GHS chulichan kargil science notes for 10th class

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL
CHULICHAN, KARGIL LADAKH

194103
Class Notes of 10th class ,

(Science)
According to the latest CBSE
SYLLABUS OF
Session :2023_24
Prepared By : Mohd Ali ( Science Teacher)
Ali-Zothpa-Abassi
@zothpa196@gmail.com
7780832803
Disclaimer: diagram and photos used in this notes are meant for students only for study purpose.
SYLLABUS
Unit III: Natural Phenomena(12 Marks)
Chapter-9 Reflection & Refraction
1. Reflection of light by curved surfaces; Images
formed by spherical mirrors, centre of curvature,
principal axis, principal focus, focal length,
mirror formula (Derivation not
required),magnification. Refraction; Laws of
refraction, refractive index.
2. Refraction of light by spherical lens; Image formed

by spherical lenses; Lens formula(Derivation not
required); Magnification. Power of a lens.
Chapter 10 : The human eye and colourful world
3 Functioning of a lens in human eye, defects of

vision and their corrections, applications of
spherical mirrors and lenses.
4 Refraction of light through a prism, dispersion of

light, scattering of light, applications in dailylife
(excluding colour of the sun at sunrise and
sunset).
GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

SPHERICAL MIRROR
A spherical mirror is the silvered circular piece of a hollow

glass sphere. The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror
may be curved inwards or outwards.
Depending upon which side of the glass piece is silvered ,the
spherical mirrors are of two types
A)Concave Mirrors :
A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved

inwards, that is, faces towards the centre of the sphere, is
called a concave mirror.
B) Convex Mirror
A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved

outwards, is called a convex mirror.

Basic Terms Related to Image Formation by Spherical Mirror
• Center of Curvature
The point in the centre of the mirror passes through the curve of the
mirror and has the same tangent and curvature at that point.
• Radius of Curvature
It’s the linear distance between the pole and the centre of curvature.
• Principal Axis
The imaginary line passes through the optical centre and the centre of
curvature of any lens or a spherical mirror.
• Pole
The midpoint of the spherical mirror.
• Aperture
An aperture of a mirror or lens is a point from which the reflection of
light actually happens. It also gives the size of the mirror.
• Principal Focus
Principal Focus can also be called Focal Point. It’s on the axis of a
mirror or lens wherein rays of light parallel to the axis converge or
appear to converge after reflection or refraction.
• Focus
It’s any given point, where light rays parallel to the principal axis, will
converge after getting reflected from the mirror.

Image Formation by Concave Mirror
By changing the position of the object from the concave mirror,
different types of images can be formed. Different types of images are
formed when the object is placed:
1 At the infinity
2 Beyond the centre of curvature
3 At the centre of curvature
4 Between the centre of curvature and principal focus
5 At the principal focus
6 Between the principal focus and pole
1 At the infinity
when an object is placed at infinity, a real and inverted image is

formed at the focus. The size of the image is much smaller compared to
that of the object.
2 Beyond the centre of curvature
When an object is placed behind the centre of curvature, a real image is

formed between the centre of curvature and focus. The size of the image
is smaller than compared to that of the object.

3 At the centre of curvature
When an object is placed at the centre of curvature and focus, the real
image is formed at the centre of curvature. The size of the image is the
same as compared to that of the object
4 Between the centre of curvature and principal focus
When an object is placed in between the centre of curvature and focus, the
real image is formed behind the centre of curvature. The size of the image
is larger than compared to that of the object.

5 At the principal focus
When an object is placed at the focus, the real image is formed at infinity.
The size of the image is much larger than compared to that of the object.
6 Between the principal focus and pole
When an object is placed in between focus and pole, a virtual and erect
image is formed. The size of the image is larger than compared to that of
the object

Summary
S. Position of Object Position of Size of Nature of
No Image Image Image
1 At infinity At the focus Highly Real and

F Diminished Inverted
2 Beyond the centre Between F Diminished Real and

of curvature C and C Inverted
3 At the centre of At C Same Size Real and

curvature C Inverted
4 Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and

Inverted
5 At focus F At Infinity Highly Real and

Enlarged Inverted
MIRROR FORMULA
The mirror formula provides a relation between the focal length of the
mirror, distance of the object and distance of the image. The
mathematical formula of the mirror formula is given as:
Where

The distance of the object from its pole is called the object distance (u).
The distance of the image from the pole of the mirror is called the
image distance (v).
the distance of the principal focus from the pole is called the focal
length (f)
f= R/2
R is the radius of curvature of the spherical mirror
MAGNIFICATION

USES OF CONCAVE MIRROR
1. Concave mirrors are used widely in dental clinics as they help
dentists to examine the interior of the mouth or teeth magnified
and therefore more accurate.
2. concave mirrors can absorb the sunlight and focus them at the
focal point. This absorbed sunlight in the solar furnace produces
heat. This concentrated heat energy is used for cooking, electricity,
heating, and other purposes.
3. Concave mirrors are widely used in automobiles and motor
vehicles headlights, torchlights, railway engines, etc. as reflectors.
IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX MIRROR

There are only two possibilities of position of object in the case of a
convex mirror, i.e. object at infinity and object between infinity and pole
of a convex mirror.
1. Object at infinity: When the object is at the infinity, a point sized image
is formed at principal focus behind the convex mirror.
Properties of image: Image is highly diminished, virtual and erect.

2. Object between infinity and pole: When the object is between
infinity and pole of a convex mirror, a diminished, virtual and erect
image is formed between pole and focus behind the mirror.
Properties of image: Image is diminished, virtual and erect
Positions and Nature of Image in Convex

Mirror
Position Position Size of Nature

of Object of Image Image of Image
At infinity At F, Highly Virtual

behind diminished and erect
mirror
Between Between F Diminished Virtual

infinity and and P, and erect
P behind
mirror
Uses of Convex Mirror:

• Convex mirror is used in rear view mirror of vehicles; so that
the driver can see the traffic coming from behind. The field of view
is widest in case of a convex mirror, which enables it to show a
wider area from behind.
• Convex mirror is used on hairpin bends on the road; so that the
driver can see the traffic approaching from another side of the
bend.

What is Refraction of Light?
The phenomenon of change in the direction/path of light rays
when it travels from one transparent medium to another is
called refraction of light.
light has different speeds in different mediums. When light travels in the
same medium, it travels along a straight line but when the medium has
changed the speed of light changes and it bends.
• Incident ray: The ray of light falling to the surface at point P (above
fig.) is called an incident ray (AP).
• Refracted ray: The ray of light traveling in glass with a change in
direction is called refracted ray (PB).
• Angle of incidence (i): The angle formed between the incident ray
and the normal is called the angle of incidence.
• Angle of refraction (r): The angle formed between normal and the
angle of refraction is called the angle of refraction.

• Figure 1: Angle of incidence is greater than the angle of refraction
(∠i > ∠r). When a ray of light travels from a rarer medium to a denser
medium, it bends towards normal. Air rarer medium and glass is a
denser medium.
• Figure 2: Angle of incidence is smaller than the angle of refraction
(∠i <∠r). When a ray of light travels from a denser medium(glass) to a
rarer medium(air), it bends away from normal.
• Figure 3: When a ray of light traveling along with normal shows no
deflection. ∠i=∠r=0.
Laws of Refraction of Light
First Law of Refraction of Light
It states that the incident ray, refracted ray, and normal to the
interface at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.

Second Law of Refraction of Light (snells law)
It states that the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (i) and the
sine of the angle of refraction (r) is constant. It is given as,
sin i / sin r = Constant
This constant is also called the refractive index of the second medium
with respect to the first.
What Is Refractive Index?
Refractive index is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum

to its speed in a specific medium.
The refractive index, represented by symbol n, is the

velocity of light in vacuum divided by the velocity of light
in a medium. The formula of the refractive index is as
follows:
N= C/V
Where,
• n is the refractive index
• c is the velocity of light in a vacuum ( 3 × 108 m/s)
• v is the velocity of light in a substance
Higher the refractive index, the higher the optical density and slower is
the speed of light. Lower the refractive index, lower the optical density
and higher the speed of light

Refraction by Spherical Lenses
Lens
A lens is a piece of transparent optical material with one or two
curved surfaces to refract light rays.
It may converge or diverge light rays to form an image. It is of two
types as:
1.Convex Lens
A convex lens is also referred to as a converging lens since it
“converges” light rays that are incident on it. The lens surface is
convex in nature. Convex lenses are types of lenses that have
thick central portions and thin periphery. A lens may have two
spherical surfaces, bulging outwards
2.Concave Lens
A concave lens is also referred to as a diverging lens since it
“diverges” light rays that are incident on it. The lens surface is
concave in nature. The figure below shows a common biconcave
lens used in labs. concave lens is bounded by two spherical
surfaces, curved inwards. It is thicker at the edges than at the
middle

Terms Commonly Associated with Lens
1 Centre of Curvature: The centre of the actual glass sphere, of which

the lens forms a part.
2 Principal Axis: When two spheres are part of the lens, it is the
imaginary line joining the centres of curvatures of both spheres.
3 Principal Focus: It is a point on the principal axis, where light rays
parallel to the principal axis meet in the case of a convex lens (or appear
to meet after extrapolation in the case of a concave lens).
4 Optical Centre: It is a point within the lens where the diameter of the
lens and the principal axis meet.
5 Focal Length: The distance between the focus and the optical centre.

Image Formation by Lenses( Ray Diagram)
Lenses form images by refracting light.
1)Nature, position and relative size of the

image formed by a convex lens for various
positions of the object

Rules to draw the diagram:
First, we draw a ray parallel to principal axis So, it passes through focus
after refraction
We draw another ray which passes through Optical Center So, the ray will
go through without any deviation
Where both refracted rays meet is point A' And the image formed is A'B'
Case 1 - Object is Placed at infinity
Image is formed at F 2 And it is very very small

We can say that :
Image is Real
Image is Inverted
Image is Smaller than the Object (Highly Diminished)
Case 2_ object is place beyond 2F1:
This image is formed between F 2 and 2F 2

We can say that :
Image is Real
Image is Inverted
Image is Smaller than the Object (Diminished)

Case 3 Object is at 2F1
This image is formed at 2F 2
We can say that Image is Real
Image is Inverted
Image is exactly the same size as that of Object
Case 4 Object is between F and 2F
This image is formed between beyond 2F 2

Image is Inverted
Image is larger than the object (Magnified)

Case 5 Object is at F
Here, Object AB is kept at F 1

First, we draw a ray parallel to principal axis So, it passes through
focus after refraction
We draw another ray which passes through Optical Center So, the ray
will go through without any deviation
We observe that both rays are parallel to each other Hence we can say
that they meet at infinity.
Hence, the rays form an image at infinity
And image formed would be larger than the object
Image is Inverted
Image is larger than the object (Magnified)

Case 6 Object is between O and F
Here, Object AB is kept between O and F 1

First, we draw a ray parallel to principal axis So, it passes through
focus after refraction
We draw another ray which passes through Optical Center So, the
ray will go through without any deviation
We observe that both refhracted rays are diverging It means that
they would have met at some point Hence, we extend both rays
behind the lens
We see that the rays form an image behind the lens (on the left
side).
So, the image is virtual
And image formed would be larger than the object
We can say that
Image is virtual (behind the lens)

2)Nature, position and relative size of the image formed
by a concave lens for various positions of the object
Case 1_ object at infinity
When an object is placed at infinity, a virtual image is formed at the

focus. The size of the image is highly diminished and point size.
Case 2_ When an object is placed at a finite distance from the lens, a

virtual image is formed between the optical centre and the focus of the
convex lens. The size of the image is smaller than that of the object.

Lens Formula
This formula denotes relationship between Object

Distance (u) Image Distance (v) Focal length (f).
It is given by:
Where,
U= Distance of Object from Optical Centre of the lens is
called Object Distance
V= Distance of Image from Optical Centre of the lens is
called image Distance
f= Distance of Principal Focus from the optical centre of the
lens is Called Focal Length

Concave Convex
U _ve _ve
_ve Virtual=_ve
V
Real=+ve
f _ve
+ve
Ho +ve +ve
Hi Virtual =+ve
+ve Real =_ve
Magnification
It is Ratio of Height of Image to the Height of Object

applications of spherical mirrors and lenses.
Uses of Convex Lenses
1.Convex lenses are used in spectacles to correct the

defffective vision called hepermetropia or longsightedness.
2.Convex lens is used for making a simple camera.
3.Convex lens is used as a magnifying glass (or magnifying
lens)(by palmists, watchmakers, etc.).
4.Convex lens is used in making microscopes, telescopes
and slide projectors (or film projectors).
Uses of Concave Lenses
1.Concave lenses are used in spectacles to correct the

defect of vision called myopia (or shortssightedness).
2.Concave lens is used as eye-lens in Galilean telescope.
3.Concave lenses are used in combination with convex
lenses to make high quality lens systems for optical
instruments.
4.Concave lens is used in wide-angle spyhole in doors

Human eye
The human eye is the most significant organ as it enables us to see the
beautiful, colourful world around us. The eye is spherical in shape and
has a diameter of 2.3 cm on average.
Structure and function of eye
It consists of -
1 Cornea:
It is the white part of the eye that allows light to enter. It
acts as a window to the world.
2. Iris:
It is colored part of the eye.
It holds the pupil and also adjust the size of pupil according
to the intensity of light.

3. Pupil:
It is black in color and absorbs all the light rays falling on it.
It gets constricted when the intensity of light is high.
It gets expanded when the intensity of light is low.
4. Ciliary muscles
They hold the lens. They adjust the focal length of the lens.
5. Retina :
It is the screen of an eye where image is formed.
It consists of two types of cells:
a) Cone cells: those cells which respond to colours.
b)Rod cells: those cells which respond to the intensity of
light
6 Aqueous Humour:
The fluid which is present between cornea and lens is called
aqueous humour. It keeps the eye moist .
7. Vitreous Humour
The jelly part that held to maintain the structure of eye is
called vitreous humour
8.Blind spot:
It is that point on the retina where no image is formed.
9.Optic nerve:
A nerve that connects the eye to the brain.

DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION
When a person cannot see either the distant objects or nearby objects
or both clearly and comfortably. The person is said to have defects of
the eye. These defects of the eye are also known as the defects of vision
Following are the four common defects of vision:
• Myopia or short-sightedness
• Hypermetropia or long-sightedness
• Presbyopia
• Astigmatism
1. Myopia or Near Sightedness:

It is also called shortsightedness
In Myopia,
>Person is able to see nearby objects clearly but is not able to see
farway object
> Far point of person is nearer than infinity
>Image of Faraway objects is formed in front of retina
Causes of Myopia
It is caused because
>Excessive curvature of
eye lens(eye lens become
more curved)
>Eye ball becomes elongated
Correction of Myopia
It is corrected by using
concave lens of suitable
power It helps to form
image on the retina

2)Hypermetropia
It is called long sightedness
In Hypermetropia:
>Person is able to see farway objects but are not able to see nearby
objects
>Image of Nearby objects is formed behind the retina
>Near point of person is beyond 25 cm
Causes of Hypermetropia
It is caused because
>Eye ball becomes too small
>Focal Length of Eye lens is too
long
Correction of Hypermetropia
It is corrected by using convex
Lens of suitable power It helps
to form image on the retina

3.Presbyopia
It is the defect in which person is not able to see nearby objects
clearly It is formed in old persons whose cillary muscles become
weak with age Hence, they lose their power of accomodation.
Causes
It is caused due to Weakening of Eye muscles
Decrease in Flexibility of Eye lens
Correction of Presbyopia
it is also corrected with the help of convex lens (just like
Hypermetropia)
What are Bifocal Lens?

It is a lens whose upper part consists of concave lens and inside part
for convex lens It is used in case of those patients who are suffering
from both myopia and hypermetropia

Refraction Through a Prism
It is a solid figure having two triangular bases and three rectangular
surfaces and is the closed surface.

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM
The phenomenon of splitting of white light into its seven primary colours
when it passes through a glass prism is called dispersion of white light.
The various colours seen are Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange
and Red. The sequence of colours remembers as VIBGYOR. The band of
seven colours is called the spectrum.
causes of Dispersion of White Light
Dispersion of white light into seven colours occurs because the light of
different colours has different wavelength. In this band of seven
colours, red light has the longest wavelength and violet has the
shortest.
Therefore different component colour of light bends at a different angle
with respect to the incident angle. The violet light bends the least while
the Red bends the most.

Recombination of white light:
Newton found that When white light is passed through a prism, it

disperses, and when another prism is kept inverted, the dispersed light
returns to white light. This is referred to as light spectrum
recombination.
Causes
When white light is passed through the first prism, it disperses the white
light into seven colours. The second identical glass prism kept upside
down recombines these rays into the white light. This recombination
occurs due to the reverse refraction produced by the second prism kept
upside down with its refracting sides parallel to each other. On the other
hand if the second prism is kept just like the first prism, then no
recombination of dispersed light occurs.
He concluded that Sun is made up of seven visible colours VIBGYOR.
scattering of light
Scattering of light is the phenomenon in which light rays deviate
from their original path upon striking an obstacle like dust, gas
molecules, or water vapors.
Incident light Scattered lights

Particles

Scattering of light gives rise to many spectacular phenomena such as
Tyndall effect
Tyndall Effect
• Tyndall effect is the phenomenon of scattering of light by

colloidal particles.
• Tyndall effect is used to distinguish a true from a colloidal
solution.
We get to see the Tyndall effect in our surroundings very often, some
of the examples are
1 When a beam of sunlight enters the dark room through a small

hole or window its path becomes visible due to the scattering of
light by the dust particles present in the room.
2 When a beam of light is projected on a screen from a projector
in the cinema hall it becomes visible.
3 When sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest it
gets scattered by tiny water droplets.

APPLICATION IN DAILY LIFE
1)RAINBOW
A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower.
(a) The beautiful phenomenon of the rainbow is a combination of three
different phenomena - dispersion, refraction and reflection of light.
(b) The rainbow appears in the sky after a rain shower.
(c) When light rays from the sun enter the water droplets that act like
small prisms, they refract and disperse the incident sunlight.
(d) This light is then reflected internally, inside the droplet and is finally
refracted again.
(e) Due to the collective effect of all these phenomena, the
seven coloured rainbow 'VIBGYOR' - violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange, red can be seen.
White light from the sun

2) TWINKLING OF STARS
The change in optical density of air due to the different atmospheric

layer causes twinkling of stars.
The twinkling of stars occurs due to atmospheric refraction of star's
light. The Optical Density of Air varies continuously in the different
layers of the atmosphere.
Due to the varying optical densities of air, starlight is refracted
multiple times through the atmosphere before it reaches our eyes. As
air in the atmosphere moves, this refracted light also shifts, causing
shifts in the image of the stars that we see.
Hence, the image of the stars in our eyes changes continuously and
stars appear to twinkle .
Star Apparent star

position
Ray path
Refractive index
increasing

The
End

SYLLABUS
Chapter 8 : How do Organisms
Reproduction:
1)Reproduction in animals and plants (asexual and sexual)
2)reproductive health - need and methods of family planning.
3) Safe sex vs HIV/AIDS.
4) Child bearing and women’s health.

REPRODUCTION
*Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new
individuals of the same species.
*Reproduction
Page
is necessary for the survival and increase in the
population of a species. If organisms do not reproduce, their population
decreases and species will become extinct.
Significance of Reproduction:
1. It allows continuity of of a species generation after generation.
2.It plays an important role in evolution by transmitting favorable
variations from one generation to another generation.
3. It is a bridge to hereditary transmission i.e.it involves a continuation
of characters from the parents to daughter cells (by copying of DNA
molecules present in the chromosomes of the cell)
VARIATION
Variation may be defined as the differences among the individuals of the
same species.
Variations occur due to inaccuracies in the copying of DNA during
reproduction.
The useful variations are retained while the harmful ones do not go
beyond.
Importance of Variation:
1.Variations help the species to withstand drastic environmental
changes, thus save the species from becoming extinct and promotes its
survival for a longer time.
2.This inbuilt tendency of variation is the “basis” for Evolution.

TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
There are two types of reproduction. These are :
Sexual
Asexual Reproduction
Reproduction
1) It involves only one individual. 1)It involves two (usually) different

individuals.
2)It does not requires the fusion 2) It requires the fusion of the
of the male and the female male and female gamete.
gamete
3) Offsprings produced in sexual

3) Offsprings produced in asexual
reproduction are different from
reproduction are exactly similar
their parents. Hence, show
to their parent. Hence, called
variation.
clones.
4) Only mitosis division takes place. 4) Meiosis and mitosis division both
take place.
5) It is a fast process.
5)It is a slow process
Modes :
*Fission Methods:
*Fragmentation * In Flowering plants
*Regeneration * In Human Beings
*Budding
*Vegetative propagation
*Spore formation

Asexual. reproduction
“Asexual reproduction is the mode of reproduction that is involved in

the production of offspring by a single parent.”
Types of Asexual Reproduction

There are different types of asexual reproduction:
• Binary Fission
• Budding
• Fragmentation
• Vegetative Propagation
• Sporogenesis
1)Binary Fission
The term “fission” means “to divide”.
During binary fission the parent cell divides into two cells..
Fission can be of two types, namely, binary fission and multiple fission.
In binary fission, parent cell divides into two equal halves called daughter
cells. Daughter cells are identical to each other and to their parent cell.
Organisms like the amoeba, bacteria, euglena, etc., exhibit binary fission.

During multiple fission, organism divides itself into
numerous daughter cells. Examples of multiple fission are
sporozoans and algae
2) Budding
Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a
small cryst like structure is formed on the parent’s body
which give rise to a new individual.
Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may
separate and becomes a new individual (hydra)
3) Fragmentation
Fragmentation is a process by which an organism gets
fragmented into a smaller pieces and each piece grows into
a new organism
Eg: planaria

4) Regeneration
Regeneration is the process of growing back the lost organ or body
part by the organism
Eg : Lizard
5) Spore Formation
Spore Formation is a method in Asexual Reproduction. Many Spores are
stored in sacs called Sporangia. When Sporangia burst; minute single-
celled, thin or thick walled structures called spores are obtained. Under
suitable conditions, they develop into a new Plant.
6) Vegetative Propogation
Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in which new
plants are reproduced from vegetative parts like the root, stem or
leaves of the parent plant. It means no specialized reproductive organs
are involved in vegetative propagation

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Structure of Flower
A flower comprises four main parts. They are as follows
• Sepals
• Petals
• Stamens
• Carpels.
Stamens and Carpels are the reproductive parts of a flower.
1)Stamen: It is the male reproductive part of the flower. A single

flower may have number of stamens in it. It is composed of :
a)Anther: It is a bilobed structure containing two pollen sacs present

at the tip of stamen. These produce pollen grains that are yellowish in
color.
b) Filaments : Filament – slender stalk supporting the anther (makes

the anther accessible to pollinators)
2)Carpel (Pistil) :It is the female reproductive part, which is present

in the center of the flower.
It comprises of mainly three parts:

a) Stigma- It is the terminal part of the carpel which may be sticky.
It helps in receiving the pollen grains during pollination.
b) Style- It is the middle elongated part of the carpel. It helps in the

attachment of stigma to the ovary.
c) Ovary- It is the swollen bottom part of the carpel. It contains

ovules having an egg cell (female gamete).
In addition to these reproductive structures, flowers possess:

▪ Petals – brightly coloured modified leaves, which function to
attract pollinators
▪ Sepal – Outer covering which protects the flower when in bud
Pollination-
The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the stamen of a flower
is termed as Pollination.
The pollen grains can be transferred by various agents like wind,

water, insects and animals.
Pollination usually occurs in two ways :
1)Self-pollination
Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma

of the same flower (autogamy), or to the stigma of another flower of the
same plant (geitonogamy).
Self-pollination can occur in bisexual flowers, i.e. in flowers having

both male and female organs, or it can also occur in such unisexual
flowers where both male and female flowers are borne on the same
plant.

2) Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anthers of flowers
of one plant to the stigma of a flower of another plant of the same species.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Male reproductive system consists of the following parts:
1) Testis :
• Paired, oval-shaped male sex organs.
• Consist of seminiferous tubules, where the sperms are produced.
• Produce a male sex hormone called testosterone,Which bring about

changes in the appearance of boys at puberty.
2) Scrotum
• Small pouch that contains testis.
• Present outside the abdominal cavity.
• As sperms are formed here, this requires a lower temperature
than the normal body temperature.

4) Vas Deferens
• Tube-like structure which connects testes to the urethra in order

to allow the passage of semen.
5) Urethra
• Common passage for both the sperms and urine.
• It never carries both of them at the same time.
• Secretes seminal fluid and nutrients.
6) Penis
• External male genital organ.
• Transfers sperms into the vagina of the female during copulation.
• Tiny and motile bodies that use their long tail to move through the
female reproductive tract.
7) Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicles
• Fluid and nutrients combine with sperm to form semen. Milky,

viscous fluid contains fructose, proteins and other chemicals for
nourishing and stimulating sperms.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The Female Reproductive System consists of the following
Reproductive Organs.
1. OVARIES
• The two ovaries are small ovoid bodies.
• There the peripheral part produces the eggs.
• Normally, only one egg matures in each ovary every alternate

month.
• As the egg grows larger, the follicle also enlarges and gets filled
with a fluid that is now called the Graafian follicle.
• When ripe, the follicle bulges over the surface of the ovary.

2. OVIDUCTS (Fallopian Tubes)
• The two oviducts, also called Fallopian tubes are about 12 cm long.
• Near the corresponding ovary, each oviduct has a funnel- shaped

opening called the oviducal funnel.
• the Waves of muscular contractions (or peristalsis) of the wall of

oviduct push the egg down into the uterus.
3. UTERUS
• The uterus is a hollow pear-shaped muscular organ situated in the

pelvic cavity.
• It has two regions, an upper wider portion which receives the two
oviducts and a small lower constricted part called the cervix.
4. VAGINA
• The vagina is a muscular tube starting from the lower end of the
uterus up to the outside.
• The vagina receives the male penis during copulation.
• The great elasticity of its wall also allows the passage of the baby
during childbirth.
• The opening of the vagina in young females is partially closed by a

thin membrane called hymen (or the virgin knot).

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEING:
•The sperm is introduced inside the female vagina through the penis
by the process of copulation or mating. Fertilisation occurs in the
fallopian tube.
•Sperms are highly active & mobile which move up through cervix into
the uterus and then pass into the fallopian tubes.
•In the fallopian tube only one sperm fertilises the ovum to form
zygote. This is called fertilisation.
The embryo development of the zygote starts immediately in the
fallopian tube and pregnancy starts while menstruation stops.
.The embryo moves down to reach the uterus. The embryo get
embedded in the thick inner lining of the uterus(process is called
Implantation)
.Then a special tissues develops between the uterine Wall and the
embryo (foetus) called Placenta, through which the exchange of
nutrients, oxygen and waste products take place between the foetus
and the mother.
•The time period from the development of foetus inside the uterus till
birth is called Gestation period. It is approximately 9 months in human.
•At the end of gestation period the female give birth of the fully
developed foetus (The act of giving birth is termed as Parturition)
What happens when the Egg is not Fertilised?/ Menstruation
In females, ovaries release ovum or egg once every 28 days from the age
of puberty. The uterus prepares itself every month to receive a fertilized
egg. Thus, its lining becomes thick and spongy. If the egg is not fertilized
it lives for about a day. Afterwards this lining of the uterus is no longer
required and Menstruation Occurs.

Menstruation also known as a periodis the regular discharge of blood
and mucolus tissue from the inner lining of the uterus through the
vagina.
It occurs through the vagina as blood and mucus. Menstruation lasts for
about 3-5 days.
Menstural Cycle has 4 phases:
1 Menstrual phase
2 Follicular phase
3 Ovulatory phase
4 Luteal phase

Chapter 15
Natural Resources ( our. environment)
SYLLABUS
Eco-system
Environmental problems
Ozone depletion
waste production and their solutions
Biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.
Ali-Zothpa-Abassi
7780832803

ECOSYSTEM
Everything that surrounds us is environment. It includes both living
(biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components.Interaction between these
biotic and abiotic components form an ecosystem.
Types of ecosystem
It is of two types
(i) Natural ecosystem: The ecosystem which exist in nature on its own.
Example: forest, lake, ocean.
(ii) Artifical ecosystem: Man-made ecosystems are called artificial

ecosystem.
Example: crop field, aquarium, garden.
Component of ecosystem

i) Abiotic Components: All the non-living components such as air,
water, land, light, temperature etc. form the abiotic components.
(ii) Biotic Components: All the living components such as plants,

animals, bacteria, fungi etc. form the biotic components.
.
On the basis of nutrition biotic components are further divided into:
a) Producers:(Autotrophs )–
Plants exhibit autotrophic nutrition and are called primary producers.
Plants synthesis their food by using light, carbon dioxide and water.
b) consumers :
Organisms depend on the producers either directly or indirectly for
their sustenance are called consumers.
Consumers can be classed variously as:
Herbivores: These are organisms (animals) which get their food by

eating the producers (or plant) directly. Herbivores are also called first
order consumers. Some common examples of herbivores are : deer,
rabbit, rat, squirrel, goat, cattle, etc.
Carnivores: These are organisms (animals) which consume other

animals. Therefore, carnivores feed on the flesh of herbivores. These
are also called primary carnivores or second order consumers. Some
common examples are snake, wild cat, jackal, frog, some birds, fishes,
etc.
Omnivores: The organisms which feed on both plants and animals are
called omnivores. Human beings are common example of omnivores
because they eat both plants.
Decomposers: Fungi and bacteria which break down (decompose) the

dead plants, animals complex compounds into the simpler one. The
decomposers help in the replenishment of natural resources. These are
also known as microorganism or saprotrophs. These are also called
reducers.

Trophic Levels:
The various steps in the food chain at which the transfer of food (or
energy) takes place is called trophic levels. only 10% of energy is
transferred to next trophic level while 90% of energy is used by
present trophic level in its life processes.
The various trophic levels are given below :
• The plant or the producers constitute the first trophic level.
• The herbivores or primary consumers form the second

trophic level.
• Carnivores or secondary consumers make up the third

trophic level.
• Large carnivores or the tertiary consumers which feed upon

the small carnivores constitute the fourth trophic level.

Food Chain
The chain of organisms which involves the transfer of energy from

one trophic level to the next trophic level is called a food chain.
Eg:
Grass (Producer) —–Goat (Primary Consumer) —– Man (Secondary consumer)
Accordingly, a food chain may end at the
(i) herbivore (primary consumer) level,
(ii) primary carnivore (secondary consumer) level,
(iii) secondary carnivore (tertiary consumer) level or
(iv) tertiary carnivore (quaternary consumer) level.

Characteristics of Food Chain
1) A food chain involves a nutritive interaction between the living
organisms (biotic components) of an ecosystem.
2) A food chain is always straight and proceeds in a progressive straight

line
3) In a food chain, there is unidirectional flow of energy from sun to

producers and subsequently to series of different types of consumers.
4) Usually, there are 3 or 4 trophic levels in the food chain. In few chains,
there may be maximum of 5 trophic levels.
Food Web
A food web is a network of food chains which are interconnected to each

other. The producers, consumers and the decomposers of the various food
chains are considered as the part of the food web.

Characteristics of the food web:
1. A food web is more realistic than a food chain.
2. Food web consists of various food chains interlinked at

different trophic levels.
3. A food web is not straight, and the food chain components

do not run parallel.
4. Food web provides several alternate foods to the

consumers.
5. A food web is essential for the stability of an ecosystem.
Bio magnification

Ozone Layer Depletion
Ozone layer depletion means the thinning of the ozone layer present in
the upper atmosphere.
Causes of ozone layer depletion : The cause of the ozone layer depletion
is human activity. It occurs due to the excessive use of the man-made
chemicals that are bromine and chlorine which release from the man-
made compounds such as:
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform)
H CFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons
Methyl bromide
some natural causes are sun-spots ,stratospheric winds and volcanic

activity but these effect are temporary.
Effect of ozone layer depletion: ultraviolet radiation of the sun due to

the depletion of the ozone layer result in serious health issues among
humans, such as skin diseases, cancer, sunburns, cataract, quick ageing
and weak immune system.
Solution
Less use of fuel
Less use of pesticides
Limited use of harmful chemicals

Biodegradable and non biodegradable waste
Biodegradable waste Non biodegradable waste
Biodegradable wastes are Non-biodegradable materials

materials that naturally are compounds that take a
decompose or break down. long time to decompose.
Plants, animals and their Non-biodegradable materials

excrement, as well as paper, include rubber, plastic,
fruits and vegetables are chemicals and paint plastic
examples of biodegradable
materials
The non-biodegradable waste
The degradation of takes a long time to
biodegradable waste occurs decompose
quickly.
Non-biodegradable
Bacteria, fungi and other compounds are not easily
microorganisms are capable degraded by natural
of degrading the substance mechanisms
and releasing it into the soil
It is harmful to the
It is environment friendly. environment and causes
pollution.

Effects of biodegradable substances on environment:
1. Decomposition of biodegradable wastes is accompanied by foul
smell which spreads in the environment and affects the people in
nearby areas.
2. Heaps of biodegradable wastes act as breeding grounds for

houseflies etc, which act as vectors of various diseases.
Effects of non-biodegradable substances on environment:

1. Excessive use of non-biodegradable pesticides and fertilizers affect
the fertility of soil.
2. Certain non-biodegradable wastes enter the food chains, get

biomagnified and affect the various biotic components of
environment.

Chemical reactions:
Chemical equation,
Balanced chemical equation,
implications of a balanced chemical equation,
types of chemical reactions: combination,
decomposition, displacement, double displacement,
precipitation, endothermic exothermic reactions,
oxidation and reduction.
Chemical Reaction
→ Chemical reaction is the process by which two or more substance

react with each other to form new substance with different properties.
→ These are the following changes to determine that the chemical

reaction has taken place:
(i) Change in state
(ii) Change in colour
(iii) Evolution of gas
(iv) Change in temperature
Reactants :-The substances which take part in chemical reaction are

called Reactants.
Products :-The substances which are formed in a chemical reaction are

called Products.
Chemical Equation
A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical
reaction in the form of symbols and formulae, wherein the reactant
entities are given on the left-hand side and the product entities on the
right-hand side.
Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
(Reactant) (Product)
Balanced chemical equation

The chemical equation that shows the chemical reaction needs to be
balanced. A balanced chemical equation occurs when the number of the
atoms involved in the reactants side is equal to the number of atoms in
the products side.
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
3Fe (s) + 4H2O (g) → Fe3O4 (s) + 4H2 (g)
The balancing of a chemical equation is essential or necessary to fulfill the condition of

“Law of conservation of mass“.
Law of conservation of Mass :- Matter can neither be created nor be destroyed in a

chemical reaction.
Types of chemical reaction
1)Combination reaction: Such a reaction in which a single product

is formed from two or more reactants is known as a combination
reaction. Example :-
• Burning of coal :- C (s) +0₂ (g) → CO₂ (g)
2)Exothermic Reactions:Reaction in which heat is released along

with formation of products. Example :-
• Burning of natural gas :- CH₄ (g) + 0₂ (g) → CO₂ (g) + 2H₂O (g) +
Heat
3)Endothermic Reactions :- The reactions which require energy in
the form of heat, light or electricity to break reactants are called
endothermic reactions.
4)DISPLACEMENT REACTION :- The chemical reaction in which

more reactive element displaces less reactive element from its salt
solution.
Fe (s) + CuSO₄ (aq) → FeSO₄ (aq) + Cu (s)

The iron nail becomes brownish in colour by deposition of Cu and
blue CuSO, changes to dirty green colour due to formation of FeSO.
Zn + Cuso₄ → ZnSO₄ + Cu
• Zn is more reactive than copper.
5)DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT REACTION :- A reaction in which

new compounds are formed by mutual exchange of ions between two
compounds.
Na₂SO₂ (aq) (Sodium sulphate) + BaCl₂ ( aq ) (Barium chloride) →

BaSO₄ (s) (Barium sulphate) + 2Nacl (aq) (Sodium chloride)
white precipitate of BaSO₄ is formed, so it is also called

precipitation reaction.
🔹
6)DECOMPOSITION REACTION :- The reaction in which a

compound splits into two or more simple substances is called
decomposition reaction.
A→B + C
Type of DECOMPOSITION REACTION :-
• Thermal decomposition :- When decomposition is carried

out by heating.
• Electrolytic Decomposition :- When decomposition is
carried out by passing electricity.
• Photolytic Decomposition :- When decomposition is carried
out presence of sunlight.
The decomposition reactions are mostly endothermic in nature.
Energy in the form of heat, light or electricity is generally
absorbed in these reactions.
Oxidation :-
It is a chemical reaction in which a substance gains oxygen or loses
hydrogen. As O, is an electronegative element and H, is an
electropositive element. Thus, oxidation is defined as a reaction in
which a substance gains an electronegative ion or loses an
electropositive ion.
Effects of Oxidation in Daily Life
1. Corrosion :-
When a metal is exposed to moisture, air, acid etc. for some time, a
layer of hydrated oxide is formed which weakens the metal and hence
metal is said to be corroded.
Example :- Rusting of iron, black coating on silver and green coating on
copper are examples of corrosion.
Measures to prevent corrosion :-

Corrosion can be prevented by galvanization, electroplating or by
putting paints.
2) Rancidity :-
The oxidation of fats and oils when exposed to air is known as
rancidity. It leads to bad smell and bad taste of food.
Methods to Prevent Rancidity :-

• By adding antioxidants :- Manufacturer sometimes add certain
food additives to the food materials. These are known as antioxidant
and check their oxidation.
• Keeping food in air tight containers :- Food should be kept in air

tight containers to prevent its oxidation.
• Refrigeration :- Refrigeration of food also retards rancidity as the

temperature inside refrigerator is very low and direct contact with air
or oxygen is avoided.
• Replacing air by nitrogen :- Chips manufacturers usually fills

their bags with nitrogen gas (as it is unreactive gas) before packing so
that they may not be oxidised.
Reduction :-The chemical reaction in which there is a gain of
hydrogen or any electropositive ion or a loss of oxygen or
electronegative ion.
Redox Reactions :-Reduction is loss of electronegative element or

ions. The oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously, i.e. there
can be no oxidation without and equivalent reduction. In a
reaction when one substance is oxidised the other is reduced and
vice-versa. Those reactions in which oxidation and reduction take
place simultaneously are known as redox reactions.
• reducing agent :- A substance, that brings about reduction,

is known reducing agent.
• oxidizing agent :- A substance, that brings about oxidation,
is known an oxidizing agent.
GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL
CHULICHAN, KARGIL LADAKH 194103
Class Notes of 10th class ,(Science)
According to the latest CBSE SYLLABUS OF
Session :2023_24
Prepared By : Mohd Ali ( Science Teacher)

(Ali-zothpa Abassi)
Life processes:
‘Living Being’.
Basic concept of nutrition,
respiration,
transport and
excretion in plants and animals.

Life processes :-
Life processes are the basic processes in living organisms
which are necessary for maintaining their life. The basic life
processes are – nutrition, respiration, transportation, and
excretion.
Nutrition :-
Nutrition is the process of taking food by an organism and
its utilisation by the body to build the body, for growth, to
repair the damaged parts of the body and for energy.
Life on earth depends on carbon based molecules and most
of the food are also carbon based molecules. The outside raw
materials used by living organisms are food, water and air.
a) Modes of nutrition :- There are two main modes of

nutrition. They are autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic
nutrition.
i) Autotrophic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms

prepare their own food from simple inorganic substances
like carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight
and chlorophyll.
Eg :- all green plants and some bacteria.
ii) Heterotrophic nutrition :- is nutrition in which

organisms get their food directly or indirectly from plants.
Eg :- all animals fungi and some bacteria.

b) Types of heterotrophic nutrition :-
There are three main types of heterotrophic nutrition.
They are saprophytic, parasitic and holozoic nutritions.
i) Saprohytic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms

get their food from dead and decaying organisms. They
break down the food material outside their body and then
absorbs it. Eg :- mushroom, bread mould, yeast, some
bacteria etc.
ii) Parasitic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms

get their food from living organisms (host) without killing
them. Eg :- cuscuta, orchids, ticks, lice, leeches, round
worm, tape worm, plasmodium etc.
iii) Holozoic nutrition :- is nutrition in which organisms

take food directly and then digests and absorbs it. Eg :-
amoeba, paramaecium, birds, fishes, humans etc.
Nutrition in plants :-
Photosynthesis :- is the process by which plants prepare food b
using carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll. The food prepared is carbohydrate which is stored
in the form of starch. Oxygen is released in this process.
Equation of photosynthesis :-
Photosynthesis takes place in three main steps.

They are :-
i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
ii) Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and
splitting up of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide by hydrogen to form
carbohydrates.
Chlorophyll :- are the green pigments present in the

leaves. If we observe a cross section of a leaf under a
microscope, we can see cells containing green dot like
structures called chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll.
Stomata :- are tiny pores present in the leaves through

which exchange of gases takes place. Each stoma has a pair
of guard cells which controls the opening and closing of the
stomatal pore. When water enters the guard cells, it swells
and the pore opens and when the guard cells lose water, it
shrinks and the pore closes.

Nutrition in animals :-
a) Nutrition in amoeba :-
Amoeba is a unicellular animal living in water. It takes in
food by forming finger like projections called pseudopodia
and forms a food vacuole. Inside the food vacuole the food is
digested and absorbed. The undigested food is then sent out
through the surface of the cell.

Nutrition in Human beings :-
Nutrition in human beings takes place in the digestive

system. It consists of the alimentary canal and glands
which produce enzymes which breaks down food into
smaller molecules.
The main organs of the digestive system are mouth,
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and
anus.
The main glands are salivary glands, gastric glands, liver,
pancreas and intestinal glands.

In the mouth :- the food is broken down into smaller
particles by the teeth and mixed with saliva from the
salivary glands. Saliva contains the enzyme salivary
amylase which converts starch into sugar.
Then the food passes through the oesophagus into the
stomach.
In the stomach :- the gastric glands produce gastric juice
which contains the enzyme pepsin, hydrochloric acid and
mucous. Pepsin breaks down proteins. Hydrochloric acid
makes the medium acidic and helps in the action of pepsin.
Mucous protects the walls of the stomach from the action of
the acid. Then the food passes into the small intestine.
In the upper part of the small intestine called

duodenum :- the food is mixed with bile from liver and
pancreatic juice from the pancreas. Bile breaks down fats
into smaller globules. Pancreatic juice contains the enzymes
trypsin and lipase. Trypsin breaks down proteins and lipase
breaks down fats.
In the small intestine :- the glands the walls of the small

intestine produces intestinal juice. The enzymes of the
intestinal juice coverts carbohydrates into glucose, fats into
fatty acids and glycerol and proteins into amino acids. The
walls of the small intestine has several finger like projections
called villi having blood vessels. It helps to increase the
surface area for the absorption of digested food. The digested
food is absorbed by the blood and transported to all cells in
the body. Then the undigested food passes into the large
intestine.
In the large intestine :- water is absorbed and the waste

material is removed through the anus.
Transportation
a) Transportation in Human beings :-
The main transport system in human beings is the

circulatory system.
It consists of blood, arteries, veins capillaries and heart.
i) Blood :- transports food, oxygen and waste products. It

consists of plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells
(WBC) and platelets.
Plasma transports food, water, carbondioxide, nitrogenous
waste etc. Red blood cells transports oxygen.
White blood cells kills harmful microbes and protects the
body.
Platelets help in clotting of blood and prevents loss of blood
during injury.
ii) Arteries :- carry pure blood from the heart to all parts of
the body. They are thick walled and do not have valves.
iii) Veins :- carry impure blood from all parts of the body to
the heart. They are thin walled and have valves.
iv) Capillaries :- are very narrow blood vessels which

connects arteries and veins together. The exchange of food,
water, oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. between the blood and
cells take place through the capillaries.

v) Heart :-
Structure and function of heart :
Heart is a muscular organ which pumps blood to all parts of
the body. The Human Heart is located between the lungs in
the middle of the chest. The Human Heart is divided into
four chambers, each with its unique purpose. The Right
Atrium and Ventricle make up the “right Heart,” while The
Left Atrium and Ventricle make up the “left Heart.”
The upper chambers are called atria and the lower
chambers are called ventricles.
Since the ventricles pump blood to the different organs its
walls are thicker than the atria.
The right and left chambers are separated by a septum. It
prevents the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood .
The atria and ventricles have valves between them to
prevent blood flowing backward.
A double-layered membrane called the Pericardium
surrounds the Heart like a sac.

Working of heart:
Working of the heart ( Circulation of blood ) :-

When the left atrium relaxes oxygenated blood from the
lungs flows into it through the pulmonary vein. When it
contracts, the left ventricle expands and the blood flows into
it. Then the left ventricle contracts and the oxygenated
blood is pumped out through the aorta to all parts of the
body. After circulating through all parts of the body the
deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through the
vena cava. When the right atrium contracts, the right
ventricle expands and the blood flows into it. Then the right
ventricle contracts and the blood is pumped to the lungs
through the pulmonary artery.

In the lungs carbon dioxide is removed and oxygen is
absorbed and the oxygenated blood again enters the left
atrium and the process repeats.
Since blood flows through the heart twice in one cycle, it is
called double circulation
Lymph :- is a colourless fluid present in intercellular spaces.

It is formed from the plasma which escapes from the
capillaries. Lymph drains into lymphatic capillaries which
forms lymph vessels and joins into large veins.
Lymph transports digested fats and drains excess fluids
from intercellular spaces back into the blood. It contains
lymphocytes which kills germs and protects the body
Hearts of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and
fishes :-
i) The heart in mammals :- and birds have four chambers

and the right and left sides of the heart is separated by a
septum. This prevents mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood and provides efficient supply of oxygen.
This is necessary because they need more energy to
maintain their body temperature.
ii) The heart in amphibians and reptiles :- have three

chambers and allows some mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood because the do not use energy to
maintain their body temperature. Their body temperature is
the same as the temperature of the surroundings.
iii) The heart in fishes :- have only two chambers and blood
is oxygenated in the gills.

b) Transportation in plants :-
In plants, transportation of materials like food, water and

minerals takes place through conducting tissues called
xylem and phloem.
i) Xylem :- transports water and minerals from the roots

to all parts of the plant. It consists of xylem vessels and
tracheids. Water and minerals enter the roots by diffusion.
Then due to transpiration, the suction force helps in the
upward movement of water an minerals.
ii) Phloem :- transports food from the leaves to the other

parts of the plant. This process is called translocation. The
phloem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells. Food
from the leaves is transferred to the xylem by the energy of
ATP molecules. Due to osmotic pressure water enters the
phloem and helps in the transport of food.
Respiration :-
Respiration is the process by which food is burnt in the
cells of the body with the help of oxygen to release energy.
It takes place in the mitochondria of the cells.
The energy released during respiration is used to make
ATP molecules (Adenosine tri phosphate) from ADP
molecules (Adenosine di phosphate) and inorganic
phosphate.
Energy is stored in the cells in the form of ATP molecules.

When the cells need energy, ATP is broken down in the
presence of water to form ADP and energy is released.
Types of respiration :-
There are two main types of respiration. They are aerobic
and anaerobic respiration.
i) Aerobic respiration :- takes place in the presence of

oxygen. It produces more energy. The end products are
carbon dioxide, water and energy. It takes place in most
organisms.
In aerobic respiration glucose is converted into pyruvate in
the cytoplasm in the presence of oxygen and then in the
presence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted into carbon
dioxide, water and energy in the mitochondria.

ii) Anaerobic respiration :- takes place in the absence of
oxygen. It produces less energy. The end products are lactic
acid or ethanol, carbon dioxide, and energy. It takes place
in muscle cells and yeast.
In anaerobic respiration in muscle cells, glucose is
converted into pyruvate and in the absence of oxygen
pyruvate is converted into lactic acid and energy.
Break-down of glucose by various pathways

Respiration in Humans
The main organs of the respiratory system are nostrils,

nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles, lungs and diaphragm.
Air enter through the nostrils. The hairs and mucous traps
the dust particles. It then passes through the phraynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi and enters the lungs. The trachea
has rings of cartilage which prevents it from collapsing
when there is no air in the trachea. The bronchi divides into
smaller tubes called bronchioles which ends in tiny air sacs
called alveoli. The alveoli is supplied with blood vessels
through which exchange of gases takes place. The alveoli
helps to increase the surface area for the exchange of gases.

Mecahanism of breathing :-
When we breathe in air, the muscles of the diaphragm
contracts and moves downward and the chest cavity
expands and air enters into the lungs.
When we breathe out air, the muscles of the diaphragm

relaxes and moves upward and the chest cavity contracts
and air goes out of the lungs.
Excretion
Excretion is the process by which the waste products
produced during metabolic activities is removed from the
body.
In unicellular organism the waste products are removed
from the cells into the surroundings by diffusion.
In multicellular organisms the waste prducts are removed
through specialised organs.
Excretion in Human beings :-

The excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys , a pair of
ureters, urinary bladder and urethra. Each kidney has a
number of excretory units called nephrons.

Kidney:
2 kidneys are located in the abdomen, one on either side of

backbone. Left kidney is larger and higher than right
kidney.
Urine produced in the kidney passes through the ureters

into urinary bladder where it is stored until it is released
through urethra.
Internally a kidney is made of numerous microscopic

excretory units called nephrons.
The function of kidney is filtration of blood to excrete the
waste products of metabolism. The kidney filters about 190
litres of blood to produce 0.9-2 l of urine daily.
Structure of Nephron
Each nephron has a cup like structure called Bowman’s

capsule containing a bundle of capillaries called
glomerulus. The Bowman’s capsule leads into a tubular
structure which joins into a collecting duct. The renal
artery brings the nitrogenous waste like ammonia, urea,
uric acid (urine) along with excess water, salts etc. into the
nephron. It filters the nitrogenous waste, water and salts
which passes through the tubular structure into the
collecting duct. The waste then passes through the ureters
into the urinary bladder and is then sent out through the
urethra as urine.
The useful products like amino acids, glucose, salts etc. are
reabsorbed by the capillaries around the tubular structure
and goes into the real vein.

Excretion in plants :-
In plants the gaseous waste products produced during
respiration (CO2) and photosynthesis (O2) are removed
through the stomata. Excess water is removed through the
stomata. This process is called transpiration.
Some waste products are stored in the leaves and removed
when the leaves dry and fall off. Some waste products are
stored in vacuoles. Some waste products like gums and
resins are stored in the old xylem cells. Some waste
products are removed through the roots.

SYllABUS
Acids, bases and salts:

Their definitions in terms of furnishing of H+ and
OH– ions,
General properties,
examples and uses,
neutralization,
concept of pH scale (Definition relating to
logarithm not required),
importance of pH in everyday life;
preparation and uses of Sodium
Hydroxide,Bleaching powder, Baking soda,
Washing soda and Plaster of Paris.
Heredity and Evolution
1)Heredity;
2)Mendel’s contribution- Laws for inheritance of traits:
3) Sex determination: brief introduction
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Some important terms
1. Chromosomes are long thread-like structures present in the nucleus
of a cell which contain hereditary information of the cell in the form of
genes.
2. DNA is a chemical in the chromosome which carries the traits in a

coded form.
3. Gene is the part of a chromosome which controls a specific biological

function.
4. Contrasting characters: A pair of visible charactes such as tall and

dwarf, white and violet flowers, round and wrinkled seeds, green and
yellow seeds etc.
5. Dominant trait: The character which expresses itself in a (Ft)

generation is dominant trait. Example : Tallness is a dominant
character in pea plant.
6. Recessive trait: The character which does not express itself but is
present in a generation is recessive trait. Ex. dwarfism in the pea plant.
7. Homozygous: A condition in which both the genes of same type are

present for example; an organism has both the genes for tallness it is
expressed as TT and genes for dwarfness are written as tt.
8. Heterozygous: A condition in which both the genes are of different

types for example; an organism has genes Tt it means it has a gene for
tallness and the other for dwarfness only tall character is expressed.
9. Genotype: It is genetic make up of an individual for example; A pure

tall plant is expressed as TT and hybrid tall as Tt.

10. Phenotype: It is external appearance of the organism for example; a
plant having Tt composition will appear tall although it has gene for
dwarfness.
11. Homologous pair of characters are those in which one member is

contributed by the father and the other member by the mother and both
have genes for the same character at the same position.
Heredity refers to the transmission of characters from parents to

offsprings. An inherited trait is a particular genetically determined
feature that distinguishes a person from the others for example;
attached or free ear lobes in human beings
RULES FOR THE INHERITANCE OF TRAITS – MENDEL’S

CONTRIBUTIONS
Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884) worked out the first ever scientific
experimental study on heredity. Mendel, an Austrian Augustinian monk
observed variations in the characteristics of garden pea plant (Pisum
sativum) which he had cultivated in his monastery garden. Mendel was
curious to find out the results of crossing of pea plants with the
variation in traits. The visible contrasting characters that Mendel
observed in the garden pea plants were given below:
Seed shape - Round/Wrinkled
Seed colour - Yellow/Green
Flower colour - Violet / White
Pod shape - Full / Constricted
Pod colour _Green/ yellow
Flower position - Axillary / Terminal
Stem height - Tall / Dwarf

He choose Garden pea plant as his experiment material because of :
A) Availability of detectable contrasting traits of several characters.
B) Short life span of the plant
C) Normally allows self- fertilisation but cross- fertilisation can also be
carried out.
D) Large number of seed produced.
Mo'no hybrid Cross

Cross between two pea plant with one pair of contrasting character is
called a mono hybrid cross.
Example: cross between a tall and a dwarf plant(short)
Parent Generation
Gamets
F1 Generation
Gametes
F2 Generation
( tall). (Tall)
( Tall). ( Dwarf)

Phenotypic Ratio = 3 Tall and 1 Dwarf
3: 1
Genotyping ratio = 1:2: 1
Observation of mono hybrid cross:

a) All F1 progeny we’re tall , no medium height plant
b) F2 progeny 1/4 we’re short , 3/4 we’re tall.
C) phenotypic ratio F2 = 3:1
d) Genotypic Ratio = 1:2:1
Conclusion
A) TT and Tt both are tall plants while tt is a short plant.
B) A single copy of T is enough to make the plant tall, while both copies
have to be ‘t’ for the plant to be short.
C) characteristics / traits like T are called dominant trait ( because it
express itself ) and ‘t’ are recessive trait( because it remain suppressed’

3
Dihybrid Cross
A cross between two plants having two pairs of contrasting
characteristics is called dihybrid cross.
Example; cross between Round yellow seed and Wrinkled green seed.
Parent Generation
Gamets
F1 Generation. Phenotype : Round and yellow
Gametes
F2 Generation
Phenotypic ratio

Observation
A) When RRyy are crossed with rrYY in F1 generation all we’re Rr Yy
round and yellow seeds.
B) self pollination of F1 plants gave parental phenotype and two
mixtures ( recombinants round and yellow and wrinkled green) seed
plants in the ratio of 9:3:3:1
Conclusion
A) round and green are dominant characters.
B) occurrence of new phenotype combinations shows that genes for
round and yellow seeds are inherited independently of each other
Mendel’s laws
The two experiments lead to the formulation of Mendel’s laws known
as laws of inheritance which are:
1. Law of Dominance
2. Law of Segregation
3. Law of Independent Assortment
Law of Dominance
This is also called Mendel’s first law of inheritance. According to the
law of dominance, hybrid offspring will only inherit the dominant trait
in the phenotype. The alleles that are suppressed are called the
recessive traits while the alleles that determine the trait are known as
the dominant traits.
Law of Segregation
The law of segregation states that during the production of gametes,
two copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that offspring acquire
one factor from each parent. In other words, allele (alternative form of
the gene) pairs segregate during the formation of gamete and re-unite
randomly during fertilization. This is also known as Mendel’s third law
of inheritance.

Law of Independent Assortment
Also known as Mendel’s second law of inheritance, the law of
independent assortment states that a pair of traits segregates
independently of another pair during gamete formation. As the
individual heredity factors assort independently, different traits get
equal opportunity to occur together.
Determining the Sex

To understand how the determination of sex happens, we need to
know the following process.
1) Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of these 23 pairs, 22
pairs are Autosomes and only one pair is the ‘Sex Chromosome’, which
actively takes part in the process of sex determination.
2) Both males and females carry two sets of sex chromosome.
3) Male has one X and one Y (XY) sex chromosome in which both
are active
4)Female has both X (XX) sex chromosome in which one is active.
5) The XY sex-determination system is found in humans,

mammals, in some insects, and in few plant species.
6) All children will inherit an X chromosome from their mother,

despite whether they are a boy or girl. Thus, the sex of the children
will be determined by the type of chromosome inherited from their
father.
7) A child who inherits Y chromosome will be a boy and who

inherits X chromosome will be a girl.

SYLLABUS
Unit IV: Effects of Current
Electric current,
potential difference and electric current.
Ohm’s law;
Resistance,
Resistivity, Factors on which the resistance of a
conductor depends.
Series combination of resistors,
parallel combination of resistors and its
applications in daily life.
Heating effect of electric current and its
applications in daily life.
Electric power,
Interrelation between P, V, I and R.
Magnetic effects of current :

Magnetic field,
field lines,
field due to a current carrying conductor,
field due to current carrying coil or solenoid;
Force on current carrying conductor,
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule,
Direct current.
Alternating current: frequency of AC.
Advantage of AC over DC.
Domestic electric circuits.
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Electricity
Physical phenomena produced due to charges in motion is known as
current electricity. e.g. electric current we use in our houses is current
electricity.
Electric Current
Electric current is expressed by the amount of charge flowing through

a particular area in unit time. In other words, it is the rate of flow of
electric charges.
A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric

circuit.
If, Charge = Q, time = t, current = I, then
Current = charge/ time
• I = Q/t
SI unit of Electric Current: ampere (A)
An instrument called an ammeter measures electric current in a

circuit.
Electric Charge
Electric Charge is nothing but the amount of energy or electrons that

pass from one body to another by different modes like conduction,
induction or other specific methods. This is a basic electric charge
definition. There are two types of electric charges. These are positive
charge and negative charge.

S.I. unit of electric charge is coulomb (C).
One coulomb = 6 × 1018 electrons.
potential difference
SI unit of potential difference is Volt(V)
1 Volt = when 1 joule work is done in carrying one Coulomb charge

then potential difference is called 1 volt
The instrument used to measure potential difference is called -

Voltmeter”
It has high resistance and always connected in parallel . Symbol is
_______V________
Current always flow from high potential to low potential

Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is

directly proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends,
provided the temperature and other physical conditions remain
unchanged.
Ohm's Law shows the relationship between the voltage (V), current (I)
and resistance (R).
Where R is a constant called resistance of the conductor. The value of

this constant depends on the nature, length, area of cross section and
temperature of the conductor.
Here,
V= potential difference in volt

I= current in ampere
R=resistance (which is a constant)
The SI unit of resistance is Ohm which is denoted by the symbol Omega

(Ω)
The necessary condition for Ohm’s law to be applicable is that

temperature must be constant.
The main applications of Ohm’s law are:
1. To determine the voltage, resistance or current of an electric circuit.

2. Ohm’s law is used to maintain the desired voltage drop across the
electronic components.
3. Ohm’s law is also used in dc ammeter and other dc shunts to divert the
current.

The graph of V (potential difference) versus I (electric current) is
always a straight line.
RESISTANCE
It is the ratio of potential difference applied between the ends of a
conductor and the currents flowing through it. The unit of resistance
is ohm ( )
One ohm is the resistance of a conductor such that when a potential

difference of 1 volt is applied to its end, a current of 1 ampere flows
through it.
FACTOR ON WHICH RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS
Resistance of a conductor depends upon the following factors.
1. Length of conductor: The resistance(R) of a conductor is directly

proportional to its length ( l)
.
∝
R l

If we increase the length of a conductor, its resistance increases since
only less amount of current can pass through it. If we reduce the length
of a conductor, the resistance decreases since more current can pass
through it.
2 . Area of cross-section: Area of the cross-section is inversely

proportional to the resistance.
If we double the area of cross-section, the resistance will be half. So,

electricity can. That's why we are using thick wires for the heavy
electrical loads.
3. Nature of material: Conductors offer less resistance compared to

insulators. That’s why we are using plastic materials for electrical
insulation purposes like switches, coatings etc.
From these conclusions, we can conclude that,
The proportionality constant is known as resistivity
Resistivity is a measurable property that quantifies how strongly a

given material opposes the electric current flow. It is also known as
specific electrical resistance. Its unit is Ωm ( ohm metre)

Electric Circuit and Circuit Diagram
• A closed-loop path which a current takes is called an electric
circuit.
• The representation of an electric circuit through symbols is
called a circuit diagram.

RESISTOR IN SERIES
Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series when the
same amount of current (I) flows through all the resistors (R).
In such circuits, the voltage (V) across each resistor is different. In a
series connection, if any resistor is broken or a fault occurs, then the
entire circuit is turned off.
The construction of a series circuit is :

Applications of Parallel Combination in Daily Life
Parallel combination of resistances is highly useful in cireuits used in

daily life, as the circuits used have components of different resistances
requiring different amounts of current. This type of combination in a
circuit divides the current among the components (electrical gadgets),
so that they can have necessary amount of current to operate properly.
This is the reason of connecting electrical appliances in parallel
combination in household circuit.
Advantages of parallel combination over series combination are:
(i) In parallel combination each appliance gets the full voltage.
(ii) If one appliance is switched on, others are not affected.
(iii) The parallel circuit divides the current through the appliances.
Each appliance gets proper current depending on its resistance.
Heating effect of electric current ( Joule’s Law)
When the current flows through the conductor, thermal energy gets
generated inside the conductor. This heating effect of the current is
dependent on three different factors.
1 The resistance of the conductor: The higher the resistance, the
more heat is generated.
2 The time duration of the current flow: If the current flows for a
longer time, the amount of heat generated is higher.
3 The higher the flow of the electric current, the higher is the
generation of heat.
Therefore, the heating effect generated by the current I, through the
conductor having resistance R, for the given time T, is given by the
following equation.
This equation is also known as Joule’s equation of electrical heating.

According to Joule's law, when a current flows in a conductor the
amount of heat generated is proportional to current, resistance, and
time in the current flowing.

Applications of Heating Effect of Current
1.Electric Bulb:
Electric bulb contains a thick metallic wire made up of tungsten metal.

The metal is kept in an inert environment with a neutral gas or
vacuum. When current flows through the tungsten wire, it becomes
heated and emits light. Most of the electric power drawn in the circuit
from the electrical source is dissipated in the form of heat and the rest
is emitted in the form of light energy.
2.Electric Fuse:
In any electrical instrument, due to sudden rise of current, the

instrument gets burnt down which sometimes results in fire. A
conducting wire with low melting point is connected in series with the
circuit to avoid this type of accident. When the current rises, the wire
melts due to excessive heating, thus breaking the electrical circuit.

Syllabus
Chapter : Metals and nonmetals:

Properties of metals and non-metals;
Reactivity series;
Formation and properties of ionic compounds;
Basic metallurgical processes;
Corrosion and its prevention.

METALS
Metals are the elements which form positive ions by losing electrons or
by donating electrons.
Some of the examples of metals are: Iron, Aluminium, Copper, Silver,

golf, Platinum, Zinc, Tin, lead, Mercury, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium and
Magnesium.
NON METALS
Non-metals are the elements which form negative ions by gaining or

accepting electrons.
Some of the examples of metals are: Iron, Aluminium, Copper, Silver,

golf, Platinum, Zinc, Tin, lead, Mercury, Sodium, Potassium, Calcium and
Magnesium.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
a) Malleable:
Metals are malleable, that is metals can be beaten into thin sheets with a
hammer without any breakage. Gold and silver metals are some of the
best malleable metals.
b) Ductile:
Metals are ductile which means that metals can be drawn or stretched
into thin wires.
Gold is the most ductile metal.
c) Good conductor of heat
Metals are good conductors of heat: Silver is the best conductor of heat
among all the metals.
d) Good conductor of electricity

Metals are good conductors of electricity: Silver metal is the best
conductor of electricity. And this is why electric wires are made of
copper and aluminium metals.

e) Lustrous
Metals are lustrous (or shiny), and can be polished:-Any shining surface is called as lustrous. For
example, gold, silver and copper are shiny metals and they can be polished.
f) Other properties of metals
>Metals are generally hard, Except for sodium and potassium which are soft
metals.
>Metals are solid at room temperature, except for mercury which is a liquid
metal
>Most of the metals like iron, copper, aluminium, silver and gold, etc., are
solids at the room temperature. An exception happens in mercury, which
remains at liquid state in the room temperature.
>Metals have high melting points and boiling points, except for sodium and
potassium metals which have low melting and boiling points.
>Metals have high densities except for sodium and potassium metals which
have low densities
>Metals are sonorous. That is, metals make a sound when hit with an object
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF NON METALS
a) Brittle
Non-metals are neither malleable nor ductile. Non-metals are brittle i.e.
it break easily.
example: Graphite break easily when hit with a hammer.
b) Bad conductor of heat and electricity
Non-metals do not conduct heat and electricity except Carbon (in the form of
graphite), which conducts electricity.

c) Non lustrous
Non-metals are not lustrous. They are dull. An exception occurs in the case
of Iodine which possesses having a lustrous appearance.
d) other properties of non metals
> Non-metals are generally soft, except for diamond which is an extremely
hard non-metal.
> Non-metals can be solid, liquid or gases at room temperature
> Non-metals have comparatively low melting points and boiling points,
except for diamond which is a non-metal having a high melting point and
boiling point.
>Non-metals have low densities, that is, non-metals are light substances
>Non-metals are non-sonorous, i.e. they do not produce sound when hit with
an object

Chemical Properties of Metals
The most important chemical properties of metals are as follows:
1. Reaction of metals with oxygen (air)
When metals are burnt in air, they react with the oxygen of the air to
form metal oxides. Metal oxides are basic in nature.
Metal + Oxygen (Formair) → MetalOxide (Basicoxide)
For example,
a. Sodium metal reacts with oxygen at room temperature and forms
sodium oxide.
Na + O2————> Na20
(Sodium) ( oxygen) (sodium oxide)
Sodium oxide is a basic oxide that reacts with water to form an alkali
called sodium hydroxide.
Na20 + H20 ————-> NaOH

(Sodium hydroxide) ( water)). ( Sodium Hydroxide)
Sodium and potassium metals are so reactive that they can react
vigorously with oxygen, catch fire, and burn. Hence, potassium and
sodium metals are stored in kerosene oil to prevent their reaction with
oxygen and moisture.
b. when copper is heated in air, it combines with oxygen to form copper
oxide.
Cu + O2 → CuO
(Copper). (Copper oxide)
Similarly, aluminium forms aluminium oxide.
Al + 3O2 → Al2O3
(Aluminium). (Aluminium oxide)
some metal oxides, such as aluminium oxide, zinc oxide show both
acidic as well as basic behaviour. Such metal oxides which react with
both acids as well as bases to produce salts and water are known as
amphoteric oxides.
For example:
ZnO + HCl ————-> ZnCl2 + H2O

(Zinc oxide) ( acid) (Zinc chloride)
ZnO + NaOH ——————> Na2ZnO2 + H2O

(Zinc chloride). Base ( sodium zincite)
Al203 + HCl ———-> Al Cl3 + H20
Al203 + NaOH ———-> NaAl02 + H20

REACTIVITY SERIES
The reactivity series of metals is a chart listing metals in order of

decreasing reactivity. In general, the more reactive a metal is:
• the more vigorously it reacts with other substances

• the more easily it loses electrons to form positive ions (cations)
Potassium is at the top because it is most reactive and gold is at the

bottom because it is least reactive.
The non-metals hydrogen and carbon are also included in the

reactivity series as they are used to extract metals from their oxides

Salient features of reactivity series:
◦ Metals at the top of the reactivity series are highly

electropositive metals. The electropositivity of metals decreases as we
go down the reactivity series.
◦ The electropositivity of the elements also reduces while
moving down the reactivity series of metals.

◦ The electropositivity of the elements also reduces while moving
down the reactivity series of metals.
◦ All metals that are above hydrogen in the activity series liberate
H2 gas upon reacting with dilute H2SO4 or dilute HCl.
◦ The reducing ability of the metals becomes weaker as we go
down the series.
◦ Metals that are placed higher on the reactivity series have the
ability to displace metals that are placed lower from their salt
solutions.
◦ Metals which are ranked higher, need more amounts of energy
for isolation from ores and other compounds.
RECTION OF METALS WITH NON METALS( IONIC COMPOUND)
Many metals form ionic bonds when they react with non-metals.
Compounds so formed are known as Ionic Compounds.
Ions: Positive or negative charged atoms are known as ions. Ions are
formed because of loss or gain of electrons. Atoms form ions obtain by
the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas.
Positive ion: A positive ion is formed because of the loss of electrons by
an atom.
For Example:
Sodium forms sodium ion because of the loss of one electron. Because of
the loss of one electron, one positive charge comes over sodium.
Negative ion: A negative ion is formed because of the gain of an electron.
For example:
Chlorine gains one electron in order to achieve a stable configuration.

After the loss of one electron, chlorine gets one negative charge over it
forming chlorine ion.

Ionic compounds are formed when there is a transfer of electron(s)
from a metal atom to non-metals in order to satisfy the octet rule.
For example one electron is transferred from sodium to chlorine to form
sodium chloride. In the process sodium loses one electron and becomes
a cation whereas chlorine gains one electron and becomes the anion.
FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUND :
1)Formation of sodium chloride (NaCl):
In sodium chloride; sodium is a metal (alkali metal) and chlorine is

non-metal.
Atomic number of sodium = 11
Electronic configuration of sodium: 2, 8, 1
Number of electrons in outermost orbit = 1
Valence electrons = Electrons in outermost orbit = 1
Atomic number of chlorine = 17
Electronic configuration of chlorine: 2, 8, 7
Electrons in outermost orbit = 7
Therefore, valence electrons = 7

Sodium has one valence electron and chlorine has seven valence electrons.
Sodium requires losing one electron to obtain stable configuration and chlorine
requires gaining one electron in order to obtain stable electronic configuration.
Thus, in order to obtain stable configuration sodium transfers one electron to

chlorine.

2)Formation of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2):
The atomic number of magnesium is 12
Electronic configuration of magnesium: 2, 8, 2
Number of electrons in outermost orbit = 2
Valence electron = 2
Atomic number of chlorine = 17
Electronic configuration of chlorine: 2, 8, 7
Electrons in outermost orbit = 7
Therefore, valence electrons = 7
Magnesium loses two electrons in order to obtain stable electronic

configuration. Each of the two chlorine atoms gains one electron lost
by magnesium to obtain stable electronic configuration. The bonds so
formed between magnesium and chlorine are ionic bonds and com‐
pound (magnesium chloride) is an ionic compound.
Properties of Ionic compounds
1.Physical nature: Ionic compounds are solids and are somewhat

hard because of the strong force of attraction between the positive and
negative ions. These compounds are generally brittle and break into
pieces when pressure is applied.
(ii) Melting and Boiling points: Ionic compounds have high melting
and boiling points . This is because a considerable amount of energy is
required to break the strong inter-ionic attraction.

iii) Solubility: Electrovalent compounds are generally soluble
in water and insoluble in solvents such as kerosene, petrol, etc.
(iv) Conduction of Electricity: Ionic compounds in the solid

state do not conduct electricity because movement of ions in
the solid is not possible due to their rigid structure. But ionic
compounds conduct electricity in the molten state. This is
possible in the molten state since the elecrostatic forces of
attraction between the oppositely charged ions are overcome
due to the heat. Thus, the ions move freely and conduct
electricity.
CORROSION:
The phenomenon of slow conversion of metal into its compounds by the action
of air, water and atmospheric pollutants on the surface of the metal is
called corrosion of metal.
RUSTING:
The phenomenon of slow conversion of iron into hydrated iron oxide or iron
hydroxide by the action of air, water and atmospheric pollutants on the
surface of iron is called rusting.
RUST:
A mixture of hydrated iron oxide and iron hydroxide formed by the action of
air, water and atmospheric pollutants on the surface of iron is called rust.
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR RUSTING:

1. Presence of air.
2. Presence of moisture

PREVENTION OF CORROSION:
Rusting of iron and corrosion of other metals can be prevented by not
allowing air to come in contact with metal.
Some methods for doing this are as given below.
1)Painting or applying oil:

Painting the surface of the metal after cleaning it thoroughly is the most
common method of preventing corrosion. The paint keeps air away from
the metal surface. Applying grease or oil on the surface has a similar
effect.
2) Galvanisation:
◦ The process of depositing a thin layer of zinc metal on iron
objects is called galvanisation.
◦ This can be done by dipping an iron object in molten zinc metal.
◦ This results to the formation of a thin layer of zinc metal over
the iron object.
◦ This layer of zinc metal in turn protects iron objects from
exposure to damp air.
3) Alloying:
It is the method of improving the properties of a metal by mixing the
metal with another metal or nonmetal. When iron is alloyed with
chromium and nickel in stainless steel is obtained. Stainless steel does
not rust at all. For example, iron is the most widely used metal. But it
is never used in its pure state. This is because pure iron is very soft
and stretches easily when hot. But, if it is mixed with a small amount
of carbon (about 0.05 %), it becomes hard and strong.
4) Electroplating :
Tin and chromium metals are resistant to corrosion. So when a thin

layer of tin metal is deposited on iron by electroplating then the iron
object is protected from rusting. Electroplating is the process of coating
of metal with the help of electricity by making the use of other metals.

Describe an experiment to show the conditions necessary for rusting
of iron:
1 Take three test tubes and place clean iron nails in each of them.
2 Label these test tubes A, B and C. Pour some water in test tube A
and cork it.
3 Pour boiled distilled water in test tube B and add about 1 ml of oil
and cork it. The oil will flow on water and prevent the air from
dissolving in the water.
4 Put some anhydrous calcium chloride in test tube C and cork it.
Anhydrous calcium chloride will absorb the moisture from the air.
5 Leave all these test tubes for a few days and then observe them.
6 You will observe that iron nails in test tube A’ get rusted. But they
do not rusted in test tubes B’ and C.
7 In the test tube A’ the nails are exposed to both air and water. In the
test tube ‘B’ the nails are exposed to only water and the nails in test
tube ‘C’ are exposed to dry air only.
8 From this activity we conclude that both air and water are
necessary for corrosion (Rusting) or iron.

Occurance of Metals
The elements or compounds, which occur naturally in the earth’s

crust, are known as minerals.
At some places, minerals contain a very high percentage of a particular
metal and the metal can be profitably extracted from it. These minerals
are called ores.
Metals are found in the earth’s crust in the free state as well as
combined state.
Metal having low reactivity remain in free ( native ) state in nature.

For example : Gold silver, platinum etc.
On the other hand most of the metals are active and occur in a
combined state. . They combine with air, moisture, carbon dioxide and
non metals like sulphur, oxygen, halogens, etc to form compounds like
sulphites, oxides, halides, etc.
a) Metal found at the bottom of reactivity series are least reactive and
they are foun in free state . E.g: Gold and silver.
b) Metal found in the middle of reactivity series are usually found in

the form of oxides, sulphites or carbonates. E.g: zinc, iron, lead etc
c) Metals found at the top of the reactivity series are never found in
free state as they are very reactive . E.g : potassium, calcium,
aluminium etc.
Extraction of Metals: Several steps are involved in the extraction of
pure metal from ores. A summary of these steps is given
Enrichment of Ores
Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large
amounts of impurities such as soil, sand, etc., called gangue. The
impurities must be removed from the ore prior to the extraction of the
metal. The processes used for removing the gangue from the ore are
based on the differences between the physical or chemical properties of
the gangue and the ore. Different separation techniques are accordingly
employed
Starting in the name of Allah who is the most beneficent and
merciful
Esteemed principal, respected teacher and my dear school mate :
Assalamalekum wa rehmatullahi wa barkatuhu.
I would like to start a morning assembly with a beautiful

quotation that is:
Education is one things no one can take away from you
A very warm and pleasant morning for everyone who is present

here.
I………………………… of class …………………… on behalf of C.V. Raman
House to take the pride and honour to host today’s morning
assembly.
As usual as a Muslim we start our morning assembly with the

1) verses of Quran e majid and a prayer . So I invite___________
prayer girls of C.V Raman house for recitation. Thank you.
2) Oath/ pledge: Its time to take oath/ pledge to fulfil our

duties by saying pledge lines . I call upon …………………………
of class ………………………… to administer the pledge.
3) Thought of the day : to enlighten us and brighten our

morning assembly, I would like to call ……………………… of
class ……………………… to deliver the thought of the day.
4) News Head lines: knowing whats happening around the

world is very essential duty for all of us . So I would like to
invite ……………………………… of class ………………… to make us
aware of today’s current happening s.
5) Naat: To refresh our mind , I would call upon ………………… of
class…………… for a beautiful naat recitation.
6)
7) National Anthem : it’s time to utilise the 80 seconds for the

world best national anthem. I would like to call prayer girls
once again to recite our national anthem. Get ready for
national anthem.
8) To invite principal: Now I would like to request our

walking role model, none other than our headmaster sir to
give his valuable advice regarding our exams
Closing : With this we are dispersing our morning

assembly. Thank you for joining us .
General Instructions:
Time Allowed: 3 hours
Mid term exam Question Paper
Science (Subject Code – 086)
i. This question paper consists of 20 questions in 4 sections.
ii. All questions are compulsory.
iii. Section A consists of 10 objective type questions carrying
1 mark each.
iv. Section B consists of 4 Very Short questions carrying 02
marks each. Answers to these questions should be in the
range of 30 to 50 words.
v. Section C consists of 3 Short Answer type questions
carrying 03 marks each. Answers to these questions should
be in the range of 50 to 80 words.
vii. Section D consists of 1 source-based/case-based units of
assessment of 03 marks
Viii. Grace marks of 5 maximum will be given for
maintaining copy.
Q1) Which statement is true for the reflection of light?
(a) The angle of incidence and reflection are equal.
(b) The reflected light is less bright than the incident light.
(c) The sum of the angle of incidence and reflection is always greater than 900.
(d) The beams of the incident light, after reflection, diverge at unequal angles.
Q2) The bouncing back of the ray in the same medium is called as
a) Refraction
b) Reflection
c) Dispersion
d) Diffraction
Q3) Clay cannot be used to make lens because it is totally
a) Transparent
b) Optical
c) Opaque
d) Both a and b
Q4) In human eye image is formed :
A. Behind retina
B. In front of retina
C. On retina
D. In between lens and retina
Q5) Sunlight is a mixture of __ visible colours

A. 5
B. 6
C. 7
D. none
Q6) The defect in human eye in which person can see nearby objects clearly but cannot see distinct
objects clearly is known as…
a) myopia
b) hypermetropia
c) presbyopia
d) astigmatism
Q7) In human males, the testes lie in the scrotum, because it helps in the
(a) process of mating
(b) formation of sperms
(c) easy transfer of gametes
(d) secretion of estrogen
Q8) In a list of organisms given below which is reproduced by asexual method ?
A) Banana
B) Yeast
C) Dog
D) lion
Q9) The brain's supporting cells are called _____.

A) Neurons
B) Mitochondria
C) Nuclei
D) Glial cells
Q10) A doctor advised a person to take injection of insulin because his:

(a) Blood pressure was high
(b) Heart beat was high
(c) Blood sugar was high
(d) Thyroxine level in blood was high
SECTION B
Very short answer type question
Q1 What are the changes seen in girls at the time of puberty?
Q2) Draw a diagram to show the dispersion of white light by a glass prism.
Q3) Why do you apply paint on iron articles?
Q4) State the laws of refraction of light?
Section C
Long answer type question
Q1) Explain the structure and function of human eye.
Q2) Draw a ray diagram in each of the following cases to show the formation of image, when the
object is placed:
(i) between optical centre and principal focus of a convex lens.
(ii) anywhere in front of a concave lens.
Q3) Explain different modes of asexual reproduction with example?

Section D
The male reproductive system consist of portions which produce the

germ-cells and other portions that deliver the germ-cells to the site of
fertilisation. Testes are located outside the abdominal cavity in scrotum
because sperm formation requires a lower temperature than normal
body temperature. It also has a role of secretion of male sex hormone ,
testosterone which brings changes in appearance seen in boys at the
time of puberty. Vas deferens unites with a tube coming from urinary
bladder. Urethra is a common passage for sperms and urine. Prostate
gland and seminal vesicles add their secretions so that sperms are now
in fluid.
i) Name the sex hormone associated with males.

(a) Testosterone
(b) Progesterone
(c) Oestrogen
(d) None of these
Q2) iv) Which of the following statement is incorrect?

(a) Sperms and urine has a common passage from urethra
b) Sperms have long tail that helps them to move forward.

(c) Sperms contain genetic material.
(d) Sperms formation requires 1–3°C higher temperature than normal body
temperature.
Q3) The primary reproductive part of male is :
a) uterus
b) fallopian tube
c) Bladder
d) testis
CBSE Date sheet2024
class 10th
20 February -Urdu
26 February - English
02 March - Science
07 March - SST
11 March - Mathematics
Govt High School chulichan

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GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL

CHULICHAN, KARGIL LADAKH

Class Notes of 10th class ,

2. Refraction of light by spherical lens; Image formed

Chapter 10 : The human eye and colourful world

3 Functioning of a lens in human eye, defects of

4 Refraction of light through a prism, dispersion of

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

A spherical mirror is the silvered circular piece of a hollow

A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved

A spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

when an object is placed at infinity, a real and inverted image is

When an object is placed behind the centre of curvature, a real image is

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

4 Between the centre of curvature and principal focus

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

6 Between the principal focus and pole

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

1 At infinity At the focus Highly Real and

2 Beyond the centre Between F Diminished Real and

3 At the centre of At C Same Size Real and

4 Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and

5 At focus F At Infinity Highly Real and

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

IMAGE FORMATION BY CONVEX MIRROR

Properties of image: Image is highly diminished, virtual and erect.

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

Properties of image: Image is diminished, virtual and erect

Positions and Nature of Image in Convex

Position Position Size of Nature

At infinity At F, Highly Virtual

Between Between F Diminished Virtual

Uses of Convex Mirror:

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

Laws of Refraction of Light

First Law of Refraction of Light

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

What Is Refractive Index?

Refractive index is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum

The refractive index, represented by symbol n, is the

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

1 Centre of Curvature: The centre of the actual glass sphere, of which

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

Lenses form images by refracting light.

1)Nature, position and relative size of the

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

Case 1 - Object is Placed at infinity

Image is formed at F 2 And it is very very small

Case 2_ object is place beyond 2F1:

This image is formed between F 2 and 2F 2

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

Case 4 Object is between F and 2F

This image is formed between beyond 2F 2

GOVERNMENT HIGH SCHOOL CHULICHAN, KARGIL

Here, Object AB is kept at F 1