MECHATRONICS

CHAPTER - 4

SENSORS COMMUNICATION DESIGN

By;- Mr. Kine T. ( Msc.)

Objectives of the chapter
At the end of this chapter you will be understand;-
 Define sensor and transducers.
 Understand the performance characteristics of
sensor and transducers.
 Differentiate about the semiconductor devices.
 Will try to express the applications of each devices.
 SENSORS COMMUNICATION DESIGN
Sensor;-It is defined as an element which produces signal
relating to the quantity being measured.

According to the Instrument Society of America, sensor can be defined

as
“A device which provides a usable output in response to a
specified measurand.”
Here, the output is usually an ‘electrical quantity' and
measurand is a ‘physical quantity, property or condition
which is to be measured'.

Transducer - It is defined as a device that converts a signal

from one form of energy to another form.
3
 Sensor/transducers specifications
Performance char. related parameters (Specifications)

There are Two types of characteristics of instruments:-

A)Static characteristics:
Involves measurement of constant or slowly varying
quantities.
 Examples are ; accuracy, precision, reproducibility,
linearity……
B)Dynamic characteristics:
Involves measurement of quantities that varies with time.
Examples are; Speed of response, Measuring lag, Fidelity,
Dynamic error, Overshoot.

4
1 Range
The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the
input can vary.
Example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature
might have a range of 25-225°C.

2 Span
The span is difference between the maximum and minimum
values of the input.
In the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200°C.

3 Error
It is the difference between the result of the measurement and
the true value of the quantity being measured.
Error = Measured value — true value
5
4/5 Accuracy and Precision
4 Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard
or true value.

For example, in a weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given

substance, but the actual or known weight is 10 kg, and then
your measurement is not accurate. In this case, your
measurement is not close to the known value.

5 Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements

to each other.

Defined as the capability of an instrument to show the same

reading when used each time (reproducibility of the instrument).

Measure of consistency in measurement.

6
For example, if one weighs a given substance five times, and
get 3.2 kg each time, then the measurement is very precise.

Precision is independent of accuracy.

• Hence one can be very precise but inaccurate.
• One can also be accurate but imprecise.

Meaning of Accuracy and Precision 7

6 Sensitivity
Ratio between the change in the output of an instrument to
the corresponding change in the measured variable.

For a good instrument or process, the sensitivity should always

be high, thus producing higher output amplitudes. 8
7 Linearity
• The linearity is defined as the maximum
deviation from the linear characteristics as
a percentage of the full scale output.

9
Non-linearity error

10
8 Hysteresis
It can be defined as the different readings taken down
when an instrument approaches a signal from opposite
directions .
Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output
effects while loading and unloading.

The output at the

particular input while
increasing and decreasing
varies because of internal
friction or hysteric
damping.

11
9 Resolution:
Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change
of input parameter that can be detected in the output
signal.
Resolution indicates the
minimum change in input
variable that is
detectable

12
10 Stability:
The ability of an instrument to retain its performance
throughout its specified storage life and operating life is
called as Stability.
Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same
output when used to measure a constant input over a
period of time.
Threshold
 Threshold is the smallest measurable input, below which
no output change can be identified.
 While specifying threshold, manufactures give the first
detectable output change.
13
 11 Drift :

• The term drift is the change in output that

occurs over time. It is expressed as the
percentage of full range output.

• The drift is defined as the gradual shift in the

indication over a period of time where in the
input variable does not change.
• Because of environment factors like stray electric
fields, stray magnetic fields, thermal e.m.f,
changes in temperature, mechanical vibrations
etc.
14
 Drift is classified into three categories:
Output Output

Zero drift
sensitivity drift
zero
drift

input
Sensitivity drift input

sensitivity drift
Output

Zonal drift

zero
drift
15
input
12 Dead band/Dead time:
It is the largest changes of input quantity for which there
is no output.
Dead time is the time required by a transducer to begin to
respond to a change in input value

For e.g. the input that is applied to an instrument may not be

sufficient to overcome friction. It will only respond when it
overcomes the friction forces. 16
13 Response time:
This is the time which elapses after a step input, when the
transducer gives the output corresponding to some
specified percentage of steady state value e.g. 95%.

17
14 Time constant:
It is a measure of the inertia of the sensor and how fast will
react to changes in its input. This is 63.2 % of response time.

18
19
Selection Criteria of sensors
1) Variables to be measured and the type of application.
2) Dynamic range of the sensors
3) Required resolution and sensitivity
4) Required accuracy and precision
5) Environmental conditions
6) Power available for sensing
7) Availability
8) Cost
9) Size and available space
10) Ease of use
11) Ease of maintenance
12) Required signal processing
20
Classification of sensors
A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors
1. Potentiometer
2. Strain-gauged element
3. Capacitive element
4. Differential transformers
5. Eddy current proximity sensors
6. Inductive proximity switch
7. Optical encoders
8. Pneumatic sensors
9. Proximity switches (magnetic)
10. Hall effect sensors

21
Classification of sensors (Continued)
B) Velocity and motion
1. Incremental encoder;-coverts angular motion in to analogue
or digital code.
2. Tachogenerator;-measure engine speed or, convert
mechanical energy into electrical energy
3. Pyroelectric sensors;-based on the ability of certain material to
generate temporary voltage, when they are heated or cooled.
C) Force
4. Strain gauge load cell
D) Fluid pressure
5. Diaphragm pressure gauge.
6. Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes.
7. Piezoelectric sensors.
8. Tactile sensor.
E) Liquid flow
9. Orifice plate
10. Turbine meter 22
Classification of sensors (Continued)
F) Liquid level
1. Floats
2. Differential pressure
G) Temperature
3. Bimetallic strips
4. Resistance temperature detectors
5. Thermistors
6. Thermo-diodes and transistors
7. Thermocouples
8. Light sensors
9. Photo diodes
10. Photo resistors
11. Photo transistor 23
A. Displacement, position and proximity sensors

Displacement sensors: Measure the amount by which some

object has been moved.

Position sensors: Determine the position of some object with

reference to some reference point.

Proximity sensors: Determine when an object has moved to

within some particular critical distance of the sensor. They are
devices that give on-off outputs.

24
 Selection of Displacement, Position and
Proximity Sensor:
1. Size of the displacement (mm)
2. Displacement type (Linear or angular)
3. Resolution required
4. Accuracy Required
5. Material of the object
6. Cost
Displacement sensors -- Types of Displacement sensors:
1. Potentiometer
2. Strain gauge
3. Capacitive sensors
4. Linear variable differential transformer 25
1.Potentiometer
• It works on variable resistance transduction principle
• the displacement or rotation is converted into a potential difference
due to the movement of sliding contact over a resistive element.

Two types are;-

(1)Linear and (2)Rotary potentiometer
Construction & Working:
 A resistor with three terminals.
 Two end terminal & one middle terminal (wiper)
 Two end terminal are connected to external input voltage
 One middle and one end terminal as output voltage
 The slider determines the magnitude of the potential difference
developed.
26
Applications of Potentiometer
Machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies, forklift
trucks, automobile throttle controls.
Control of injection molding machines, woodworking machinery,
printing, spraying, robotics, etc.
computer-controlled monitoring of sports equipment. 27
 2. Strain Gauges
Ratio of change in length to the original length,
where L is the length of the cylindrical conductor, ρ is the
resistivity of the conductor material, and A is cross-sectional
area of the conductor.

Wheatstone Bridge
G is the constant of
proportionality and is
called as gauge factor
Output voltage is a measure of strain
28
Types of Resistance Strain Gauges;-
a) Fine Wire Gauges
b) Metal foil gauges
c) Semiconductor filament type

Fine Wire Gauges

Metal foil gauges

Semiconductor filament type 29

3. Capacitive Sensors:
Used for measuring, displacement,
velocity, force.

30
The storage capacity of capacitor can be
affected/rearenged by the following parameters;-
1) By Changing the Distance between Two Plates
2) By Varying the Area of Overlap
3) By Varying the Dielectric Constant

(1) (2)
(3)
31
Push Pull Sensor:

Applications of capacitive element sensors:

These are used in Feed hopper level monitoring,
Small vessel pump control, Grease level
monitoring, and Level control of liquids.
Metrology applications to measure shape errors in
the part being produced.
To detect the presence or absence of a certain
component, such as glue etc.
32
4. Linear Variable Differential Transformer /LVDT/
 Is an electromechanical sensor used to convert mechanical motion or
vibrations, specifically rectilinear motion, into a variable electrical
current, voltage or electric signals, and the reverse.

Operates on the
transformer principle
Mechanical displacement
transducer

• It consists of three symmetrically spaced coils.

• The centre coil is primary coil and other two are secondary coil
• Secondary coils are connected in series opposition and equally
positioned with respect to primary coil
• The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of the
33
core from null position
Applications of LVDT sensors
• Measurement of spool position in servo valve.
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal
products viz. tablets or pills
• Automatic inspection of final dimensions of
products
• To measure distance between the approaching
metals during welding process
• Monitor fluid level as part of leak detection
system 34
 Proximity Sensors - Non – contact type sensor
a) Eddy current proximity sensor
b) Inductive proximity sensor
c) Pneumatic proximity sensor
a) Eddy current proximity sensor-

Detect non-magnetic
conductive materials.

• Consists of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit.

• When an alternating current is passed through this coil, an alternative magnetic field is
generated.
• If an object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced in the
object due to the magnetic field.
• These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which distorts the magnetic field
responsible for their generation.
• The impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating current. This can be
used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of change in current. 35
Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive,
available in small in size, highly reliable and have high
sensitivity for small displacements.
Applications of eddy current proximity sensors
•Automation requiring precise location
• Machine tool monitoring
• Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
• Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target,
such as a vibrating element.
• Drive shaft monitoring
• Vibration measurements
36
b) Inductive Proximity Sensors
To detect the presence of ferrous and non-ferrous
metals

Applications of inductive proximity switches

• Industrial automation: counting of products during production or
transfer
• Security: detection of metal objects, arms, land mines
37
 c) Pneumatic Proximity Sensors

Used to measure the displacement as well as to

sense the proximity of an object.
Displacement and proximity are transformed into
change in air pressure.
Used in robotics, pneumatics and for tooling in
CNC machine tools. 38
Proximity Switches

Proximate Switches Magnetic Reed Switch

LED and Photosensitive Proximity sensor 39

Hall effect sensor
Hall effect sensors are widely
used as proximity sensors.
High accuracy over a small to
medium range
Hall effect voltage is produced
when a current-carrying
conductor is exposed
to a transverse magnetic field.
The voltage is proportional to
transverse distance between the
hall effect sensor and an object
in its proximity.
40
 B Velocity and Motion Sensors
1. Tachogenerator ;-
coverts angular motion in to analogue or digital code.
Tachogenerator works on the
principle of variable
reluctance.
It is an assembly of a toothed
wheel and a magnetic circuit.
As the wheel rotates, the air gap between wheel tooth and
magnetic core changes which results in cyclic change in flux
linked with the coil.

The alternating emf generated is the measure of angular

motion. 41
 2 Pyroelectric sensors;- based on the ability of
certain material to generate temporary voltage, when they
are heated or cooled.
These sensors
work on the
principle of
pyroelectricity

Crystal material such as Lithium tantalite generates charge in response

to heat flow.
In presence of an electric field, when a crystal material heats up, its
electrical dipoles line up. This is called as polarization.
On cooling, the material retains its polarization.
In absence of electric field, when this polarized material is subjected to
infra red irradiation, its polarization reduces. This phenomenon is the
measure of detection of movement of an object. 42
 Working of Pyroelectric sensors

Pyroelectric sensor comprises of a thick element of polarized material

coated with thin film electrodes on opposite faces.
Initially the electrodes are in electrical equilibrium with the polarized
material.
On incident of infra red, the material heats up and reduces its
polarization.
This leads to charge imbalance at the interface of crystal and
electrodes.
To balance this disequilibrium, measurement circuit supplies the
charge, which is calibrated against the detection of an object or its
movement. 43
Applications of Pyroelectric sensors
• Intrusion detector
• Optothermal detector
• Pollution detector
• Position sensor
• Solar cell studies
• Engine analysis

44
 C. FORCE SENSOR
Strain Gauge as force Sensor

Tension or a compression the electric resistance of the material changes

This is used to measure the force acted upon the element.
Strain gauges are used to measure forces up to 10 MN.
45
 E. Liquid flow
1. Orifice plate

It has a disc with a hole at its center

46
 2. Turbine meter
• It has a multi blade
rotor mounted
centrally in the pipe
• Consists of the rotor
and a magnetic pick
up coil

Fluid flow rotates the rotor.

Magnetic pick up coil counts the number of magnetic pulses
generated due to the Distortion of magnetic field by the
rotor blades.
Angular velocity is proportional to the number of pulses.
Fluid flow is proportional to angular velocity. 47
Turbine flow meter : It consist of a turbine on which a
magnet is mounted. Each time magnet passes the pickup
coil it produces output in form of pulse and these can be
counted, or frequency to voltage converter can be used
to measure the fluid flow.

48
Liquid Level Devices
Based on direct methods
Float devices
Displacement of a float is
monitor by a potentiometer or a
LVDT, or a strain-gauged etc.

Based on indirect methods

Weight measurement of the
vessel using load cells:
W = Ahρg
Differential pressure
measurement using
differential pressure cells

49
Liquid level Measurement using Hall Effect Sensor

50
G. Temperature sensors
1. Bimetallic strips

Bimetallic strips

⇒Two different metal strips are

bonded together

⇒ The metals have different

coefficient of expansion

⇒ Magnet creates hysteresis

⇒ These are used in household

thermostats
51
2. Mercury-in-glass thermometer

52
 3. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
Resistance of metals increases with temperature
Linear change of resistance with temperature
Rt = R0 (1 + αT)
Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C)
R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and
α is the constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient
of resistance.
Response time: 0.5 to 5 s
RTDs are made of metals - platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys

53
RTDs follows a linear relationship

RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or

coil.

They are generally made of metals such as platinum,

nickel or nickel-copper alloys. 54
Temperature changes the resistance of the coil changes
which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.

Applications of RTD
Measure the temperature in a metal furnace.
Stoves and grills
Plastics processing
Petrochemical processing
 Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
 Exhaust gas temperature measurement 55
 4. Thermistors
Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with
increasing temperature.

Material used in thermistor semiconductor material

Sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt,
iron, manganese and nickel)
or
Doped polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3)

Temperature increases the number of electrons able to move about

increases which results in more current in the material and reduced
resistance.

56
Thermistors are in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip

Applications of Thermistors
• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature
inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as
toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc.
57
5. Thermocouple
Working Principle
When a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it produces
an electric potential related to temperature.
Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires composed of
dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the
ends is heated, then there is a continuous current which
flows in the thermoelectric circuit.

Seebeck voltage is given by,

ΔVAB = α ΔT
α, the Seebeck coefficient (constant of proportionality)

58
Materials used for THERMO-COUPLE
Chromel (90% nickel and 10% chromium)
Alumel (95% nickel, 2% manganese, 2% aluminium and
1% silicon)
Constantan ( 55% copper and 45% nickel 59
Thermocouple materials and temperature ranges

60
Applications of Thermocouples
To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the
steel making process.

Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g.

chemical production and petroleum refineries.

Testing of heating appliance safety.

Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns.

Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine

exhausts.

Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and

smelting process in the steel, iron and aluminum industry.
61
Light sensors
Types of light sensors are
1) Photocell/photo resistor and
2)Photo diodes
Photo resistor Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
Resistance of LDR decreases with increasing light intensity
Works on the Principle of photoconductivity.
The generation of mobile carriers when photons are
absorbed by the semiconductor material.
Material of LDR
high resistance semiconductor material, Cadmium Sulfide (CdS)
62
 Construction
of a
photo resistor

The CdS resistor coil is mounted on a ceramic substrate

Assembly is encapsulated by a resin material.
The sensitive coil electrodes are connected to the control
system though lead wires

Incidence of light on the electrodes

Decreases the resistance of resistor coil 63

Applications of photo resistor
• Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient
light sensors to automatically control the brightness of a
screen
• Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using
light sensor technology
• In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions
of vehicles and robots. The light sensor enables a robot to
detect light. Robots can be programmed to have a specific
reaction if a certain amount of light is detected.
• Auto Flash for camera
• Industrial process control
64
Photo Diodes
Photodiode is a solid-state device
Converts incident light into an electric current
It is made of Silicon.
When photons of energy greater than 1.1eV fall on the
device, an electric current establishes.
Photodiodes are one of the types of photo detector, which
convert light into either current or voltage.

The incidence of light

on anode generates a
flow of electron across
the p-n junction which
is the measure of light
intensity.
65
Applications of photo diodes
Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-focus, Photographic Flash Control
Medical: CAT Scanners - X ray Detection, Pulse Oximeters, Blood Particle Analyzers
Industry
• Bar Code Scanners
• Brightness Controls
• Encoders
• Position Sensors
• Surveying Instruments
Safety Equipment
• Smoke Detectors
• Flame Monitors
• Security Inspection Equipment - Airport X ray
• Intruder Alert - Security System
Automotive
• Headlight Dimmer
• Twilight Detectors
• Climate Control - Sunlight Detector
Communications
• Fiber Optic Links
• Optical Communications
• Optical Remote Control 66
 SIGNAL CONDITIONING
Output signal from the sensor of a measurement system has
to be processed.

Signal conditioning circuits are used to process the

output signal from sensors of a measurement
system to be suitable for the next stage of
operation.
67
Signal Conditioning Processes
1. Getting the signal into the Right type of Signal. This
means making the signal into a d.c. voltage or current.
Ex: Resistance change of a strain gauge ADC (Analogue to Digital
Converter) or DAC (Digital to Analogue Converter).
2. Getting the level of the signal Right.
Ex: Operational amplifiers are used for amplification.
3. Protection to prevent damage to the next element.
Ex: series of current limiting resistors, fuses to break, polarity
protection and voltage limitation circuits.
4. Eliminating or reducing noise.
Ex: Filters are used to eliminate noise from a signal.
5. Signal Manipulation.
Ex: Making a non-linear signal to a linear signal.

68
The function of the signal conditioning
circuits include the following items:
Signal amplification (opamp),
Filtering (opamp),
Interfacing with mP (ADC),
Protection (Zener & photo isolation),
Linearization,
Current – voltage change circuits,
Resistance change circuits (Wheatstone
bridge),
Error compensation 69
70
 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

WHY?

1. Easy to transmit signal from measurement

site the data collection site

2. Easy to amplify, filter and modify

3. Easy to record the signal

71
 Bridge circuits

• Used to convert impedance/resistance variations

into voltage variations
• Can be design so the voltage produced varies
around zero
• Amplification can be used to increase voltage level
for increased sensitivity to variation of impedance

72
NH
 Wheatstone bridge
Used to convert a resistance change to a voltage change

At balanced condition V0 =0 and in result,

73
Wheatstone bridge

74
 Operational Amplifiers
Ideal operational amplifier model
Types
a) open loop;
b) closed loop;
c) ideal

Assumptions of ideal operational amplifier model

•it has infinite impedance at both inputs, consequently there is no
current drawn from the input circuits; I- = I+
•it has infinite gain, hence the difference between the input and
output voltages is zero. This is denoted by short circuiting the two
inputs; V- = V+
• it has zero output impedance, so that the output voltage is
independent of the output current. 75
741 Op Amps pin-out

76
Inverting amplifier
It can amplify the signal with
certain gain but with inverting
the polarity of the input signal.

Voltage gain

Input impedance depends on

the values of RS and RF.
Real applications the values
should not be chosen too
low.
Too high values make 77
Non-inverting amplifier
The non-inverting amplifier In applications where phase inversion
is one in which the output is
in phase with respect to the
input.
undesirable

Non-inverting amplifier

Voltage gain of non-inverting amplifier

The gain of non-inverting amplifier is positive,

and has minimum value equal 1. This means the
output is in phase with the input, and the circuit
cannot be used for signal attenuation. 78
 Summing amplifier

Output voltage Vout is equal to the sum of the

input voltages times a gain factor of Rf /Ri.

Minus sign reminds us that the output is inverted.

79
Differential Amplifier
The inverting and non-
inverting properties of
an op-amp can be
combined together to a
differential amplifier

This will amplify differential voltage

Commonly used as a noise rejection circuit

80
 Voltage Follower
Variation of non-
inverting amp is
known as a
voltage follower

Gain of this circuit equals 1

Suitable as a buffer between a source with high output
impedance and a load
Does not need any external resistance to operate
81
Instrumentation Amplifier

Difference amplifier is not able to extract a satisfactory

difference signal

When the input signals are very low level and also have noise

Instrumentation Amplifier
82
 Requirements for an instrumentation amplifier
• Finite, accurate and stable gain, usually between 1 and 1000.
• Extremely high input impedance.
• Extremely low output impedance.
• Extremely high common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).

Voltage follower circuits on the inputs perform three

desirable functions:
1) They increase the input resistance so that the source
(such as a sensor) will never be loaded down,
2) They make both input resistances equal, and
3) They isolate the gain-defining resistors (Rf, Ri, etc.)
from the signal source.
83
Integrating amplifier (Integrator)

Feedback element is a capacitor

84
Differentiator amplifier circuit

Gives an output voltage that is proportional to the

rate of change (slope) of the input voltage 85
Comparator

It takes analog sensor voltage and compares it to a

threshold voltage, Vref.
•If the sensor's voltage is greater than the threshold, the
output of the circuit is maximum (typically 5 V).
•If the sensor's output is less than the threshold, the
output of the circuit is minimum (usually OV).
86
Current-to-Voltage converter
This will produce a voltage
proportional to the given
current.
A simple resistor circuit can
be used to do the
conversion.
If the input impedance of the instrument is low compared
to the converting resistor then this operational amplifier
circuit should be used.
Using this, the current can be measured by the following
relationship.
Vout=IR
87
Voltage-to-current converter
The input voltage is
applied to the non-
inverting input terminal
and the feedback voltage
across R drives the
inverting input terminal.

This circuit is also called a current series negative feedback,

amplifier because the feedback voltage across R depends
on the output current iL and is in series with the input
difference voltage vd.

88
Logarithmic amplifier
Making a non-linear signal to
a linear signal
Some sensors have outputs
which are non-linear.
A signal conditioner might
then be used to linearise the
output from such a sensor.

Using an operational amplifier circuit which is designed to

have a non-linear relationship between its input and
output so that when the input is non-linear, the
output is linear.
89
Logarithmic amplifier contains a diode in the feedback
loop. The diode has a non-linear characteristic, can be
represented by

Current through the feedback loop is same as the current

through the input resistance and the potential difference
across the diode is -Vout,

If the input Vin is provided by a sensor with an input t,

where , with A and a being constants, then

Hence a linear relationship between Vout and t 90

Protection
Protection is provided against high current and high
voltage which may damage the components.

Examples of protection in mechatronics:

• Seriesresistor to limit line current
• Fuse to break if the current does exceed a safe level
• Zener diode circuit to protect against high voltage and
wrong polarity.
• Optoisolator to isolate circuits completely

91
Zener Diode Protection:
For a Zener diode when the
reverse voltage VR is
increased, the leakage
current remains essentially
constant until the
breakdown voltage VZ
(Zener voltage) is reached.

Zener diodes operate in the breakdown region.

Have a specified voltage drop when they are used in reverse bias.
So normally used for voltage regulation in reverse bias.
Has the ability to maintain a nearly constant voltage under
conditions of widely varying current.
It is a diode with a low resistance for current in one direction and a
high resistance for the opposite direction, providing protection
against wrong polarity. 92
 Optoisolator
It is desirable to isolate circuits completely and remove all
the connections between them.

• Input Stage = infrared emitting diode (IRED)

• Output Stage = silicon NPN phototransistor
This is ideal for applications requiring
High isolation surge voltage
Noise isolation
Requirement of size is small 93
Types of Optoisolators

a) Transistor (b)Darlington (c)Triac

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A protection circuit is shown above have the following
features
• To protect against high current by a resistor in series
• To prevent the LED having the wrong polarity
• Too high applied voltage 95
 Filtering
Filtering is the process of removing a certain band of
frequencies from a signal and permitting others to
be transmitted.
A filter is an electronic circuit that allows only
selected frequency region to pass through or stop
signals.
FILTERS
(On the type of elements used)

ACTIVE FILTERS PASSIVE FILTERS

Operational amplifier Resistors,

capacitors and
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inductors
Simplest filters can be constructed from passive
components

Passive filters have the disadvantage that the

current drawn by the item that follows can
change the characteristic of the filter.

This problem does not occur with an active filter.

When impedance matching becomes a problem, or
amplification is needed, an active filter can be
used.

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Terms used in Filters
• ThePass Band: the range of frequencies passed by the filter
• The Stop Band: the range not passed by the filter.
• CUT OFF frequency: the boundary between stopping and
passing
Filters are classified based on the frequencies they allow or
reject
Low-pass filter: passes low frequencies and stops high
frequencies (Fig (a))
High-pass filter: passes high frequencies and rejects low
frequencies (fig (b))
Band-pass filter: passes frequencies within a frequency band
and blocks or attenuates frequencies outside the band (Fig (c))
Band-reject filter: passes frequencies outside a frequency
band and blocks or attenuates frequencies within the band (Fig98
Types of Filters (a) Low-pass (b) High-pass (c) Band-pass (d) Band-stop

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THANK YOU

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