convex lens

The image formed by convex lens depends on the position of object.
Formation of image by convex lens for different positions of object is
shown in the table given below.
2 Image Formation by Concave lens
The image formed by a concave lens is always virtual, erect and
diminished ( like a convex mirror). The image formation by concave
lens for different positions of object is shown in the table given below.
Focal Length of a Lens Combination
(i) When lenses are in contact

1 1 1
= +
F f1 f2

Power of the combination, P=P1 + P2

(ii) When lenses are separated by a distance d

1 1 1 d
= + −
F f1 f2 f1f2

Power of the combination, P=P1 + P2−d P1 P2

Linear Magnification

I v
m= =
O u

For a small sized object placed linearly along the principal axis, its axial
(longitudinal) magnification is given by

() ( ) ( )
2 2 2
dv v f f −u
Axial magnification = = = =
du u f +u f

Prism
Prism is uniform transparent medium bounded between two refracting
surfaces inclined at an angle.

Angle of Deviation
 The angle subtended between the direction of incident light ray and
emergent light ray from a prism is called angle of deviation ( δ ).

Prism Formula The refractive index of material of prism, μ=

( A +δ2 )
sin ⁡
m

sin ⁡ ( A2 )
where, A=¿ prism angle and δ m=¿ minimum angle of deviation.

Dispersion of Light
The splitting of white light into its constituent colours in the sequence of
VIBGYOR, on passing through a prism is called dispersion of light.
The refractive index μV > μ R , therefore violet colour deviates most and red
colour deviates least, i.e. δ V >δ R .

Simple Microscope
It is used for observing magnified images of objects. It consists of a
converging lens of small focal length.

Magnifying Power
(i) When final image is formed at least
distance of distinct vision (D), then
 D
M =1+ where, f =¿ focal length of the lens.
f
D
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity, then M = .
f

Compound Microscope
It is a combination of two convex lenses called objective lens and eye piece
separated by a distance. Both lenses are of small focal lengths but f o < f e,
where f o and f e are focal lengths of objective lens and eye piece respectively.

Magnifying Power
(i) When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (D), then

( )
vo D
M= 1+
uo fe

where, v o=¿ distance of image formed by objective lens and uo =¿ distance of

object from the objective.
vo D
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity, then, M = ⋅
uo f e

Astronomical Telescope
It is also a combination of two lenses called objective lens and eyepiece,
separated by a distance. It is used for observing distinct images of heavenly
bodies like stars, planets etc.
Objective lens is a convex lens of large aperture and large focal length while
eyepiece is a convex lens of small aperture and small focal length.
Magnifying Power
(i) When final image is formed at least distance of distinct vision (D), then

( )
fo D
M= 1+ , where f o and f e are focal lengths of objective and eyepiece
fe fe
respectively.
Length of the telescope (L)=( f o +ue ) where, ue =¿ distance of object from the
eyepiece.
fo
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity, then M = . Length of the
fe
telescope, (L)=f o +f e
Note For large magnifying power of a telescope f o should be large and f e
should be small.
For large magnifying power of a microscope f o < f e but f e should be small.

Reflecting Telescope
Reflecting telescope are based upon the same principle except that the
formation of images takes place by reflection instead of by refraction. It
consists of concave mirror of large aperture and large focal length
(objective). A plane mirror is placed between the concave mirror and its
focus. A small convex lens works as eye-piece.
If f 0 is focal length of the concave spherical mirror and f e the focal length of
the eye-piece, the magnifying power of the reflecting telescope is given by

fo
m=
fe

Resolving Power
The ability of an optical instrument to produce separate and clear images of
two nearby objects is called its resolving power.