TYPE Original Research

PUBLISHED 22 August 2022

DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.873518

Combined effect of game

OPEN ACCESS position and body size on
network-based centrality
EDITED BY
Pedro Tiago Esteves,
Instituto Politécnico da Guarda, Portugal

REVIEWED BY
Stevo Popovic,
measures performed by young
soccer players in small-sided
University of Montenegro,
Montenegro
Miguel Pic,
South Ural State University, Russia
João Ferreira Ribeiro,
University of Porto,
games
Portugal

*CORRESPONDENCE
Paulo Henrique Borges 1*†, Julio Cesar da Costa 2†,
Paulo Henrique Borges Luiz Fernando Ramos-Silva 2†, Gibson Moreira Praça 3† and
paulo.henrique.borges@ufsc.br
Enio Ricardo Vaz Ronque 2†
†
These authors have contributed equally to
this work 1
Department of Physical Education, Center of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina,
SPECIALTY SECTION
Florianópolis, Brazil, 2 Department of Physical Education, Center of Physical Education and Sport,
This article was submitted to State University of Londrina, Londrina, Brazil, 3 Departamento de Esportes, Universidade Federal de
Performance Science, Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Psychology
This study verified the effects of body size and game position on interactions
RECEIVED 10February 2022
ACCEPTED 14 July 2022 performed by young soccer players in small-sided games (SSG). The sample
PUBLISHED 22 August 2022 consisted of 81 Brazilian soccer players (14.4 ± 1.1 years of age). Height, body mass,
CITATION and trunk-cephalic height were measured. SSG was applied in the GK+3v3+GK
Borges PH, Costa JC, Ramos-Silva LF, format, and Social Network Analyses were carried out through filming the games
Praça GM and Ronque ERV (2022)
Combined effect of game position and to obtain the following prominence indicators: degree centrality, closeness
body size on network-based centrality centrality, degree prestige, and proximity prestige, in addition to network intensity
measures performed by young soccer
players in small-sided games.
and number of goals scored. Factorial ANCOVA (bone age as covariate) was
Front. Psychol. 13:873518. used to test the effects of game position, body size, and respective interaction
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.873518 on centrality measurements (p<0.05). Similarity between game positions in
COPYRIGHT body size indicators (p>0.05) was observed. The game position affected degree
© 2022 Borges, Costa, Ramos-Silva, Praça
centrality (p =0.01, η2 =0.16), closeness centrality (p=0.01, η2 =0.11), and network
and Ronque. This is an open-access article
distributed under the terms of the Creative intensity (p =0.02, η2 =0.09), in which midfielders presented the highest network
Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The prominence values when compared to defenders and forwards. In conclusion,
use, distribution or reproduction in other
forums is permitted, provided the original midfielders are players with high interaction patterns in the main offensive plays,
author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are which behavior is independent of body size.
credited and that the original publication in
this journal is cited, in accordance with
accepted academic practice. No use, KEYWORDS
distribution or reproduction is permitted soccer (football), growth, body size, performance, youth sports
which does not comply with these terms.

Introduction
During the first two decades of life, individuals undergo intense biological progress
toward maturity. Several morphofunctional changes are observed in this period of life,
triggering a gradual increase in anthropometric measures (Figueiredo et al., 2010; Matta
et al., 2014) and physical performance in sports tasks (Carvalho et al., 2012; Cunha
et al., 2017).

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Borges et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.873518

For these reasons, the literature has indicated that young Although anthropometric characteristics usually have been
soccer players who reach maturity earlier take advantage in talent- used to select players rather than playing skills (Deprez et al.,
selecting processes (Malina et al., 2000; Coelho-E-Silva et al., 2015), and since young players with larger body proportions and
2008), even knowing that the manifestation of specific skills of the early maturity present advances in the perceptual-cognitive level
modality is weakly related to the body growth process (Malina (Vänttinen et al., 2010; Gonçalves et al., 2020) and better physical
et al., 2005; Gouvea et al., 2016). This unilateral scenario, biased performance (Vandendriessche et al., 2012; Teixeira et al., 2018),
by the physical dimension, can induce the withdrawal of late studies with young soccer players have not yet systematically
players in the maturity process, but with satisfactory tactical- considered whether the central participation of midfielders in
technical qualities, given the impact of the biological maturity offensive actions is a result only of tasks inherent to the game
state on physical performance. position (task constraints) or is also influenced by organismic
Adopting a systemic view, capable of verifying the constraints such as body size indicators.
interrelationships of different factors on the tactical-technical In this context, coaches may take advantage of a deeper
dynamics of the match, is recommended to avoid this situation understanding of the interplay between game position and
(Williams and Reilly, 2000). Thus, some investigations in the organismic constraints with respect to athlete development and
soccer field have brought important contributions to sport game strategy. Considering the information previously available
professionals and researchers, looking beyond the in literature, the initial hypothesis of this study is that midfielders
morphological and functional aspects. It is known that the with higher body size indicators show greater centrality in the
momentary result of the game (Lago and Martín, 2007), network. Thus, this study aimed to verify the effects of body size
the numerical configuration of the confrontation (Castelão and game position on centrality measures based on the
et al., 2014), the training method (Aquino et al., 2015), the interactions of young soccer players.
number of passes, shots on goal and effectiveness in attack
(Hughes and Franks, 2005; Lago-Peñas and Dellal, 2010; Grund,
2012; Kempe et al., 2014; Almeida, 2019), the rapid defensive Materials and methods
transition after the loss of the ball (Winter and Pfeiffer, 2016),
and the game position (Malta and Travassos, 2014) impact the Subjects
form soccer players interact and interpret all constraints
imposed by teammates and opponents. The sample consisted of 81 young soccer players
Regarding the characteristics of game positions, Rechenchosky (14.37 ± 1.12 years; 58.03 ± 10.33 kg; 169.85 ± 10.04 cm) belonging
et al. (2017) point out that midfielders and forwards frequently to two soccer teams in Londrina, who played at state level in
make moves to approach and support offensive actions, which is Brazil. Regarding the weekly training volume, the U-13 category
corroborated by Praça et al. (2019a), especially in situations in participated on average in 2 weekly training units lasting 120 min
which teams are winning the game. Furthermore, forwards play each. The U-15 category, in turn, trained on average 5.49 ± 0.49
at higher intensities and seek physical contact situations weekly training units, lasting 180 min each. It was observed that
(Bloomfield et al., 2007), but midfielders centralize the main players were familiar with the GK + 3v3 + GK game format, as
offensive actions within the match (Clemente et al., 2015b). SSGs are part of the training routine and, therefore, of
The main role in offensive actions evidenced by midfielders is methodological aspects used by the evaluated clubs, as previously
justified, as these players are placed in regions of the field between described (Costa et al., 2021).
defenders and forwards, which involves proximity to the center of The following inclusion criteria were adopted: (i) belonging to
the game, aiming at the articulation of the different sectors that one of the selected teams; (ii) participating in official competitions
make up the team (Sampaio and Maças, 2012). Accordingly, this for the club; (iii) presenting the free and informed consent form
articulation is expressed by an important engagement in passing signed by parents or guardians, as well as the assent form. Subjects
distribution in view of the team objectives and offensive strategy who presented musculoskeletal injuries during the evaluation
(Gonçalves et al., 2014). period and those who have not completed all project evaluations
These interactions may be understood through the ecological were excluded. The study was approved by the local ethics
dynamics approach, in which the performance emerges from the committee (Proc. 2650.232/2018).
co-adaptation between players, who are trying to find the most
functional possibility for a specific action (Travassos et al., 2012;
Nunes et al., 2020). In this sense, different authors have been Anthropometry and bone age
investigating the effect of constraints on passing performance in
soccer. For example, Grund (2012) observed that the total number ®
Body mass was obtained using a digital scale, Seca 813 , with
of passes performed during the match is related to the number of precision of 0.1 kilograms. In turn, height and cephalic trunk
goals scored, while Clemente et al. (2016a) and Praça et al. (2019b) ®
height were measured using portable Harpenden stadiometer
found that physical performance does not have significant impact and table, with precision of 0.1 cm, following standardization
on establishing connections. available in literature (Gordon et al., 1988).

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Borges et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.873518

Intra-observer reliability was used to analyze the quality of 27 m) of SSG were derived from the individual playing area of a
anthropometric measurements. Thus, 16 players were randomly formal game situation.
selected 15 days after the first sampling. The following technical The camcorder was positioned high relative to the game plan
measurement errors were identified based on criteria proposed by to capture the entire length of the field, located 6 m above and to
Perini et al. (2005): body mass: 0.61%, height: 0.72%, and sitting one side of the pitch long axis at a distance of 15 m from the pitch.
height: 0.62%. Official soccer rules were adopted, including the offside rule.
Players were submitted to hand and wrist x-ray at a private Two tactical-technical criteria were used for the composition
clinic. Subsequently, bone age was estimated through the Tanner- of teams: game position and performance in specific skills tests.
Whitehouse 3 method (Tanner et al., 2001), which consists of Thus, teams were formed by a defender (full-back or central
evaluation of 13 bones of the left hand and wrist according to their defender), a midfielder (defensive midfielder or attacking
development stage. midfielder), and a forward (striker or winger), according to
To assess the intra-observer reliability, 20 x-rays of the hand and criteria established in literature (Lemes et al., 2020). The
wrist were randomly selected. Reproducibility was accomplished composition of teams was also based on players’ performance on
using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), observing an ICC different skills tests: straight-line ball control, zigzag ball control,
value of 0.97 and intra-observer error of 0.26 years. pass, and kick accuracy tests (Mor and Christian, 1979;
Federação Portuguesa de Futebol, 1986). This procedure allowed
us achieving a balanced level of performance across teams. In the
Protocol first confrontation, team A consisted of the best defender, best
midfielder and best forward, while team B consisted of the
The use of small-sided games (SSG) has been recommended second-best defender, second-best midfielder and second-best
in literature to carefully evaluate tactical-technical actions that forward (Figure 1). This counterbalanced procedure was adopted
occur within a match (Halouani et al., 2014; Sannicandro and to allow similar technical performance conditions between
Cofano, 2017), as they simulate the tactical-technical demand and teams.
decision-making of the official game (Harrison et al., 2013), in
addition to being a tool for identifying/monitoring young talents
(Fenner et al., 2016). In this sense, the players were filmed in the Social network analysis
GK + 3v3 + GK SSG format. GK + 3v3 + GK was selected as it
represents the numerical configuration that captures the core An observational protocol was used to analyze videos and
actions of the official game. Thus, the complexity of the formal collect relevant information (Anguera and Hernández-Mendo,
game was reduced for evaluative purposes while preserving the 2016). This study is characterized as nomothetic,
internal logic of interactions. The spatial dimensions (36 m vs. multidimensional, and punctual (Anguera et al., 2017). The

FIGURE 1
Team composition criteria adopted in this study.

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Borges et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.873518

criterion established to mark the interaction between two players (22.2% of the total) randomly selected. Intraclass
players was the positive pass (Buldú et al., 2018). The positive correlation coefficients for intra-observer reliability were:
pass can be characterized as any technical action in which a degree centrality (ICC = 0.97), closeness centrality
player passes the ball to any teammate, who controls the ball (ICC = 0.89), degree prestige (ICC = 0.99), proximity prestige
and continues playing the game. A situation in which a (ICC = 0.87), and goals scored (ICC = 1.00). Considering inter-
particular player received the ball and lost it (one-touch) was observer reliability, the following agreements were obtained:
not considered a positive pass (Figure 2). degree centrality (ICC = 0.86), closeness centrality
Moreover, every positive pass performed to or by the (ICC = 0.82), degree prestige (ICC = 0.96), and goals scored
goalkeeper was excluded. Later, adjacency matrices were built for (ICC = 1.00), revealing good reliability (Koo and Li, 2016).
each offensive sequence, and weighted graphs were analyzed
(Clemente et al., 2016b).
After this observational analysis, adjacency matrices were Statistical analysis
®
inserted into the Social Network Visualizer software (SocNetV
1.9 (C) 2005–2015 by Dimitris V., Kalamaras). The prominence The effects of the game position (independent variable) on
level of players was measured in social network analysis through body size indicators and experience time (years of systematic
the creation and visualization of graphs, with the extraction of the practicing) of young soccer players (dependent variables) were
following variables (Frame 1): tested by the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) after
Furthermore, the number of goals scored by each player was validating the assumptions of data normality and variance–
identified, as well as the interaction intensity, which refers to the covariance homogeneity, applying the Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests
ratio between the degree centrality and the time spent for that (p < 0.05 for all groups) and M of Box for these purposes (Maroco,
execution (Grund, 2012). 2014). Cluster analysis was used from a non-hierarchical k-means
Regarding the quality control of observed data, procedure to create two body size groups: larger (n = 59;
we computed intra- and inter-observer reliability of the 63.22 ± 5.60 kg; 174.70 ± 5.45 cm) and smaller (n = 22;
network properties in actions performed by 18 young soccer 44.10 ± 6.44 kg; 156.84 ± 7.69 cm). The significant variables entered
into the model were: height (F = 136.12; p < 0.01), body mass
FRAME 1. Definition and interpretation for team sports about
(F = 171.92; p < 0.01), and trunk-cephalic height (F = 119, 37;
network-based centrality measures. p < 0.01).
Subsequently, two-way ANCOVA (bone age as covariate) was
Variable Definition Application for
team sports used, followed by Bonferroni post hoc, to test the effects of body
size (larger and smaller), game position (defender, midfielder, and
Degree centrality (DC) Counts of outbound Indicates the number of
forward), and respective interaction between factors on the
edges (arcs) from a node links made by the player
network-based centrality measures of soccer players. Eta squared
to all other nodes within the network
(Ƞ2) was used to analyze the effect size of comparisons. Descriptive
connected to it
and inferential statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS
(neighbors)
Statistics software (v. 23, IBM SPSS, Chicago, IL), considering 5%
Closeness centrality Attempts to quantify the Measures the ability of the
significance level.
(CC) importance of actors in node (player) to access or
terms of their total graph send information to other
theoretic distance in the nodes on the network
Results
social network
Degree prestige (DP) Considers the total Refers to the number of
Information regarding body size indicators and experience
number of inbound edges passes (links) that the
time of young soccer players is described in Table 1. No difference
(arcs) from all player receives within the
in these characteristics regarding game positions was observed
neighboring nodes network
(Fmean = 1.21; p > 0.05).
connected to it.
Additionally, the descriptive statistics related to network-
Proximity prestige (PP) Proportion of vertices Distance of other
based centrality measures by body size and game position are
who can reach a specific teammates from a certain
presented in Table 2. Regarding game positions, midfielders
node to the average player, suggesting that a
were those with the highest degree centrality (F2,74 = 7.12;
distance the other player with high proximity
p = 0.01), closeness centrality (F2,74 = 3.92; p = 0.01), and
vertices are from its node prestige values may receive
network intensity (F2,74 = 3.86; p = 0.02). Interactions between
more passes from
factors “body size” and “game position” were not significant
teammates in the case of a
(p > 0.05). In other words, being a tall or short midfielder did
pass.
not influence the network prominence manifested by young
Clemente et al., 2014, 2016b. soccer players.

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Borges et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.873518

FIGURE 2

Observational protocol applied in the study.

Discussion driving the ball; forwards are smaller, delayed in the maturation
process, but faster and more agile. On the other hand, Coelho-E-Silva
This study verified the effects of body size and game et al. (2010) evaluated 114 young Portuguese soccer players in the
position on network-based centrality measures that young under-14 category and found similar values for indicators of body
soccer players perform in small-sided games. The study’s size, bone age, experience time, physical performance, and specific
primary hypothesis was partially confirmed: midfielders skills between different game positions, which corroborates the results
presented the most significant prominence in offensive plays. found in the present study with Brazilian players.
However, the emergence of this tactical-technical action Malina et al. (2009) reported that during adolescence, leg
proved to be independent of body size evidenced by young growing processes contribute more than trunk cephalic height
players. Furthermore, although body size indicators are still to the average height of boys. It could possibly affect all game
used as one of the criteria for the selection of talents and positions in the same way and not impact interactions
composition of a group (Helsen et al., 2005), the number of performed by players. Then, player characteristics based on
interactions that emerged in the GK + 3v3 + GK small-sided game positions are possibly not standardized in soccer since the
game are not associated with organismic constraints related to prospection of athletes and selection of talents are related to the
anthropometric measures. particular strategy of each club and/or federation, which in turn
Investigations on anthropometric and maturity characteristics is influenced by cultural, economic, social, and climatic issues
according to different game positions bring controversial results. (Musch and Hay, 1999).
Deprez et al. (2015) identified a trend in the profile of elite players Additionally, considering that decision-making in team sports
throughout the sports training process in a study conducted with 744 consists of a complex process that emerges from several interaction
young soccer players belonging to professional clubs in Belgium: constraints, the identification of prominent players, who
defenders are, on average, taller; midfielders are tougher and better at substantially contribute to building offensive plays, is important in

TABLE 1 Descriptive statistics of body size and experience time indicators of young soccer players as a function of game position (N=81).

Defender (n = 26) Midfielder (n = 29) Forward (n = 26) F p

Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)

Chronological age (years) 14.26 (1.15) 14.62 (0.95) 14.21 (1.24) 1.11 0.33
Bone age (years) 14.72 (1.40) 14.97 (1.39) 14.30 (1.66) 1.38 0.25
Body mass (kg) 59.66 (10.08) 59.38 (9.53) 54.89 (11.10) 1.80 0.17
Height (cm) 172.33 (10.98) 170.01 (7.53) 167.20 (11.18) 1.72 0.18
Trunk cephalic height (cm) 88.68 (5.96) 88.27 (3.94) 86.50 (7.01) 1.08 0.34
Experience time (years) 6.23 (2.04) 6.62 (2.59) 6.50 (2.30) 0.19 0.82

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Borges et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.873518

TABLE 2 Mean and standard deviation of network properties according to body size and game position, and two-way ANCOVA (controlled for bone age) results to test the effects of body size, game position, the context of training young people, since coaches can use this

0.01
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.08
0.01
information to manipulate task constraints in order to set boundaries

η2
BS × GP interaction for given action modes to emerge (Clemente et al., 2015a).

DC, degree centrality (%); CC, closeness centrality (d); DP, degree prestige (%); PP, proximity prestige (d); NI, network intensity (passes per minutes); GS, goals scored (quantity). *Significant difference from midfielders to the other game positions.
In this sense, different studies corroborate the results
found in this investigation, highlighting the prominence of

0.85
0.72
0.40
0.18
0.75
0.65
p
midfielders both in the official game (Clemente et al., 2015b,
2016a; Praça et al., 2019a) and in small-sided games (Praça
et al., 2017). The region of the field occupied by these players
favors the emerging of support movements for the ball carrier
0.15
0.31
0.90
1.71
0.28
0.42
F

to consequently build offensive plays (Gonçalves et al., 2014),

which possibly justifies the results found by Sporis et al. (2009)
and Bradley et al. (2010), who found higher maximum heart
0.16
0.11
0.07
0.03
0.09
0.05
η2

rates and total distances covered by midfielders compared to

defenders and forwards.
Furthermore, in practical settings, the reduction in the
Effect GP

geodesic distance between midfielders to the other nodes of

0.01
0.01
0.06
0.27
0.02
0.80
p

the network, expressed in this study through the closeness

centrality variable, can be understood as an action that helps
to solve the problems of the offensive phase of the game,
7.12
3.92
2.84
1.32
3.86
0.21

allowing the fulfillment of its operational, tactical principles,

F

i.e., keeping ball possession, progressing with the ball to the

opposite goal, and shooting at the goal (Costa et al., 2011a,b).
This approach to the ball carrier helps develop an offensive
0.03
0.01
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.04
η2

play through the exchange of passes between teammates,

which potentially contributes to victory in the respective
Effect BS

confrontation (Grund, 2012; Clemente et al., 2015b).

0.65
0.57
0.11
0.82
0.48
0.58

Moreover, body size did not affect the capacity of players to

p
and interaction between factors on the network properties performed by young soccer players (N=81).

explore passing opportunities with teammates in small-sided games

(GK + 3vGK + 3). Therefore, in the scope of training and playing of
young U-13 and U-15 soccer players, the development of a central
0.20
0.31
2.53
0.04
0.49
0.30
F

role during the construction of offensive plays is not dependent on

body size indicators presented by subjects, even in an invasion sport
marked by intense physical contact. This tactical-technical
Forward

0.29 (0.08)
1.58 (0.72)
0.36 (0.10)
0.25 (0.10)
0.92 (0.31)
1.34 (1.38)
(n = 26)

independence is possibly linked to other factors, such as tactical

performance, which refers to the selection of appropriate actions
Game Position (GP)

within the context of the game (McPherson, 1994).

Midfielder

0.38 (0.09)*
2.24 (1.05)*

1.23 (0.49)*

Collectively, the results found in this study, combined with other

(n = 29)

0.31 (0.05)
0.28 (0.13)

1.17 (0.92)

previously published investigations, allow us concluding that the

adoption of a favorable position for the continuation of the offensive
play by reducing the geodesic distance between nodes (players) of
Defender

0.29 (0.08)
1.59 (0.90)
0.31 (0.08)
0.29 (0.14)
0.96 (0.41)
1.15 (1.31)
(n = 26)

the network (team) does not depend on body size. This evidence
suggests that the influence of morphofunctional constraints on the
central role of midfielders appears to be quite limited, given the
inherent complexity of the game (Duarte et al., 2012).
0.32 (0.10)
1.84 (1.01)
0.32 (0.07)
0.27 (0.12)
1.06 (0.47)
1.38 (1.30)
(n = 59)
Larger

As a study limitation, the number of age groups evaluated

Body Size (BS)

stands out, making it impossible to expand the conclusions of this

study to other age groups and small-sided game formats.
Moreover, the methodological choice of using small-sided games
0.33 (0.09)
1.76 (0.77)
0.33 (0.10)

1.01 (0.32)
0.77 (0.75)
Smaller

0.27 (013)
(n = 22)

during 2 periods of 4 min each, could make the expansion of these

results to official matches difficult.
However, in a sport marked by the selection of physically
larger athletes to the detriment of those who are late in this
process, the results of this study showed the limits of
DC
CC
DP

GS
PP

comprehending the complex process of talent development in

NI

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Borges et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.873518

soccer using unidimensional criteria. As practical applications of Author contributions

this study, soccer coaches in the U-13 and U-15 categories should
avoid unidimensional criteria for talent selection and prospection, All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and
selecting young players based on their ability to adapt and make intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.
decisions in different scenarios.
Furthermore, going through different game positions from
the age of 12 to 15 years using a variety of deliberate play and Funding
practice settings, as recommended by the Developmental
Model of Sport Participation (Côté et al., 2014; Côté and We gratefully acknowledge the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento
Vierimaa, 2014) can help soccer players to present different de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Finance Code 001 (CAPES/BRAZIL),
tactical-technical skills about the demands inherent to the for master’s scholarship conceded to JCC (88882.448382/2019-01)
different tasks assigned to the team. Professionals involved in and LFRS (88882.448432/2019-01) and the Conselho Nacional de
training young people can place them in midfield positions to Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq/BRAZIL) for the
encourage them to learn and offer support to the ball carrier research productivity grant by ERVR (314701/2021-4).
and centralize tactical-technical actions, favoring the emerging
of these actions, regardless of body size.
Conflict of interest
Data availability statement The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be considered as a potential conflict of interest.
be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Publisher’s note
Ethical statement
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
The studies involving human participants were reviewed authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
and approved by Comitê de Ética e Pesquisa da Universidade organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
Estadual de Londrina. Written informed consent to participate reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/ claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
next of kin. endorsed by the publisher.

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