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Speed of decision-making as a key element for professional and academy

soccer players’ performances

Article in Retos · September 2023

DOI: 10.47197/retos.v50.100355

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Speed of decision-making as a key element for professional and academy soccer players’ performances
La rapidez en la toma de decisiones como elemento clave para el rendimiento de los futbolistas profe-
sionales y de cantera
*Israel Teoldo, *Eliakim Mezzadri, *,**Felippe Cardoso, *,***Guilherme Machado
*Universidade Federal de Viçosa (Brazil), **Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora (Brazil), ***Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha (Spain)

Abstract. This study aimed to: i) compare the number of decisions made in official matches between youth academy and professional
soccer players and ii) compare the quality and speed of decision-making between youth academy and professional players. In experiment
1 we assessed 12 soccer matches (7 professional and 5 academy matches) through notational analysis. In experiment 2 we assessed 138
soccer players from professional (n = 42) and academy (n = 96) levels. The TacticUP® was used to assess game reading and decision-
making skills. Results indicated that professional players make around 56% more decisions than youth academy players in official
matches of their respective tournaments. In addition, professional players are quicker in making decisions for all match situations: with
the ball (offensive phase), without the ball (offensive and defensive phases), near and distant from the ball. Based on the results, we
verified that both in situ (official match) and in vitro (controlled test) situations the speed of decision-making was a distinguishing feature
of performance between professional and youth academy players.
Keywords: football; game reading; perceptual-cognitive skills; perceptual-motor skills; response time; talent development.

Resumen. El objetivo de este estudio fue: i) comparar el número de decisiones tomadas en partidos oficiales entre jugadores de la
cantera y profesionales y ii) comparar la calidad y velocidad de la toma de decisiones entre jugadores de la cantera y profesionales. En
el experimento 1 evaluamos 12 partidos de fútbol (7 profesionales y 5 de la cantera) a través del análisis notacional. En el experimento
2 evaluamos a 138 jugadores de fútbol de nivel profesional (n = 42) y de de la cantera (n = 96). Se utilizó el TacticUP® para evaluar
las habilidades de lectura del juego y de toma de decisiones. Los resultados indicaron que los jugadores profesionales toman alrededor
de un 56% más decisiones que los jugadores de la cantera en partidos oficiales de sus respectivos torneos. Además, los jugadores
profesionales son más rápidos en la toma de decisiones en todas las situaciones del partido: con balón (fase ofensiva), sin balón (fases
ofensiva y defensiva), cerca y lejos del balón. A partir de los resultados, comprobamos que tanto en situaciones in situ (partido oficial)
como in vitro (prueba controlada) la rapidez en la toma de decisiones fue un rasgo distintivo del rendimiento entre jugadores profesio-
nales y de cantera.
Palabras clave: fútbol; lectura del juego; habilidades perceptivo-cognitivas; habilidades perceptivo-motoras; tiempo de respuesta;
desarrollo del talento.

Fecha recepción: 14-06-23. Fecha de aceptación: 24-08-23

Israel Teoldo
israel.teoldo@ufv.br

Introduction soccer players need to optimize their skills at both percep-

tual-cognitive and perceptual-motor levels (Vickers & Wil-
Soccer players need to make quick and accurate deci- liams, 2017; Williams & Ward, 2007).
sions in a highly unpredictable environment (Assis et al., As for the perceptual and cognitive skills, Cardoso et al.
2021; Roca & Ford, 2020; Teoldo et al., 2022; Williams et (2021) verified that the players who are capable of making
al., 2020). Consequently, they must search and process a quicker and more accurate decisions are also those who pos-
great amount of environmental information, under time sess better skills for employing visual search strategies, and
pressure and high cognitive load (Cardoso et al., 2020; more efficient information processing. Several authors indi-
Vickers & Williams, 2017). Literature indicates that most cated that expert players are capable of searching more effi-
environmental information (e.g., opponents, team-mates, ciently for relevant information across the game environ-
or empty space) utilized by the players comes from vision, ment, are quicker at recognizing postural cues and relevant
and the ability to search, as well as to process, accurate in- signals, thus ensuring advantages when making decisions
formation, refer to players’ perceptual and cognitive skills (Roca et al., 2011; Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, Mazyn, et al.,
(Cardoso et al., 2021; Machado et al., 2017; Roca et al., 2007; Ward & Williams, 2003). Previous literature has made
2011, 2020). On the other hand, the performance of game comparisons between experts and novices, however there is
actions at the behavioral level is associated to perceptual and lack of research that has compared professional and academy
motor representations of the decisions made (Williams & players (González-Víllora et al., 2015; Roca et al., 2012;
Ward, 2021). Thus, they are the observable elements in the Vickers, 2016; Vickers & Williams, 2017).
game of soccer, represented by technical, physical and tac- With respect to perceptual and motor skills, evidence in-
tical elements (Belling et al., 2015; Casanova et al., 2022; dicates that expert players are more accurate in their deci-
Teoldo et al., 2022; Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, & Philip- sions (Machado et al., 2023a; Roca et al., 2020), are more
paerts, 2007; Vickers & Williams, 2017). In this context, effective at managing their physical and physiological de-
decision-making can be defined as a choice of action and an mands (Hogarth et al., 2015) and display better technical
outcome identified through a motor or verbal response (Buekers et al., 2015) and tactical (Andrade et al., 2020)
(Bruce et al., 2012; Macmahon & Mcpherson, 2009). game behaviors.
Therefore, for quicker and more qualified decision-making,

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The aforementioned evidences indicate that the differ- Therefore, among the variables gathered through nota-
ences between experts and novices may be understood as tional match analysis, the number of ball touches provides
key elements for success in sports, which facilitates explain- an indicator of the number of decisions made in the game,
ing some distinct characteristics that can also be observed in considering that every touch of the ball results in new deci-
the comparison of match behaviors between teams at the sions/opportunity for action (Garganta, 1997). Each ball
academy and professional levels (Serra-Olivares et al., touch performed by the player, in addition to carrying in its
2020; Thomas & Thomas, 1994). An increasing number of essence of action the perceptual and motor representation,
studies have indicated that the speed of decision-making is also induces the player’s teammates and opponents to make
one of the most common characteristics of players who decisions based on his/her behavior (Teoldo et al., 2022).
achieve professional status (Cardoso et al., 2020; Machado As this is an observational analysis, it is understood that the
& Teoldo, 2020). Hence, to be able to ascend to profes- number of ball touches is a measure that can be counted.
sional teams, academy players should be increasingly pre- Each contact with the ball generates behavioral changes in
pared for a cognitively quicker and more demanding game teammates and opponents, therefore new decisions. We
(Vickers & Williams, 2017). understand that other decisions can happen throughout the
Considering this scenario, studies that assessed the deci- game, however they are not possible to be accounted for
sion-making characteristics of academy and professional visually in the game.
players are highly relevant. Understanding the differences In addition to this variable, notational analysis provides
related to the amount, quality and speed of decision-making other relevant information on players’ decision-making,
between academy and professional players may help under- such as the assertiveness, measured through the number of
standing training and intervention strategies for the devel- received balls, which indicates the occurrence of favorable
opment of soccer players (Canton et al., 2022; Moniz et al., sequence for the play by the team, i.e., a decision that ena-
2021). In addition, these indications can help elucidating bled an effective sequence for the play (Garganta, 1997).
how academy players can adapt their perceptual-cognitive Based on this information, this experiment hypothesizes
and perceptual-motor skills with the purpose of making that professional soccer players make more decisions in the
better and quicker decisions, so as to meeting the demands game, and have greater assertiveness in decisions when com-
of professional soccer (Barcellos et al., 2022). pared to academy players (Roca et al., 2011; Vaeyens, Le-
Based upon previous research, the purposes of this study noir, Williams, Mazyn, et al., 2007; Ward & Williams,
are twofold: i) compare the number of decisions made by 2003).
soccer players at academy and professional levels in official
matches; ii) compare the quality and speed of decision-mak- Materials and Methods
ing between academy and professional soccer players. This
study comprises two experiments, each aimed at addressing Sample
one of the aforementioned purposes. The sample comprised 24 soccer teams, from which 14
were professional teams that played in the 2012/2013
Experiment 1 UEFA Champions League, whereas 10 were U-20 academy
teams that played national tournaments in Brazil. These
The purpose of Experiment 1 is to compare the number teams were assessed during 12 official matches (7 profes-
of decisions made by soccer players at academy and profes- sional matches and 5 academy matches). The assessments
sional levels in official matches. This experiment is based on resulted in 25,338 analyzed actions, from which 17,365
the assumption that by making a decision, the first route of were performed by professional players and 7,973 were
the process is normally of a perceptual and cognitive nature, performed by academy players. The project was approved
in which the player primarily depends on/considers inter- by the Ethics Committee of the leading institution (Ap-
nal/individual and external/environmental indicators (Te- proval number: 46773721.9.0000.5153).
oldo et al., 2022). The internal/individual indicators in-
clude: perceptual and technical skill levels, players’ physical Video Recording and Data Collection
capacities, as well as their tactical knowledge about the game The present study resorted to the systematic observa-
and their psychological traits (Vickers & Williams, 2017). As tion of professional and academy matches, broadcasted by a
for the external/environmental indicators it is possible to ob- TV station. All stadia from the matches analyzed have their
serve the time-space relation the player possesses to perform dimensions restricted to 105 x 68 m, with vertical stripes
a certain action, the movements of their teammates and op- on the grass, alternating between light and dark green, thus
ponents, among others (Teoldo et al., 2022). Considering facilitating the identification of field sectors. As for the field
these indicators, the player makes the decision that generates corridors, the grid proposed by Teoldo, Guilherme and
a perceptual and motor representation. This perspective on Garganta (2022) was used. The limitation regarding the
decision-making helps understanding that each action per- data source does not allow a full view of the playing field
formed by the player refers to a perceptual and motor repre- during replays, which resulted in some data loss.
sentation of his/her decision, i.e., this variable can be ob- Data collection was carried out using notational analy-
served, analyzed and quantified in the playing field. sis, which depends exclusively on a single observer for the

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analyzed matches, and takes into account the criteria for medium effect (0.50 ≤ d ≤ 0.79), large effect (0.80 ≤ d ≤
field marking and duration of the offensive sequences. The 1.29) and very large effect (d ≥ 1.30) (Cohen, 1988).
following metrics were considered in the present study. Reliability was calculated using the Cohen’s Kappa test.
Chart 1.
A total of 2.875 actions were reassessed, a figure that rep-
Measures used in the study, based on Garganta (1997). resented a higher value than the one (10%) proposed by lit-
VARIABLE DESCRIPTION
Number of Decisions Made in the Game Refers to the number of decisions made and/or
erature (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Three observers par-
induced over the game. It is calculated from the ticipated in this procedure, whereas values of inter-ob-
sum of the number of ball touches in the game.
Average Number of Received Balls (NR) Refers to the mean number of balls received in a
server reliability ranged between 0.912 (se=0.032) and 1.
game The NR refers to the overall number of balls Values of intra-observer reliability ranged between 0.864
received by the players, in a given sequence of
play, from a teammate. (se=0.030) and 0.998 (se=0.002). Statistical procedures
were performed using SPSS, version 28.0. The significance
Procedures for collecting and analyzing data level was set at p<0.05.
Data collection and recording were carried out using a
POSITIVO T laptop, model 3300, Intel CoreTM i3 proces- Results
sor. Gathered data were registered in spreadsheets of Excel
for Windows®, 2016. Table 1 displays the means and standard deviations of
the metrics used in this study, as well as the results of the
Statistical analysis inferential statistics for the comparison of professional and
Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviation) academy matches.
were used in this study to describe the metrics of profes- Significant differences were observed in the comparison
sional and academy teams. Normality of data distribution between professional and academy soccer players for all the
was verified using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Since data fol- analyzed metrics, whereas significantly higher values were
lowed a parametric distribution, the t-test for independent observed for the professional teams. Findings also indicate
samples was used to compare metrics between professional that professional players make, on average, 2,460 decisions
and academy teams. Effect sizes were obtained using the in each match, while U-20 players make 1,573 decisions per
values of Cohen’s d, and were interpreted as follows: insig- match. Consequently, in official matches professional play-
nificant effect (d < 0.19), small effect (0.20 ≤ d ≤ 0.49), ers made 56% more decisions than U-20 players.

Table 1.
Comparisons of match analysis measures between professional and academy soccer players.
Professional Academy Players
Assessed Measures t p d
Means SD Means SD
Number of Decisions made in the Game* 2,459.93 205.75 1,573.45 291.51 -5.840 <0.001 2.79
Average Number of Received Balls (NR)* 4.65 0.78 2.78 0.49 -5.086 <0.001 2.59
*Significant Differences

Experiment 2 * Power 3.1.9.4®. The procedures for estimating the mini-

mum sample size were described by Faul et al. (2007). An a
The purpose of experiment 2 was to compare the qual- priori power analysis estimated that a sample with 56 players
ity and speed of decision-making between academy and pro- in total was sufficient, with each competitive level being
fessional soccer players. This experiment takes into account comprised of 28 players. Sample estimation data displayed
the importance of understanding, from the standpoint of the following values = 95% Power (1 - β), alfa (α) of 0.05
the perceptual and cognitive mechanisms, which elements and large effect size (ES) (d = 0.9) (Faul et al., 2007).
between assertiveness and speed can be stressed for acad- In order for players to be included in the study the fol-
emy and professional players’ decision-making. lowing inclusion criteria was required to be satisfied: play-
We hypothesized that professional players are more as- ers should participate of systematic training sessions in their
sertive and quicker than academy players due to their better clubs at least 5 times a week, and the duration of each ses-
developed perceptual and cognitive skills (Cardoso et al., sion should be no shorter than 1 hour and 30 minutes. All
2020; Machado et al., 2017; Vickers & Williams, 2017). players should be at their current clubs for at least 1 year,
and have at least 10 years of soccer practice.
Materials and Methods In order to participate in the study, all players signed an
informed consent, acknowledging their participation in the
Sample study. All research procedures were conducted following
The sample of this study was comprised of 138 male soc- the norms established by the Declaration of Helsinki for re-
cer players, from which 42 were professional and 96 were search with human beings. The project was approved by the
young academy players (62 U-17 and 34 U-20 players). The Ethics Committee for research with human beings of the
overall number of players, as well as the subdivision in groups leading institution (Approval number:
of professional and academy players were estimated using G 46773721.9.0000.5153).

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Instrument brightness (mean values were 332 lux, with variations

The instrument used to assess game reading and deci- lower than 07 lux, during the experimental protocol) and
sion-making skills was the TacticUP®. The TacticUP® is an room temperature (24ºC). All procedures related to data
online video-based assessment platform (www.tacti- collection always occurred with the technical support of the
cup.com.br) that enables the objective assessment of play- main researcher linked to the present research. All partici-
ers’ game reading and decision-making skills. The validity pants were instructed on the test characteristics and its du-
and reliability of the TacticUP video test is available on the ration. Potential doubts were addressed by the main re-
study of Machado and Teoldo (2020). This test is based on searcher. The test was taken by participants as their first
the core tactical principles of the soccer game (Teoldo et working task of the day, which means participants were
al., 2022). rested when taking the test.
The TacticUP® video test is comprised of video se- Statistical analysis
quences (scenes) of offensive and defensive actions from 11 Descriptive analysis was used to verify means and stand-
vs. 11 match scenarios. The images were obtained from a ard deviations of performance and speed of decision-mak-
bird-view perspective, thus allowing the full visualization of ing. Normality was tested using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov
the field. For each scene participants had to choose the most test, and data followed a non-parametric distribution. The
appropriate among four possible solutions presented to Mann-Whitney test was used with the purpose of compar-
them after each of the scenes. Prior to the start of the test, ing the performance and speed of game reading and deci-
participants were instructed with respect to the test struc- sion-making results between professional and academy
tures, whereas three video trials were presented to have players. Effect sizes were obtained using the formula (r =
them familiarized with the task. The final scores provided Z/√n) described by Fritz, Morris and Richler (2012). Val-
by the TacticUP® video test are presented in 13 items: one ues were interpreted as follows: small effect (0.1-0.29),
for each core tactical principles, in addition to the scores for medium effect (0.3-0.49) and large effect (> 0.5) (Cohen,
the defensive and offensive phases, as well as the overall 1988). Statistical procedures were performed using SPSS,
game. The test also provides information on the time the version 28.0, and the significance level was set at p < 0.05.
participants takes in each of the scenes (Teoldo et al.,
2022). Results
All procedures were described to participants prior to
the start of the task and the main researcher was always pre- Table 2 indicates significant differences in the values of
sent to address any questions. The TacticUP® video test was decision-making performance for the principles of penetra-
administered individually to each participant through a lap- tion, delay and width and length with the ball. For the prin-
top computer (POSITIVO T model 3300 Intel CoreTM i3 ciples of penetration and delay, professional players dis-
processor) with a 15-inch screen in controlled and stand- played better performances when compared to academy
ardized conditions. Each player took around 20 minutes to players. On the contrary, for the principle of width and
complete the test. length with the ball, the performance of academy players
was better than that of professional players.
Data Collection Procedures With respect to response time, significant differences
In a moment prior to data collection, clubs and partici- were observed in eleven of the twelve principles assessed.
pants were contacted and their respective authorizations Only the principle of defensive coverage did not display sig-
were obtained for data collection. For the experimental nificant differences between both levels of players. For all the
protocol a closed environment was set up, with controlled differences observed in response time, professional players
external interferences such as sound (maximum 13 Db), displayed higher values when compared to academy players.

Table 2.
Comparisons of game reading and decision-making skills and response time between professional and academy soccer players
Levels
Performance (a.u.) Time (s) p r
Professional Academy Professional Academy
Variables Means and SD Means and SD Means and SD Means and SD Performance Time Performance Time
Offensive Principles
Penetration 78.94±13.12 72.80±13.94 6.70±3.33 10.76±6.56 0.016* <.001* -0.20 -0.33
Offensive Coverage 71.44±17.20 72.37±16.30 6.99±3.96 10.04±6.00 0.893 0.004* - -0.25
Width and Length with the Ball 77.32±15.54 86.10±15.65 7.46±3.60 10.26±5.00 0.003* <.001* -0.26 -0.29
Width and Length without the Ball 93.78±5.63 92.48±9.95 6.17±3.49 7.95±4.40 0.777 0.013* - -0.21
Mobility 66.32±15.43 64.56±14.98 6.36±4.23 9.76±7.20 0.503 <.001* - -0.33
Offensive Unity 47.22±22.67 41.98±23.14 5.64±2.66 8.01±4.43 0.272 <.001* - -0.28
Defensive Principles
Delay 77.05±21.25 69.66±17.14 6.62±3.74 9.87±6.80 0.017* 0.002* -0.20 -0.27
Defensive Coverage 58.53±20.58 56.60±17.71 8.43±4.70 10.20±5.51 0.430 0.076 - -
Recovery Balance 63.98±22.43 68.08±19.44 7.74±4.35 11.16±7.82 0.385 0.002* - -0.27
Defensive Balance 71.48±23.76 67.79±20.55 6.87±3.69 10.01±6.13 0.167 <.001* - -0.30
Concentration 73.98±23.06 80.92±15.74 6.32±3.27 8.84±4.62 0.192 <.001* - -0.31
Defensive Unity 52.18±11.37 50.80±12.52 5.93±3.44 7.66±4.03 0.295 0.002* - -0.26
*Significant differences; a.u. arbitrary units.

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Table 3 displays the results of performance and speed of sional players were quicker in situations both inside (offen-
game reading and decision-making in offensive and defen- sive p<0.001, defensive p=0.011) and outside (offensive
sive actions. With respect to the performance variable, no p=0.002, defensive p<0.001) the center of play. In addi-
significant differences were observed for any of the tion, professional players were quicker in making decisions
measures. for offensive actions with (p<0.001) and without the ball
As for the assessment of speed of decision-making, sig- (p<0.001). Also, professionals were quicker to make deci-
nificant differences were observed for all variables. Profes- sions in all defensive actions (p<0.001).

Table 3.
Comparisons of game reading and decision-making skills and response time between professional and academy soccer player.
Levels
Performance (a.u.) Time (s) p r
Variables
Professional Academy Professional Academy
Means and SD Means and SD Means and SD Means and SD Performance Time Performance Time
Offensive Actions
Inside the Center of Play 75.90±8.32 77.06±9.35 7.05±3.33 10.35±4.89 0.490 <.001* - -0.34
Outside the Center of Play 69.11±10.77 66.34±11.13 6.06±3.14 8.58±4.60 0.327 <.001* - -0.30
With the Ball 78.13±11.04 79.41±9.69 7.08±3.27 10.51±5.22 0.680 <.001* - -0.34
Without the Ball 69.69±8.23 67.85±9.07 6.29±3.24 8.94±4.68 0.260 <.001* - -0.32
Defensive Actions
Inside the Center of Play 66.52±12.43 64.75±10.87 7.60±3.72 10.41±5.37 0.401 0.003* - -0.25
Outside the Center of Play 65.88±12.39 66.50±10.10 6.37±3.23 8.84±3.97 0.837 <.001* - -0.33
Without the Ball 66.20±9.51 65.92±6.64 6.99±3.35 9.62±4.45 0.724 <.001* - -0.30
*Significant differences; a.u. arbitrary units.

Discussion players were capable of responding quicker to the situa-

tional demands, i.e., increase the cognitive speed of the
The purposes of this study were: i) to compare the num- game.
ber of decisions made official matches between professional It is noteworthy that this greater demand related to pro-
and academy soccer players; and ii) to compare the quality fessional players’ decisional skills generates higher cognitive
and speed of decision-making between academy and profes- overload throughout the match, as indicated by previous
sional soccer players. So as to address these objectives, this studies (Cardoso et al., 2020; Fortes et al., 2020). This
study was comprised of two experiments, conducted to greater cognitive overload may affect players’ perfor-
tackle each of the aforementioned purposes. In addition, to mances, leading to a higher number of mistakes when mak-
the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to compare ing decisions and to negative impacts on their technical and
decision-making between professional and academy soccer physical performances (Kunrath et al., 2020). However,
players using a behavioral metric in official matches (in situ) recent studies indicate that adaptations in the perceptual
and a perceptual and cognitive one, through laboratory tests and cognitive processes over the training routine can mini-
(in vitro). The first experiment indicated that professional mize the overload generated by the need to make countless
players made more decisions in official matches (with 90- successive decisions in a short period of time, such as in a
minute duration) when compared to academy players. The soccer match (Kunrath et al., 2020; Machado et al., 2022;
second experiment verified that professional players made Silva et al., 2021; Thompson et al., 2021).
quicker decisions than academy players in offensive and de- In the study by Cardoso et al. (2020), the authors veri-
fensive actions, inside and outside the center of play, and fied that young elite soccer players (16.7 ± 3.1 years old)
both with and without the ball. Also, professional players with quicker perceptual and cognitive skills to make deci-
made better decisions for the principles of penetration and sions, when compared to their slower counterparts: 1) pos-
delay, whose emotional load related to hot decision-making sessed better game reading skills, through the use of more
is more present (Gonzaga et al., 2014), whilst academy efficient visual search strategies; and 2) employed lower
players made better decisions for the principle of width and cognitive effort to make decisions. These advantages were
length with the ball. related to a better capacity to process information, due to
Results from experiment 1 indicated that professional the capturing of more relevant environmental information
players made, on average, 56% more decisions per match and to the integration of such information to previous
than academy players (very large effect size). In experiment knowledge acquired over the several years of sports prac-
2, this difference was also observed, particularly for the tice.
speed of decision-making for the different match situations: In addition, there is evidence that better perceptual and
offensive, defensive, near and distant from the ball. This cognitive skills are also associated to better match perfor-
finding indicates that speed of decision-making is an ele- mances by the players. In a recent study, Assis et al. (2020)
ment that distinguishes academy from professional players. verified that players who were tactically more efficient in
In other words, taking into account that the official matches matches possessed better game reading skills, due to the uti-
analyzed in this study have the same duration (90 minutes) lization of better visual search strategies and more assertive
for both levels (academy and professional), professional decision-making in offensive situations, when compared to

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less efficient players. Considering the findings reported in Henceforth, through the identification of this gap be-
both studies, it is possible to infer that perceptual and cog- tween academy and professional players and considering the
nitive skills are positively associated to players’ match per- demands of the dynamics of the game and players’ decision-
formance, as well as to lower cognitive effort. making skills, the adoption of strategies aimed at developing
Based on these literature findings, experiment 2 sought the speed of decision-making of academy players is key for
to explore this hypothesis and provide a deeper understand- the ideal development of such players. Among some of the
ing about these elements. In this experiment we compared strategies that can be employed to minimize this difference
the perceptual and cognitive decision-making skills of pro- are: 1) the design of training activities at the academy level
fessional and academy players with respect to the quality that simulate a demand for the number of decisions similar
and speed of decision-making. Due to a greater demand by to the one observed in professional matches; 2) utilization
the number of decisions made in a match by professional of training methods and teaching strategies that benefit the
players, when compared to academy players, we hypothe- development of decision-making in academy players, par-
sized that professional players would display advantages in ticularly in relation to the speed of decision-making; and 3)
perceptual and cognitive decision-making. This hypothesis constant assessment of the evolution of players’ game read-
was confirmed, as professional players displayed such an ad- ing and decision-making skills, in order to adjust training
vantage, particularly with relation to the speed of decision- methods and activities according to players’ needs.
making. Among the 12 variables assessed related to deci- With respect to the first strategy, one could design
sion-making time, professional players were quicker in 11 training activities that generate a demand of approximately
of them, with medium and small effect sizes, whereas one 41 decisions per minute. It is the mean value observed for
of the variables did not differ significantly between both professional matches, by dividing the total number of deci-
groups of players. sions by an average time of 60 minutes of actual play. This
This advantage displayed by professional players com- may be used as reference by coaches, which would facilitate
pared to academy players regarding the speed of decision- the adaptation of training activities towards the achieve-
making can be explained through the interaction of percep- ment of this “cognitive intensity” which resembles compet-
tual-cognitive, and perceptual-motor skills. Recent studies itive professional matches. The advantage of this approach
have reported positive associations between tactical perfor- is the progressive application of games with this “external
mance in match situations and perceptual-cognitive skills cognitive load”, which may have their amount of time in-
related to: 1) anticipation (Assis et al., 2021); 2) peripheral creased or decreased in a gradual fashion, over a season. For
perception (Gonçalves et al., 2020); 3) visual search strat- a more objective assessment of this “cognitive intensity”
egies (Assis et al., 2021, 2020); and 4) attention (Andrade generated in training activities, notational analysis can be
et al., 2020; Gonçalves et al., 2021). In addition, a meta- used to measure, for instance, the number of ball touches,
analysis on invasion sports (including soccer) reported that similar to the procedure adopted in this study. This would
expert players were, on average, 37% quicker in their mo- require the creation of training analysis protocols, normally
tor responses in comparison to less expert players (Mann et carried out by the clubs’ performance analysts, as suggested
al., 2007); and that players with quicker perceptual-cogni- by Teoldo, Guilherme and Garganta (2022). This kind of
tive skills are also quicker in agility field tests (Altmann et approach could resort to analyses carried out following
al., 2021; Vänttinen et al., 2010). Therefore, these findings training sessions, in order to facilitate the identification of
indicate that such advantages have a positive impact on both activities that normally generate this cognitive demand. On
cognitive and physical performances. Hence, the develop- the other hand, this process could also evolve towards the
ment of perceptual and cognitive skills, such as visual search utilization or analysis protocols that allowed an online
strategies, peripheral perception, attention, anticipation measuring of this external cognitive load. This could be ac-
and decision-making is really effective for quicker decisions complished in a similar way as the one used to control phys-
in the match. ical and physiological variables during training, through the
Broadly speaking, considering the results from experi- utilization of electronic devices such as GPS or other de-
ments 1 and 2 in this study, it is possible to infer that: 1) vices that allow assessing the internal and external load.
official professional matches demand greater cognitive As for the second proposition, i.e., the utilization of
speed when compared to academy matches, as they require training methods that enhance the development of decision-
around 56% more decisions over the same period of time making in soccer, scientific literature has provided indica-
(experiment 1); and 2) the advantages in decision-making tions that can help in this process, such as the utilization of
by professional players compared to academy players are small-sided and conditioned games based on players’ indi-
related to their ability to make quicker decisions in offensive vidual characteristics (Barcellos et al., 2022; Cardoso et al.,
and defensive situations, near and distant from the ball (ex- 2021; Davids et al., 2013; García-Calvo et al., 2021; Silva
periment 2). Taken together, these results showed a signif- et al., 2021; Teoldo et al., 2022). The utilization of this
icant difference between academy and professional players kind of activity allows the coupling of the perceptual-cogni-
in relation to the speed of decision-making, taking into ac- tive and perceptual-motor processes that promote better
count the demands of competitive matches (in situ) and con- transfer of the acquired skills to the context of the game,
trolled conditions (in vitro). when compared to more traditional and analytic teaching

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methods (Roca & Ford, 2020). A recent study suggested demonstrates that speed of decision-making is a perfor-
which training activities promoted the development of of- mance differentiator between academy and professional
fensive and defensive decision-making by young male soc- players.
cer players (Machado et al., 2020). In this study, the utili-
zation of small-sided games aimed at group (2 vs. 2 up to 4 Funding
vs. 4), and collective tactics (5 vs. 5 onwards) were the
main activities associated to the development of decision- This study was supported by the Sports incentive law of
making skills, compared with other training activities, such the Government of Minas Gerais, by the Academy & Foot-
as individual, in pairs and analytical drills. Therefore, there ball Program of the Ministry of Citizenship, through the Na-
are indications on which kind of activities designed during tional Secretariat of Football and Defense of Fans' Rights;
sports training are likely to contribute to the development the SEESP-MG, FAPEMIG, CNPq, Funarbe, the Dean’s
of decision-making in soccer players. Office for Graduate and Research Studies and the Centre of
The third strategy requires the implementation of ob- Life and Health Sciences from Universidade Federal de
jective and scientifically validated assessments related to Viçosa, Brazil, and by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoa-
players’ game reading and decision-making skills (Machado mento de Pessoal de Nível Superior- Brasil (CAPES) – Fi-
et al., 2023a). Carrying out these assessments over players’ nance Code 001.
development process and in professional teams will allow
the identification of the aspects to be improved and the Disclosure statement
strengths regarding the way players read the game and make
their decisions. This information may be useful in the inter- No potential conflict of interest was reported by the au-
ventions made in training, so as to increase the quality of thors.
the activities towards the athletes’ individual needs for im-
provement, which, by their part, contribute to the collec- References
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