MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

Basic properties of magnets :

1. Attractive property.
2. Directive property.
3. Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
4. Magnetic poles always exist in pairs.
5. Magnetic induction.
6.Repulsion is the surer test of magnetism.
Some important definitions connected with magnetism :
1. Magnetic field. The space around a magnet within which its influence can be
experienced is called its magnetic field.
2. Uniform magnetic field. A magnetic field in a region is said to be uniform if it has same
magnitude and direction at all points of that region.
3. Magnetic poles. These are the regions of apparently concentrated magnetic strength in a
magnet where the magnetic attraction is maximum. The poles of a magnet lie somewhat
inside the magnet and not at its geometrical ends.

4. Magnetic axis. The line passing through the poles of a magnet is called the magnetic axis
of the magnet.
5. Magnetic equator. The line passing through the centre of the magnet and at right angles
to the magnetic axis is called the magnetic equator of the magnet.
6. Magnetic length. The distance between the two poles of a magnet is called the magnetic
length of the magnet. It is slightly less than the geometrical length of the magnet.
Magnetic length
It is found that Geometrical length = 0.84

Coulomb's law of magnetic force. This law states that the force of attraction or repulsion
between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product of their pole strengths and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
μ0 q m1 q m2
.F= .
4π r2
An arrangement of two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by a small
distance is called a magnetic dipole. Every bar magnet is a magnetic dipole. A current
carrying loop behaves as a magnetic dipole. Even an atom acts as a magnetic dipole due to
the circulatory motion of the electrons around its nucleus.
Magnetic dipole moment. The magnetic dipole moment of a magnetic dipole is defined as
the product of its pole strength and magnetic length. It is a vector quantity, directed from S-
1

pole to N-pole.
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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

⃗⃗⃗ = qm × l
m
A magnetic line of force may be defined as the curve the tangent to which at any point
gives the direction of the magnetic field at that point. It may also be defined as the path
along which a unit north pole would tend to move if free to do so.
Properties of lines of force :
1. Magnetic lines of force are closed curves which start in air from the N-pole and end at the
S-pole and then return to the N-pole through the interior of the magnet.
2. The lines of force never cross each other. If they do so, that would mean there are two
directions of the magnetic field at the point of intersection, which is impossible.
3. They start from and end on the surface of the magnet normally.
4. The lines of force have a tendency to contract lengthwise and expand sidewise. This
explains attraction between unlike poles and repulsion between like poles.
5. The relative closeness of the lines of for magnet measure of the strength of the magnetic
field which is maximum at the poles.

Magnetic field of a bar magnet at an axial point (end-on position). Let NS be a bar
magnet of length 21 and of pole strength q m. Suppose the magnetic field is to be determined
at a point P which lies on the axis of the magnet at a distance r from its centre, as shown in
Fig. 5.13.

Fig. 5.13 Magnetic field of a bar magnet at an axial point.

Imagine a unit north pole placed at point P. Then from Coulomb's law of magnetic forces, the
force exerted by the N-pole of strength qm on unit north pole will be
μ qm
FN = 4π0 . (r−𝑙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2 , along NP

Similarly, the force exerted by S‐ pole on unit north pole is

μ qm
FS = 4π0 . (r+𝑙) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2 , along PS

⃗⃗ at point P is
Therefore, the strength of the magnetic field B

Baxial = Force experienced by a unit north‐ pole at point P

μ0 q𝑚 1 1
= FN − FS = [ 2
− ]
4π (r − l) (r + l)2
μ 0 qm 4rl
= . 2
4π (r2 − l )2
But qm . 2l = m, is the magnetic dipole moment, so
μ0 2mr
Baxial = . 2
4π (r2 − l )2
2

For a short bar magnet, l << 𝑟, therefore, we have

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

μ 2m
Baxial = 4π0 . r3
, along ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
NP …(1)

Clearly, the magnetic field at any axial point of magnetic dipole is in the same direction as
that of its magnetic dipole moment i.e., from S‐ pole to N‐ pole, so we can write
μ0 2m
⃗⃗⃗
⃗ axial =
B . 3
4π r
Magnetic field of a bar magnet at an equatorial point (broadside-on position).
Consider a bar magnet NS of length 2l and of pole strength qm. Suppose the magnetic field
is to be determined at a point Plying on the equatorial line of the magnet NS at a distance r
from its centre, as shown in Fig. 5.14.

Fig. 5.14 Magnetic field of a bar magnet at an equatorial point.

Imagine a unit north-pole placed at point P. Then from Coulomb's law of magnetic forces,
the force exerted by the N-pole of the magnet on unit north-pole is
μ qm
FN = 4π0 . x2
, along NP

Similarly, the force exerted by the S‐ pole of the magnet on unit north‐ pole is
μ q𝑚
F𝑆 = 4π0 . x2
, along PS
As the magnitudes of FN and FS are equal, so their vertical components get cancelled while
the horizontal components add up along PR.
Hence the magnetic field at the equatorial point P is
Bequa = Net force on a unit N-pole placed at point P
= FN COS θ + FS COS θ
= 2 FN cos θ [∵ FN = FS]
μ q 𝑙 l
= 2. 4π0 . 𝑥m2 . x [∵ cos θ = 𝑥 ]
μ m
or Bequa = 4π0 . [∵ x = (r2 + l2 )1⁄2 ]
(𝑟2 +l2 )3⁄2

where m = qm . 2l, is the magnetic dipole moment.

Again for a short magnet, l << r, so we have
μ m
𝐵equa = 4π0 . r3 , along PR …(2)
3

Clearly, the magnetic field at any equatorial point of a magnetic dipole is in the direction
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opposite to that of its magnetic dipole moment i.e., from N‐ pole to S‐ pole. So we can write

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

μ0 m
⃗⃗⃗
⃗Bequa = −
4πr3
Torque on a magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic
field. Consider a bar magnet NS of length 2l placed in a uniform magnetic field ⃗B. Let qm be
the pole strength of its each pole. Let the magnetic axis of the bar magnet make an angle θ
with the field ⃗B, as shown in Fig. 5.21(a).
Force on N-pole = qm B; along ⃗B
⃗
Force on S-pole = qm B, opposite to B

Fig. 5.21 (a) Torque on a bar magnet in a magnetic field.

⃗⃗⃗⃗ , ⃗B.
(b) Relation between the directions of τ⃗, m
The forces on the two poles are equal and opposite. They form a couple. Moment of couple
or torque is given by
τ = Force × perpendicular distance
= qm B × 2l sin θ = (qm × 2l) B sin θ
or τ = mB sin θ ...(1)
where m = qm × 2l, is the magnetic dipole moment of the bar magnet. In vector notation,
⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗B ...(2)
τ⃗⃗ = m
The direction of the torque τ⃗⃗ is given by the right hand screw rule as indicated in Fig.
⃗.
5.21(b). The effect of the torque τ⃗⃗ is to make the magnet align itself parallel to the field B
That is why a freely suspended magnet aligns itself in the north-south direction because the
earth has its own magnetic field which exerts a torque on the magnet tending it to align along
the field.
Special Cases
1. When the magnet lies along the direction of the magnetic field,
θ = 0°, sin θ = 0, τ = 0,
Thus the torque is minimum.
2. When the magnet lies perpendicular to the direction of the field,
θ = 90°, sinθ = 1, τ = mB
Thus the torque is maximum.
τmax = mB
Potential energy of a magnetic dipole. when a magnetic dipole is placed in a uniform
⃗ at angle θ with it, it experiences a torque
4

magnetic field B
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τ = mB sin θ

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

This torque tends to align the dipole in the direction of ⃗B.

If the dipole is rotated against the action of this torque, work has to be done. This work is
stored as potential energy of the dipole.
The work done in turning the dipole through a small angle dθ is
dW = τ dθ = mB sin θ dθ
If the dipole is rotated from an initial position θ = θ1 to the final position θ = θ 2, then the total
work done will be
𝜃 θ
W = ∫ d W = ∫𝜃 2 m B sin θ d θ = mB[− cos θ]θ21
1

= - mB (cos θ2 - cos θ1)

This work done is stored as the potential energy Id of the dipole.

∴ U = - mB (cos θ2 - cos θ1)

The potential energy of the dipole is zero when m ⃗ . So potential energy of the dipole in
⃗⃗⃗ ⊥ B
any orientation θ can be obtained by putting θ 1 = 90° and θ2 = θ in the above equation.
∴ U = - mB (cos θ - cos 90°)
or U = - mB cos θ = - m ⃗
⃗⃗⃗ . B
Special Cases
1. When θ = 0°, U =- mB cos 0° = - mB
Thus the potential energy of a dipole is minimum when m is parallel to B. In this state, the
magnetic dipole is in stable equilibrium.
2. When θ = 90°, U = - mB cos 90° = 0.
3. When θ = 180°, U = - mB cos 180° = + mB.
Thus the potential energy of a dipole is maximum when m is antiparallel to ⃗B. In this state,
the magnetic dipole is in unstable equilibrium.

Analogy between electric and magnetic dipoles

Physical quantity Electrostatics Magnetism

Free space constant 1 μ0

ε0

Dipole moment p
⃗ ⃗⃗
m

Axial field 1 2p ⃗ μ0 2m
⃗⃗⃗
. 3 . 3
4πε0 r 4π r

Equatorial field 1 ⃗p μ0 m
⃗⃗⃗
− . − . 3
4πε0 r3
5

4π r
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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

Torque in external field ⃗p × ⃗⃗E ⃗

⃗⃗⃗ × B
m

P.E. in external field ⃗⃗

⃗ .E
−p ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ . B
−m

Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron. According to Bohr model of

hydrogen-like atoms, negatively charged electron revolves around the positively charged
nucleus. This uniform circular motion of the electron is equivalent to a current loop which
possesses a magnetic dipole moment = IA As shown in Fig. 5.23, consider an electron
revolving anticlockwise around a nucleus in an orbit of radius r with speed v and time period
T.

Equivalent current,
Charge e e ev
I= = = =
Time T 2πr⁄v 2πr

Area of the current loop, A = πr2

Therefore, the orbital magnetic moment (magnetic moment due to orbital motion) of the
electron is
ev
μl = IA = . πr 2
2πr
evr
or μl = 2
…(1)
As the negatively charged electron is revolving anticlockwise, the associated current flows
clockwise.
Also, the angular momentum of the electron due to its orbital motion is
l = me vr …(2)
Dividing equation (1) by (2), we get
μl evr⁄2 e
= =
l me vr 2m𝑒
The above ratio is a constant called gyromagnetic ratio. Its value is 8.8 × 1010 Ckg−1 . So
e
μl = l
2me
Vectorially,
e
μl = −
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑙
2me
6

μl . According to Bohr’s
The negative sign shows that the direction of l is opposite to that of ⃗⃗⃗
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quantisation condition, the angular momentum of an electron in any permissible orbit is

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

integral multiple of h/2π, where h is Planck’s constant, i.e.,

nh
l = 2π, where n = 1, 2, 3, …
eh
∴ μl = n (4πm )
e

This equation gives orbital magnetic moment of an electron revolving in n th orbit.

Bohr magneton. It is defined as ihe magnetic moment associated with an electron due to its
orbital motion in the first orbit of hydrogen atom. It is the minimum value of μl which can be
obtained by putting n = 1 in the above equation. Thus Bohr magneton is given by
eh
μB = (μl )min =
4πme
Putting the values of various constants, we get
−19 −34
1.6 × 10 C × 6.63 × 10 Js
μB = −31
4 × 3.14 × 9.11 × 10 kg
= 9.27 × 10−24 0

1. Geographic axis. The straight line passing through the geographical north and south
poles of the earth is called its geographic axis. It is the axis of rotation of the earth.
2. Magnetic axis. The straight line passing through the magnetic north and south poles of
the earth is called its magnetic axis.
The magnetic axis of the earth makes an angle of nearly 20° with the geographic axis. At
present, the magnetic south pole S m is located at a point in Northern Canada at a latitude of
70.5°N and a longitude of 96°W. The magnetic north pole N is located diametrically opposite
to Sm i.e., at a latitude of 70.5°S and a longitude of 84°E. The magnetic poles are nearly
2000 km away from the geographic poles. The magnetic equator intersects the geographic
equator at longitudes of 6°W and 174°E.
3. Magnetic equator. It is the great circle on the earth perpendicular to the magnetic axis.
4. Magnetic meridian. The vertical plane passing through the magnetic axis of a freely
suspended small magnet is called magnetic meridian. The earth's magnetic field acts in the
direction of the magnetic meridian.
5. Geographic meridian. The vertical plane passing through the geographic north and
south poles is called geographic meridian.
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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

ELEMENTS OF EARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD

23. What are the elements of earth's magnetic field ? Explain their meanings. Show these
elements in a labelled diagram and deduce various relations between them.
Elements of earth's magnetic field. The earth's magnetic field at a place can be completely
described by three parameters which are called elements of earth's magnetic field. They are
declination, dip and horizontal component of earth's magnetic field.
1. Magnetic declination. The angle between the geographical meridian and the magnetic
meridian at a place is called the magnetic declination (α) at that place.
Magnetic declination arises because the magnetic axis of the earth does not coincide with its
geographic axis.

2. Angle of dip or magnetic inclination. The angle made by the earth's total magnetic field
⃗B with the horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian is called angle of dip (δ) at any place.
8
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The angle of dip is different at different places on the surface of the earth. Consider a dip
needle, which is just another compass needle but pivoted horizontally so that it is free to
rotate in a vertical plane coinciding with the magnetic meridian. It orients itself so that its N-
pole finally points exactly in the direction of the earth's total magnetic field ⃗B. The angle
between the horizontal and the final direction of the dip needle gives the angle of dip at the
given location.
At the magnetic equator, the dip needle rests horizontally so that the angle of dip is zero at
the magnetic equator. The dip needle rests vertically at the magnetic poles so that the angle
of dip is 90° at the magnetic poles. At all other places, the dip angle lies between 0° and 90°.
3. Horizontal component of earth's magnetic field. It is the component of the earth's total
magnetic field ⃗B in the horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian. If δ is the angle of dip at
any place, then the horizontal component of earth's field B⃗ at that place is given by
BH = B cos δ
At the magnetic equator, δ = 0°, BH = B cos 0° = B
At the magnetic poles, δ = 90°, BH = B cos 90° = 0
Thus the value of BH is different at different places on the surface of the earth.

Fig. 5.32 Elements of earth's magnetic field.

Relations between elements of earth's magnetic field. Fig. 5.32 shows the three elements of
earth's magnetic field. If δ is the angle of dip at any place, then the horizontal and vertical
components of earth's magnetic field B ⃗ at that place will be
9

BH = B cos δ ...(1)
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and BV = B sin δ

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

B Bsin δ
∴ B V = B cos δ
H
B
or BV = tan δ …(2)
H

Also
B2H + B2V = B2 (cos2 δ + sin2 δ) = B2

or B= √B2𝐻 + B2V …(3)

Equations (1), (2) and (3) are the different relations between the elements of earth's
magnetic field. By knowing the three elements, we can determine the magnitude and
direction of the earth's magnetic field at any place.

Neutral point. It is the point where the magnetic field due to a magnet is equal and
opposite to the horizontal component of earth's magnetic field. The resultant magnetic field
at the neutral point is zero. If a compass needle is placed at such a point, it can stay in any
position.
(i) Magnet placed in the magnetic meridian with its north pole pointing north. Fig. 5.34 shows
the magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet placed in the magnetic meridian with its north-
pole pointing towards the geographic north of the earth. The fields due to the magnet and
the earth are in same directions at points on the axial line and are in opposite directions at
points on the equatorial line. So the resultant field is stronger at axial points and weaker at
equatorial points. The two neutral points P and Q lie on the equatorial line.
Let
r = distance of each neutral point from the centre of the magnet
2l = length of the magnet
m = dipole moment of the magnet

Fig. 5.34 Field lines of a bar magnet with its N-pole towards north.
Then megnetic field strength at each neutral point is
μ m
Bequa = 0 .
4π (r + l2 )3⁄2
2

For a short magnet, l < < r, therefore,

µ m
Bequa = 0 . 3
10

4π r
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At the neutral point, the field of the magnet is balanced by the horizontal component B H of
the earth's magnetic field so that

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µ0 m
BH = .
4π r3
Knowing rand BH, the value of the magnetic dipole moment m can be determined.
(ii) Magnet placed in the magnetic meridian with its south-pole pointing north. Fig. 5.35
shows the magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet placed in the magnetic meridian with its
south-pole pointing towards the geographic north of the earth. Here the fields due to the
magnet and the earth are in the same direction at points on the equatorial line and are in
opposite directions at points on the axial line of the magnet. So the resultant field is weaker
at axial points and is stronger at equatorial points. In this case the two neutral points P and
Q lie on the axial line near the ends of the magnet.

Fig. 5.35 Field lines of a bar magnet with S-pole towards north.
Suppose r be the distance of each neutral point from the centre of the magnet. Let 2l be the
length of the magnet. Then magnitude of the magnetic field at either of the neutral points will
be
µ 2mr
Baxial = 0 . 2 2 3
4π (r − l )
For a short magnet, l << r, therefore
µ m
Baxial = 0 . 3
4π r
Again, at the neutral point, the field of the magnet is balanced by the horizontal component
BH of the earth's magnetic field, so we have
µ m
BH = 0 . 3
4π r
Knowing the values of r and B H, the magnetic dipole moment m of the magnet can be
determined.
SOME IMPORTANT TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS
1. Magnetising field. When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetism
is induced in it. The magnetic field that exists in vacuum and induces magnetism is called
magnetising field. For example, consider a toroidal solenoid carrying current I and placed in
vacuum. If the solenoid has n turns per unit length, then the magnetic field set up in the
solenoid is given by
11

B0 = μ0nI
This field is called the magnetising field caused by the so called free current in the solenoid.
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2. Magnetic induction., suppose the toroidal solenoid is wound round a ring of magnetic

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material. Under the influence of field B Q, the

the material which is given by
BM = µ0 nIM
The total magnetic field inside a magnetic material is the sum of the external
magnetizing field and the additional magnetic field produced due to magnetization of
the material and is called magnetic induction 𝐁 ⃗⃗ . The magnetic induction may also be
defined as the total number of magnetic lines of force crossing per unit area normally
through a material. Thus the SI unit of magnetic induction is tesla (T) or weber metre -2 (Wbm-
2
) which is equivalent to NM-1A-1 or JA-1m-2.
3. Magnetising field intensity. The ability of magnetising field to magnetise a material
medium is expressed by a vector ⃗𝐇 ⃗ , called magnetising field intensity or magnetic
intensity. Its magnitude may be defined as the number of ampere-turns (nI) flowing round
the unit length of the solenoid required to produce the given magnetising field. Thus
H = nI
B0
∴ B0 = μ0nI = μ0H or H =
µ0

The dimensions of magnetic intensity are [L-1 A]. Its SI unit is ampere metre -1 (Am-1) which is
equivalent to Nm-2T-1 or Jm-1Wb-1.
4. Intensity of magnetisation. When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetising field, it
gets magnetised. The magnetic moment developed per unit volume of a material when
placed in a magnetising field is called intensity of magnetisation or simply magnetisation.
⃗⃗⃗ = m
M
⃗⃗⃗
V

If IM is the surface magnetisation current set up in a solenoid of cross-sectional area A and

having n turns per unit length, then magnetic moment developed per unit length of the
solenoid is nIM A. Therefore, magnetic moment developed per unit volume or the
magnetisation M ⃗⃗⃗ is given by
m nIM A
M= = = nIM
V A
Hence BM = μ0 nIM = μ0 M

Again, consider a bar of magnetic material having cross‐ sectional area a and length 2l. Its
volume is
V = a × 2𝑙
Suppose the bar develops pole strength qm when placed in a magnetising field, then its
magnetic moment,
m = qm × 2𝑙
m qm ×2l qm
∴𝑀 = V
= a×2l
= a

Hence intensity of magnetisation may also be defined as the pole strength developed per
unit cross‐ sectional area of a material.

As the total magnetic field or the magnetic induction 𝐵 ⃗ inside a magnetic material is the
12

⃗⃗ M produced due to the magnetisation of

⃗ 0 and the field B
resultant of the magnetising field 𝐵
the material, therefore,
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B = B0 + B𝑀 = μ 0 H + μ 0 M

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or B = µ0 (H + M)
Clearly, both H and M have the same units, namely Am-1.
5. Magnetic Permeability. Permeability is the measure of the extent to which a material can
be penetrated magnetic field. The magnetic permeability of a material may be defined as
the ratio of its magnetic induction B to the magnetic intensity H.
B
μ=H
Clearly, SI unit of μ
tesla
=
ampere metre−1

= tesla metre ampere-1 or TmA-1

∴ Dimensions of μ = [MLT-2A-2].
6. Relative permeability. Permeability of various magnetic substances can be compared with
one another in terms of relative permeability μ r. It is defined as the ratio of the permeability of
the medium to the permeability of free space. Thus,
µ
μr = µ
0

For vacuum μr =1, for air it is 1.0000004 and for iron, the value of μ r may exceed 1000.
7. Magnetic susceptibility. Magnetic susceptibility measures the ability of a substance to take
up magnetisation when placed in a magnetic field. It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of
magnetisation M to the magnetising field intensity H. It is denoted by χm. Thus,
M
χm = H

As magnetic susceptibility is the ratio of two quantities having the same units (Am-1), so it
has no units.
8. Relation between magnetic permeability and magnetic susceptibility. If a linear magnetic
material, subjected to the action of a magnetising field intensity H, develops magnetisation M
and magnetic induction B; then
B = μ0 (H + M)
But B = μ H

∴ μ H = μ0(H + M)
M
or μ = μ0(1 + ) or μ = μ0(1 + χm)
H

or μ0μr = μ0(1 + χm) or μr = 1 + χm.

Comparative study of the properties of dia-, para- and ferromagnetic substances

Property Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

substances substances substances

1. Effect of They are feebly They are feebly They are strongly
magnets repelled by magnets. attracted by magnets. attracted by magnets.

2. In external Acquire feeble Acquire feeble Acquire strong

13

magnetic field magnetisation in the magnetisation in the magnetisation in the

opposite direction of direction of the direction of the
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the magnetising field. magnetising field. magnetising field.

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3. In a non- Tend to move slowly Tend to move slowly Tend to move quickly
uniform from stronger to from weaker to stronger from weaker to stronger
magnetic field weaker parts of the parts of the field. parts of the field.
field.

4. In a uniform A freely suspended A freely suspended A freely suspended

magnetic field diamagnetic rod aligns paramagnetic rod ferromagnetic rod aligns
itself perpendicular to aligns itself parallel to itself parallel to the field.
the field. the field.

5. Susceptibility Susceptibility is small Susceptibility is small Susceptibility is very

value (χm) and negative. - 1 ≤ χm < and positive. 0 < χm < ε, large and positive. χm >
0 where ε is a small 1000
number

6. Relative Slightly less than 1 Slightly greater than 1 1 Of the order of

permeability < μr < 1 + ε thousands μr >1000
0≤ μr < 1
value (μr)

7. Permeability μ <μ0 μ > µ0 μ >> μ0

value (μ)

8. Effect of Susceptibility is Susceptibility varies Susceptibility decreases

temperature independent of inversely as with temperature in a
temperature. temperature : complex manner.
1 1
χm ∝ . χm ∝ T − T (T > TC)
T C

9. Removal of Magnetisation lasts as As soon as the Magnetisation is

magnetising long as the magnetising field is retained even after the
field magnetising field is removed, magneti- magnetising field is
applied. sation is lost. removed.

10. Variation of M M changes linearly with M changes linearly with M changes with H non-
with H H. H and attains saturation linearly and ultimately
at low temperature and attains saturation.
in very strong fields.

11. Hysteresis B-vector shows no B-vector shows no B-vector shows

effect hysteresis. hysteresis. hysteresis.

12. Physical state Solid, liquid or gas. Solid, liquid or gas. Normally solids only.
of the material

13. Examples Bi,Cu,Pb,Si,N2(atSTP), Al, Na ,Ca Fe, Ni,Co,Gd,Fe2O3,

,O2(atSTP),CuCl2 Alnico.
H2O,NaCl

Hysteresis. When a ferromagnetic sample is placed in a magnetising field, the sample gets
magnetised by induction. As the magnetising field intensity H varies, the magnetic induction
B does not vary linearly with H, i.e., the permeability μ( = B/ H) is not constant but varies with
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H. In fact, it also depends on the past history of the sample.

Figure 5.56 shows the variation of magnetic induction B with magnetising field intensity H.
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Point O represents the initial unmagnetised state of a ferromagnetic sample. As the

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

magnetising field intensity H increases, the magnetic induction B first gradually increases
and then attains a constant value. In other words, the magnetic induction B saturates at a
certain value + Hmax.

Fig. 5.56 Hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetic sample.

Now if the magnetising field intensity H is gradually decreased to zero, B decreases but
along a new path AB. It is found that the magnetic induction B does not become zero even
when the magnetising field H is zero, i.e., the sample is not demagnetised even when the
magnetising field has been removed. The magnetic induction (= OB) left behind in the
sample after the magnetising field has been removed is called residual magnetism or
retentivity or remanence.
To reduce the magnetism to zero, the field H is gradually increased in the reverse direction,
the induction B decreases and becomes zero at a value of H = OC. The value of reverse
magnetising field intensity H required for the residual magnetism of a sample to become
zero is called coercivity of the sample.
On further increasing H in the reverse direction to a value - Hmax, we reach the saturation
point D located symmetrically to point A. Now if H is decreased gradually, the point A is
reached after going through the path DEFA.
The closed curve ABCDEFA which represents a cycle of magnetisation of a ferromagnetic
sample is called its hysteresis loop. Throughout the cycle, the magnetic field B lags behind
the magnetising field intensity H, i.e., the value of B when H is decreasing is always more
than when H is increasing. The phenomenon of the lagging of magnetic induction behind the
magnetising field is called hysteresis. In fact, the word hysteresis originates from a Greek
word meaning 'delayed'.

B B2
Significance of the area of hysteresis loop. The product BH = B ( µ) = , has the
μ0 μr
dimensions of energy per unit volume. Hence the area within the B-H loop represents the
energy dissipated per unit volume in the material when it is carried through a cycle of
magnetisation. The source is the source of emf used in magnetising the material and the
sink is the hysteretic heat loss in the magnetic material.

Practical importance of hysteresis loops. A study of hysteresis loop provides us

information about retentivity, coercivity and hysteresis loss of a magnetic material. This helps
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in proper selection of materials for designing cores of transformers and electromagnets and
in making permanent magnets.
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39. Distinguish between soft and hard ferromagnetic materials. Draw their hysteresis loops.

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

Give examples of each type.

Types of ferromagnetic materials. Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into two
categories :
1. Soft ferromagnetic materials or soft ferro- magnets. These are the ferromagnetic materials
in which the magnetisation disappears on the removal of the external magnetising field.
Such materials have narrow hysteresis loop, as shown in Fig. 5.57(a). Consequently, they

Fig. 5.57 Magnetic hysteresis loop for

(a) soft, (b) hard ferromagnetic material.
have low retentivity, low coercivity, and low hysteresis loss. But they have high relative
magnetic permeability. They are used as cores of solenoids and transformers. Examples.
Soft iron, mu metal, stalloy, etc.
2. Hard ferromagnetic materials or hard ferro- magnets. These are the ferromagnetic
materials which retain magnetisation even after the removal of the external magnetising
field. Such materials have wide hysteresis loop, as shown in Fig. 5.57(b). Consequently,
they have high retentivity, high coercivity and large hysteresis loss. They are used for
making permanent magnets.
Examples. Steel, alnico, lodestone, ticonal, etc.

Comparison of the magnetic properties of soft iron and steel. Fig. 5.58 shows the hysteresis
loops for soft iron and steel. A study of these B-H information : loops reveals the following
1. Permeability. For a given H, B is more for soft iron than steel. So soft iron has a greater
permeability (μ = B/H) than steel.
2. Susceptibility. As permeability of soft iron is greater than steel, so soft iron has a greater
susceptibility (χm =μr - 1)than steel.

Fig. 5.58 Hysteresis loops of soft iron and steel.

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3. Retentivity. The retentivity of soft iron (Ob') is greater than the retentivity (Ob) of steel.
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4. Coercivity. The coercivity of soft iron (Oc’) is less than the coercivity (Oc) of steel.

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

5. Hysteresis loss. As the area of the hysteresis loop of soft iron is much smaller than that of
steel, so the hysteresis loss per unit volume per cycle is less for soft iron than for steel.
We can summarise the above properties as follows :

1. Permeability are greater for soft iron than for steel

2. Susceptibility

3. Retentivity

4. Coercivity are less for soft iron than for steel

5. Hysteresis loss

How will you select materials for making permanent magnets, electromagnets and
cores of transformers ?
Selection of magnetic materials. The choice of magnetic materials for making permanent
magnets, electromagnets and cores of transformers is decided from the hysteresis loop of
the material.
A. Permanent magnets. The material used for making permanent magnets must have the
following characteristics :
1. High retentivity so that it produces a strong magnetic field.
2. High coercivity so that its magnetisation is not destroyed by stray magnetic fields,
temperature variations or minor mechanical damage.
3. High permeability.
Inspite of its slightly smaller retentivity than soft iron, steel is favoured for making permanent
magnets. Steel has much higher coercivity than soft iron. The magnetisation of steel is not
easily destroyed by stray fields. Once magnetised under a strong field, it retains
magnetisation for a long duration. Other suitable materials for making permanent magnets
are :

Cobalt steel 52% Fe, 36% Co, 7% W,

3.5% Cr, 0.5% Mn, 0.7% C

Carbon steel 98% Fe, 0.86% C, 0.9% Mn

Alnico 55% Fe, 10% Al, 17% Ni,

12% Co, 6% Cu

Ticonal 42% Co, 26.5 Fe, 14% Ni, 8% Al, 6.5 Ti, 3% Cu

B. Electromagnets. The material used for making cores of electromagnets must have the
following characteristics :
1. High initial permeability so that magnetisation is large even for a small magnetising field.
2. Low retentivity so that the magnetisation is lost as the magnetising current is switched off.
So soft iron is more suitable than steel for cores of electromagnets.
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C. Transformer cores. The material used for making cores of transformers must have the
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following characteristics :

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 MAGNETISM AND MATTER (momentum science institute)

1. High initial permeability so that the magnetic flux is large even for low magnetising fields.
2. Low hysteresis loss as the materials are subjected to alternating magnetising fields of high
frequency.
3. Low resistivity to reduce losses due to eddy currents.
Soft iron is preferred for making transformer cores and telephone diaphragms.
Methods for making permanent magnets. A hard ferromagnetic material like steel can be
converted into a permanent magnet by any of the following methods :
1. By holding the steel rod in north-south direction and hammering it repeatedly.
2. Hold a steel rod and stroke it with one end of a bar magnet a number of times, always in
the same sense to make a permanent magnet.
3. The most efficient way of making a permanent magnet is to place a steel rod in a solenoid
and pass a strong current. The rod gets magnetised due to the magnetic field of the
solenoid.
Briefly explain how an electromagnet is formed. State some uses of
electromagnets.
Electromagnet. As shown in Fig. 5.59, take a soft iron rod and wind a large number of turns
of insulated copper wire over it. When we pass a current through the solenoid, a magnetic
field is set up in the space within the solenoid. The high permeability of soft iron increases
the field one thousand times. The end of the solenoid at which the current in the solenoid
seems to flow anticlockwise acts as N-pole and other one as S-pole. When the current in the
solenoid is switched off, the soft iron rod loses its magnetism almost completely due to its
low retentivity.

Fig. 5.59 An electromagnet.

Uses of electromagnets :
1. Electromagnets are used in electric bells, loudspeakers and telephone diaphragms.
2. Large electromagnets are used in cranes to lift heavy machinery, and bulk quantities of
iron and steel.
3. In hospitals, electromagnets are used to remove iron or steel bullets from the human body
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