Literary Devices

LITERARY DEVICES

Literary devices refers to specific aspects of literature, in the sense of its universal function as an art
form which expresses ideas through language, which we can recognize, identify, interpret and/or
analyze. Literary devices collectively comprise the art form’s components; the means by which
authors create meaning through language, and by which readers gain understanding of and
appreciation for their works. They also provide a conceptual framework for comparing individual
literary works to others, both within and across genres. Both literary elements and literary techniques
can rightly be called literary devices.

Literary elements refers to particular identifiable characteristics of a whole text. They are not “used,”
per se, by authors; they represent the elements of storytelling which are common to all literary and
narrative forms. For example, every story has a theme, every story has a setting, every story has a
conflict, every story is written from a particular point-of-view, etc. In order to be discussed
legitimately as part of a textual analysis, literary elements must be specifically identified for that
particular text.

Literary techniques refers to any specific, deliberate constructions or choices of language which an
author uses to convey meaning in a particular way. An author’s use of a literary technique usually
occurs with a single word or phrase, or a particular group of words or phrases, at one single point in a
text. Unlike literary elements, literary techniques are not necessarily present in every text; they
represent deliberate, conscious choices by individual authors.

Alliteration: The repetition of consonant sounds within close proximity, usually in consecutive words
within the same sentence or line.

Antagonist: Counterpart to the main character and source of a story’s main conflict. The person may
not be “bad” or “evil” by any conventional moral standard, but he/she opposes the protagonist in a
significant way. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for
identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by
itself.)

Blank verse: Non-rhyming poetry, usually written in iambic pentameter.

Most of Shakespeare’s dialogue is written in blank verse, though it does occasionally rhyme.

Climax: The turning point in a story, at which the end result becomes inevitable, usually where
something suddenly goes terribly wrong; the “dramatic high point” of a story. (Although it is
technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or
analysis of structure; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)

Conflict: A struggle between opposing forces which is the driving force of a story. The outcome of
any story provides a resolution of the conflict(s); this is what keeps the reader reading. Conflicts can
exist between individual characters, between groups of characters, between a character and society,
etc., and can also be purely abstract (i.e., conflicting ideas).

Dramatic irony: Where the audience or reader is aware of something important, of which the
characters in the story are not aware.

Exposition: Where an author interrupts a story in order to explain something, usually to provide
important background information.

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The first chapter consists mostly of exposition, running down the family’s history and describing their
living conditions.

Figurative language: Any use of language where the intended meaning differs from the actual literal
meaning of the words themselves. There are many techniques which can rightly be called figurative
language, including metaphor, simile, hyperbole, personification, onomatopoeia, verbal irony, and
oxymoron. (Related: figure of speech)

The poet makes extensive use of figurative language, presenting the speaker’s feelings as colors,
sounds and flavors.

Foreshadowing: Where future events in a story, or perhaps the outcome, are suggested by the author
before they happen. Foreshadowing can take many forms and be accomplished in many ways, with
varying degrees of subtlety. However, if the outcome is deliberately and explicitly revealed early in a
story (such as by the use of a narrator or flashback structure), such information does not constitute
foreshadowing.

Hyperbole: A description which exaggerates, usually employing extremes and/or superlatives to

convey a positive or negative attribute; “hype.”

The author uses hyperbole to describe Mr. Smith, calling him “the greatest human being ever to walk
the earth.”

Imagery: Language which describes something in detail, using words to substitute for and create
sensory stimulation, including visual imagery and sound imagery. Also refers to specific and
recurring types of images, such as food imagery and nature imagery. (Not all descriptions can rightly
be called imagery; the key is the appeal to and stimulation of specific senses, usually visual. It is often
advisable to specify the type of imagery being used, and consider the significance of the images
themselves, to distinguish imagery from mere description.)

The author’s use of visual imagery is impressive; the reader is able to see the island in all its lush,
colorful splendor by reading Golding’s detailed descriptions.

Irony (a.k.a. Situational irony): Where an event occurs which is unexpected, in the sense that it is
somehow in absurd or mocking opposition to what would be expected or appropriate. Mere
coincidence is generally not ironic; neither is mere surprise, nor are any random or arbitrary
occurrences. (Note: Most of the situations in the Alanis Morissette song are not ironic at all, which
may actually make the song ironic in itself.) See also Dramatic irony; Verbal irony.

Metaphor: A direct relationship where one thing or idea substitutes for another.

Mood: The atmosphere or emotional condition created by the piece, within the setting. Mood refers to
the general sense or feeling which the reader is supposed to get from the text; it does not, as a literary
element, refer to the author’s or characters’ state of mind. (Note that mood is a literary element, not a
technique; the mood must therefore be described or identified. It would be incorrect to simply state,
“The author uses mood.”)

Motif: A recurring important idea or image. A motif differs from a theme in that it can be expressed
as a single word or fragmentary phrase, while a theme usually must be expressed as a complete
sentence.

Onomatopoeia: Where sounds are spelled out as words; or, when words describing sounds actually
sound like the sounds they describe.
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Oxymoron: A contradiction in terms.

Romeo describes love using several oxymorons, such as “cold fire,” “feather of lead” and “sick
health,” to suggest its contradictory nature.

Paradox: Where a situation is created which cannot possibly exist, because different elements of it
cancel each other out.

Personification (I) Where inanimate objects or abstract concepts are seemingly endowed with human
self-awareness; where human thoughts, actions, perceptions and emotions are directly attributed to
inanimate objects or abstract ideas. (Not to be confused with anthropomorphism.)

Personification (II) Where an abstract concept, such as a particular human behavior or a force of
nature, is represented as a person.

The Greeks personified natural forces as gods; for example, the god Poseidon was the
personification of the sea and its power over man.

Protagonist: The main character in a story, the one with whom the reader is meant to identify. The
person is not necessarily “good” by any conventional moral standard, but he/she is the person in
whose plight the reader is most invested. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is
only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be
analyzed by itself.)

Simile: An indirect relationship where one thing or idea is described as being similar to another.
Similes usually contain the words “like” or “as,” but not always.

Symbolism: The use of specific objects or images to represent abstract ideas. This term is commonly
misused, describing any and all representational relationships, which in fact are more often
metaphorical than symbolic.
A symbol must be something tangible or visible, while the idea it symbolizes must be something
abstract or universal. (In other words, a symbol must be something you can hold in your hand or draw
a picture of, while the idea it symbolizes must be something you can’t hold in your hand or draw a
picture of.)

Tone: The apparent emotional state, or “attitude,” of the speaker/narrator/narrative voice, as

conveyed through the language of the piece. Tone refers only to the narrative voice; not to the author
or characters. It must be described or identified in order to be analyzed properly; it would be incorrect
to simply state, “The author uses tone.”

Tragedy: Where a story ends with a negative or unfortunate outcome which was essentially
avoidable, usually caused by a flaw in the central character’s personality. Tragedy is really more of a
dramatic genre than a literary element; a play can be referred to as a tragedy, but tragic events in a
story are essentially part of the plot, rather than a literary device in them. When discussing tragedy, or
analyzing a story as tragic, look to the other elements of the story which combine to make it tragic.

Tragic hero/tragic figure: A protagonist who comes to a bad end as a result of his own behavior,
usually cased by a specific personality disorder or character flaw. (Although it is technically a literary
element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it
cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)

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Tragic flaw: The single characteristic (usually negative) or personality disorder which causes the
downfall of the protagonist.

Othello’s tragic flaw is his jealousy, which consumes him so thoroughly that he is driven to murder
his wife rather than accept, let alone confirm, her infidelity. (Although it is technically a literary
element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it
cannot generally be analyzed by itself.)

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