Static and Dynamic

UNIT 13 STATIC AND DYNAMIC FORCE Force Analysis and

Equivalent Dynamical
ANALYSIS AND EQUIVALENT System

DYNAMICAL SYSTEM
Structure
13.1 Introduction
Objectives

13.2 Static Force Analysis

13.2.1 Effect of Sliding Friction
13.2.2 Reciprocating Engine Mechanism
13.2.3 Four Bar Chain

13.3 Equivalent Dynamical System

13.4 Correction Couple Applied to Two Mass System
13.5 Dynamic Force Analysis in a Reciprocating Engine
13.6 Summary
13.7 Key Words
13.8 Answers to SAQs

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In a mechanism, the members are subjected to some form of loading. These loads may be
due combustion of fuel in IC engines or hydraulic pressure in turbines, friction force due
to sliding and turning pairs, inertia forces, weight, etc. Some of the forces are not always
constant for different configurations of machine but these forces also can be considered
constant for a particular configuration. The applied forces change with the change in
configuration and, thereby, the loads carried by different members also change.
Therefore, each configuration of the machine is considered as system of rigid bodies in
equilibrium.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• do static force analysis of a mechanism,
• form dynamically equivalent system of two point masses for a given link,
• determine friction circles and friction axis, and
• perform dynamic force analysis.

13.2 STATIC FORCE ANALYSIS

The machine is considered as a system of rigid bodies which is in equilibrium under the
action of external forces which are called static forces. Some of these forces may change
with the change in configuration. For a particular configuration these forces are constant
and loads carried by each member can be determined. Such an analysis can be carried out
for different configurations of the machine to know the history of loading for each cycle
of the machine. The history of loading is very important for the design of the machine
members.
5
Static and Dynamic 13.2.1 Effect of Sliding Friction
Force Analysis and
Mechanical Vibration Due to the relative motion between the elements, frictional forces are generated. The
links of a mechanism are connected mostly by either sliding pairs or turning pairs.
The Figures 13.1(a) and (b) shows the piston subjected to the gas force ‘P’. The
connecting rod shall apply the reactive force F34 which acts through the point B. These
forces are not collinear therefore, there has to be a third force which is reaction from the
cylinder wall. This force ‘F14’ is the resultant of normal reaction and force of friction.
The angle of inclination of F14 with normal to the cylinder is ‘φ’ the angle of friction
given by

φ = tan −1 μ . . . (13.1)

where ‘μ’ is the coefficient of friction.

The maximum force of friction is μ N, where N is the normal reaction. The different
location of F14 is shown in Figures 13.1(c), (d), (e) and (f) depending of direction of
motion and the contact whether it is at the top or bottom.
3
F34

P
P
B 4 Piston (4)

1 F14
Cylinder Walls ( I )

(a) (b)

μN
μN

N
φ N
φ

F14 F14

(c) (d)

F14 F14
N
N
φ
φ

μN
μN

(e) (f)
Figure 13.1

Some of links are connected through the turning pairs. We can consider two links 2 and 3
as shown in Figure 13.2(a). Let link 3 rotate clockwise with respect to the link 2. Since
the friction opposes the relative motion it produces counterclockwise couple. The friction
force along with normal reaction is shown in Figure 13.2(b). These forces will be the
distributed forces at the contact area. Figures 13.2(c) and (d) show the horizontal and
vertical components of radial and tangential forces at two symmetric points of the
element of link 3. It will be seen that the vertical components of the radial distributed
load cancel with each other and horizontal components of tangential distributed load
6
cancel with each other. Therefore, there will be net reaction Rn and force of friction μ Rn. Static and Dynamic
Force Analysis and
The force, exerted by link 2 on link 3, i.e. F23 is given by Equivalent Dynamical
System
F23 = (μ Rn ) 2 + Rn2 = Rn sec φ . . . (13.2)

Impending Motion
3
3

Element of Link 2

(a) (b)

V H

Rn
H V
H
H
V

Vertical Components μRn V

Cancel Radial Loads
Horizontal Components
Cancel Tangential Loads

(b) (c)
Figure 13.2

Let ‘d’ represent the diameter of the pint and rf be the radius of friction circle
d
∴ μ Rn = F23 r f . . . (13.3)
2
d d
∴ Rn sec φ r f = μ Rn = tan φ Rn
2 2
d
∴ rf = sin φ . . . (13.4)
2
For small values of φ, values of sin φ and tan φ are nearly equal. Therefore,
d d
rf  tan φ = μ . . . (13.5)
2 2
The force F23 will be tangential to the friction circle. The Figure 13.3(a) illustrates shows
the different forces acting at the pin joint.
Friction Circle
A
rf
3
Rn ω β
φ d/2
2
T2
θ γ
4
F23 = N Sec φ P

μRn O γ Increasing B
β Decreasing Impending Motion

(a) (b)
Figure 13.3
7
Static and Dynamic A link which has pin joints at both the ends. The different possibilities of equilibrium of
Force Analysis and the link is shown in Figures 13.4(a), (b), (c), (d), (e) and (f). The line of action of force is
Mechanical Vibration
known as friction axis. The procedure of determination of friction axis as follows :

A A

B B
(a) (b)

A A

B B

(c) (d)

A ω34
A

F23
F43

ω32 B B

(e) (f)
Figure 13.4

Consider the motion of different links in Figure 13.3(b). The link 2 rotates
counterclockwise. For impending slide of link 4, i.e. piston angle β decreases. The
angular velocity of link 3 relative to link 2 is clockwise. For this motion reactive force
F23 gives a counterclockwise moment about centre A to oppose the angular impending
motion hence the direction of F23 is as shown in Figure 13.4(e).
The link 3 has clockwise angular velocity relative to link 4. Therefore, the line of action
of force F43 will be as shown in Figure 13.4(f). The friction axis will be as shown in
Figure 13.4(d). Figures 13.5(a) and (b) show the forces in equilibrium for the link 4 for
the top and bottom contacts, respectively.

F14
F34
φ
F34
+
P

+
P
φ

F14

(a) (b)
Figure 13.5

SAQ 1
(a) What do you mean by a friction circle?
(b) How do you determine friction axis?
8
13.2.2 Reciprocating Engine Mechanism Static and Dynamic
Force Analysis and
The reciprocating engine mechanism is shown in Figure 13.6(a). The free body diagrams Equivalent Dynamical
System
of different links is shown in Figures 13.6(a), (b), (c) and (d). The forces at the piston, i.e.
link 4 include the gas force ‘P’.
F34
A

P B
3 2
4 φ θ
P O
B F14
Link 4

(a) (b)
F23
A
A
F12
C2
F32

B
F43 O
Link 3 Link 2

(c) (d)
Figure 13.6

Force Analysis without Friction

As a first step, let the friction be neglected. In the free body diagram shown in
Figure 13.6(b), force P is known by knowing the gas pressure and the diameter of
the piston. In case of other two forces, the line of action are known. Since friction
force has been neglected, the line of action of the reaction F14 is vertical. Because
there are only there forces, they have to pass through a common point (concurrent)
for equilibrium to exist. Examination of the free body diagram of link 3
(Figure 13.6(c)) proves that the force F43 has line of action along AB because there
are only two forces which have to be collinear. The collinear force can be in
equilibrium if they are equal in magnitude and opposite in action. Therefore, the
line of action of F34 (= | F43 |) is along link AB. In order to know the magnitudes
and directions of F34 and F14, polygon of forces can be formed by assuming
suitable scale or it can be determined analytically by using the following
equations.
P
F34 cos φ = P or F34 = ⇒ F34
cos φ

F34 sin φ = F14 ⇒ F14

F34 F14
F32

d
Couple C2 P
(Resistance 2
Couple on
Crank)
F12

(a) (b)
Figure 13.7 9
Static and Dynamic By knowing the direction and the magnitude of F34, F43 will be known in
Force Analysis and magnitude and direction. The direction of F43 shall be opposite to F34 and the
Mechanical Vibration
magnitudes of these two will be equal by Newton’s third law which states that the
action and reaction have equal magnitude and they are opposite in the line of
action. F32 will be opposite to F23 and the will be equal in magnitude. In free body
diagram of link 2, force F12 will act at the point O. The forces F32 is acting at the
point A (Figure 13.6(d)). It can be observed that the forces F32 and F12 cannot be
collinear to keep link 2 in equilibrium. From the practical point of view it should
not be so in order to resist overcoming load which is to be driven by the
mechanism. Since the reciprocating mechanism converts the linear motion to
rotary motion crank 2 will supply a turning moment to the load. Therefore, F12 has
to be equal in magnitude to F32 and opposite in direction to form a couple which
has to counteracted by the load couple C2 to keep link 2 in equilibrium. It is shown
in Figure 13.7(b). The magnitude of the couple will be (F32 × d) where d is the area
of the couple.
Force Analysis with Friction
The reciprocating engine mechanism is shown in Figure 13.6(a). The slider has
impending motion towards the right. Let the friction angle be φ. It is required to
determine the couple on the link 2 for static equilibrium. Figure 13.8(a) shows free
body diagram of the link 4 which is a slider. The force diagram has been drawn in
Figure 13.8(b). A suitable scale may be assumed and know force P can be poltted.
For other two forces F14 and F34 only directions are known. Lines can be drawn
from two extremities parallel to the direction of these forces. They will meet at a
point. From this triangle of forces the magnitude of F14 and F34 shall be known.
The forces on the connecting rod AB shall be acting along the friction axis which
has been discussed in Section 13.2.1. After knowing F34, F23 will be known which
is equal and opposition to F32 knowledge of which shall provide magnitude of the
couple.
F34

F34
P
F14

φ
F14

(a) (b)

O
F32
A

F23
c
d F43
B

F12

(c) (d)
Figure 13.8

SAQ 2
What do you mean by a free body diagram?

10
13.2.3 Four Bar Chain Static and Dynamic
Force Analysis and
A four bar mechanism is shown in Figure 13.9(a). It is subjected to the three forces F1, F2 Equivalent Dynamical
System
and F3 at points P, Q and S, respectively. These forces have been considered in order to
make case more general.
F34
B
Q B
F3
A
3
F1 =? P S
S
F2
F4
2
4

Q4 O4 O14

F34 = −F43
F32 = − F23

(a) (b)
A

F32
F43
P
F23 Q B F2

A F3 O2
F12

(c) (d)
Figure 13.9

Force Analysis without Friction

Considering that the friction at the hinges does not exist. The free body diagrams
of link 2, 3 and 4 are shown in Figures 13.9(b), (c) and (d), respectively. For given
values of F2 and F3 the value of F1 is to be determined. From these free body
diagrams, it becomes clear that each link has four or more than four unknowns.
These four unknowns cannot be determined by using three equations which are
available in a statically determinate structure. But the solution is possible by
solving the problem in parts.
The F34 acting on the link 4, can be resolved parallel to the link and perpendicular
to the link F34P and F34
T
, respectively. By taking moments about O4, F34 T
can be
determined.
T
F43 = − F34
T

Figure 13.10(b) shows link 4 and Figure 13.10(a) shows link 3 on which external
T
force F2 is acting. The forces F2 and F43 can be combined to give resultant force R
T
which passes through the point of intersection of F43 and F2. The link 3 is now
subjected to R, F43P and F23 and they have to pass through a pint which is U. F23
passes through A and U. The magnitude of F23 and F43P can be determined by
polygon of forces as shown in Figure 13.10(c). The forces acting on link 2 are F12,
F32 and F1. These three forces have to pass through a point ‘V’ as shown in
Figure 13.10(d). Force F32 = − F23. Therefore, force F32 is known and directions of
F1 and F12 are also known. The triangle of forces can now be drawn and F1 can be
determined.
11
 P
Static and Dynamic F34
Force Analysis and T
U F34
Mechanical Vibration
F2
4 F3
F23

B
A
T d
F43

R O4

(a) (b)

T A
F43 F32

P
F43
V F1
F2 F12

F23 O2

(a) (b)
Figure 13.10
Force Analysis with Friction
Friction is present in turning pairs. By drawing friction circles, the position of the
friction axis can be known. By knowing position of friction axis as explained in
case of slider crank mechanism, line of action of the forces shall be known. After
that this case also can be handled in the same as discussed earlier.
SAQ 3
What changes in the static force analysis occur if friction is considered?

13.3 EQUIVALENT DYNAMICAL SYSTEM

When motion takes place, it is most desirable to replace a rigid body or link by two
masses for dynamic analysis. It simplifies analysis. The equivalent dynamical system
shall have two point masses. The two mass system will be equivalent dynamically to the
rigid body if
(a) The total body if the two masses of equal to the mass of the rigid body
i.e. m1 + m2 = m . . . (13.6)
where m1 is mass of rigid body and m2 are point masses.
(b) The centre of gravity of the two masses is at the same place as that of the
rigid body
i.e. m1 a = m2 b . . . (13.7)
where a and b distances of m1 and m2 from centre of gravity, respectively.

G
m

l
m1 m2
G
A a b B

Figure 13.11
12
 (c) The mass moment of inertia of the two masses system about an axis passing Static and Dynamic
through centre of gravity ‘G’ is equal to the mass moment of inertia of the Force Analysis and
Equivalent Dynamical
rigid body. System

i.e. m1 a 2 + m2 b 2 = m k 2 . . . (13.8)
where k is radius of gyration of the rigid body about an axis through centre
of gravity ‘G’.
From Eq. (13.8)
b
m1 = m2
a
Substituting value of m1 in Eq. (13.8) we get
b
m2 + m2 = m
a
ma
or m2
a+b

mb
Similarly m1
a+b
Substituting values of m1 and m2 in Eq. (13.8), we get
mb a 2 m a b2
+ = mk2
( a + b) a + b

∴ k2 = a b . . . (13.9)
Example 13.1
The length of connecting rod of an engine is 500 mm (centre to centre) and its
mass is 20 kg. The distance of centre of gravity is 125 mm from crank pin centre
and crank radius is 100 mm. The radius of the small end pin is 30 mm. The
frequency of oscillations of the rod when suspended from the small end is
45 cycles per minute. Determine dynamically equivalent system keeping one mass
at the small end.
Solution
Length of connecting rod ‘l’ = 500 mm
45
Frequency = Hz = 0.75 Hz
60
∴ Natural circular frequency ' ωn ' = 2π × 0.75 r/s

hm g
ωn =
IA

I A = m k 2 + m h2

gh
∴ ωn =
(k + h 2 )
2

h = 500 − 125 + 15 = 390 mm

g = 9810 mm

9810 × 390
(2π × 0.75)2 =
k 2 + 3902 13
Static and Dynamic
or (2π × 0.75) 2 (k 2 + 3902 ) = 9810 × 390
Force Analysis and
Mechanical Vibration k = 142 mm
One of the masses is to be at the small end, therefore, a = 375 mm.
k2
k 2 = a × b or b = = 53.8 mm
375
mb ma
m1 = and m2 =
a+b a+b
20 × 53.8 20 × 375
m1 = and m2 =
375 + 53.8 375 + 53.8
or m1 = 2.51 kg and m2 = 17.49 kg.

13.4 CORRECTION COUPLE APPLIED TO TWO

MASS SYSTEM
For two mass system to be dynamically equivalent, it should satisfy all the above
mentioned three equations. Sometimes, the position of both the masses is fixed as it is
convenient in case of the connecting rod of IC engines. One mass is assumed at the small
end and other at the big end. In that case all the equations cannot be satisfied and the two
mass system shall not be dynamically equivalent to the rigid body. Only the first two
conditions can be satisfied in this case but third condition shall not be satisfied. This
condition will be satisfied if a couple is applied to the two mass system. This couple is
known as the correction couple.
Figure 13.12 shows the connecting rod of an IC engine. It is of length ‘l’. It is replaced
by two lumped masses ma and mc at the piston end and crank pin, respectively. In
equivalent dynamical system of the connecting rod mass ma is at the piston end and mass
mc is between the crank pin and centre of gravity ‘G’. The radius of gyration of the
connecting rod.
k=ab

500 B
mm
G
A
G
+

A B l
125 mc ma
h mm G
c a

b mb
a L
G ma
b a

Figure 13.12

Since the location of masses is now fixed, therefore, the new approximate radius of
gyration is given by
k1 = a c
The difference in mass moment of inertia is given by

I − I1 = m ( k 2 − k12 ) . . . (13.10)

If ‘α’ is angular acceleration of the connecting rod, the difference in inertia torque is
given by
14
 Static and Dynamic
T ′ = (T − T1 ) = m (k12 − k 2 ) α Force Analysis and
Equivalent Dynamical
= m (ac − ab) α = ma (c − b) α System
or T ′ = m a α (l − L ) . . . (13.11)
This is the correction couple which should be applied in case, the position of the two
masses is fixed. The magnitude of the correction couple is usually small and can be
neglected, whenever, it is unnecessary.
SAQ 4
In which case correction couple should be considered?

13.5 DYNAMIC FORCE ANALYSIS IN A

RECIPROCATING ENGINE
Figure 13.13(a) shows reciprocating engine mechanism O2 AB. Let :
mp = Mass of reciprocating parts,
mc = Mass of the connecting rod
N = Reaction at the cylinder wall,
Fr = Radial component of the force at the crank pin,
Ft = Tangential component of the force at the crank pin,
P = Net force at the piston along the line of stroke,
Fc = Inertia force on the connecting rod,
ap = Acceleration of the reciprocating mass,
K = Radius of gyration of connecting rod, and
P = Gas force ± mp ap
Weight of connecting rod, W = mc g.
I
Y

FN

x
FC
FT
P
FT FR
A M
Q
D d
G FN
g FC
K
P O2 Fr
B E R W
F
W=mcg
N

Figure 13.13

Since acceleration of various points shall be required, Kleins construction can be drawn
and O2AQR represents acceleration diagram. The procedure for drawing this has already
been explained earlier.
15
Static and Dynamic The connecting rod can be replaced by a dynamically equivalent system. One of the
Force Analysis and masses can be placed at the small end and the piston of the other mass can be determined
Mechanical Vibration
by using the following equation.
k2
GD = . . . (13.12)
BG
where G being the centre of gravity. Point R can be joined with R to represent resultant
acceleration of the connecting rod. The horizontal lines (parallel to the line of stroke
O2B) can be drawn from points G and D to determine acceleration of these points. The
acceleration of G and D are given by ω2 O2g and ω2 O2d, where ω being angular velocity
of the crank. The length scale is same as that of the configuration diagram.

FC = mc ω2 O2 g
Draw the lines of action of N and Fr so that they meet at point ‘I’. From D draw a line DE
parallel to dO2 to meet O2B at E. The resultant inertia force on the connecting rod passes
through point E. Therefore, draw a line from E parallel to gO2 to represent line of action
of resultant inertia force ‘FC’ on the connecting rod. The line of action of the weight ‘W’
may also be extended. Drop perpendiculars from I to the lines of action of FC and W
which are I X and I Y. To determine Ft, moment of different forces may be taken and the
following equation is obtained.
Ft I A = P × I B + FC × I X + W × I Y . . . (13.13)
P × I B + FC × I X + W × I Y
or Ft = . . . (13.14)
IA
In order to determine Fr and N, force polygon may be drawn as shown in Figure 13.13(b)
which will give their magnitudes because their directions are already known.
Example 13.2
A single cylinder vertical engine has a bore 35 cm and a stroke of 40 cm. The
connecting rod is 110 cm long. Mass of reciprocating parts is 140 kg. At the
expansion stroke with the crank at 30o from the TDC, the gas pressure is 0.8 MPa.
If engine runs at 260 rpm, determine
(a) net force at the piston,
(b) resultant load on the gudgeon pin, and
(c) thrust on the cylinder walls.
Solution
Given that :
Piston diameter, d = 35 cm = 0.35 m
Piston stroke, s = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Length of CR, l = 110 cm
Mass of reciprocating points, ‘m’ = 140 kg
Pressure in cylinder, ‘p’ = 0.8 MPa
Speed, ‘N’ = 260 rpm
Angle θ = 30o
l 110 × 2
∴ n= = = 5.5 ,
r 0.40 × 100

2π × 260
ω= = 27.33 r/s
60
16
 (a) Net Force on the Piston Static and Dynamic
Force Analysis and
Net force on the piston of a vertical engine Equivalent Dynamical
System
P = Gas force ± Inertia force + Load
π 2 π
Gas force = d p = (0.35)2 × 0.8 × 106 N
4 4
= 76969 N
⎛ cos 2θ ⎞
Inertia force = m ω2 r = ⎜ cos θ + ⎟
⎝ n ⎠

⎛ cos 60 ⎞
Inertia force = 140 × (27.23) 2 × 0.2 ⎜ cos 30o + ⎟
⎝ 5.5 ⎠
= 19867 N
Load 'W ' = 140 g = 1373.4 N
Net force on the piston
P = 76969 − 19867 + 1373.4 = 58475 N
(b) Resultant Load on the Gudgeon Pin
P
Q=
cos φ

sin θ sin 30o

sin φ = =
n 5.5
or φ = 5.216o
58475
∴ Q= = 58718 N
cos 5.216o
(c) Thrust on Cylinder Walls
N = P tan φ
= 58475 tan 5.216
= 5338 N
Example 13.3
The mass of reciprocating parts in a horizontal reciprocating engine is 120 kg. The
crank length is 90 mm and engine speed is 600 rpm. Length and mass of the
connecting rod is 450 mm and 90 kg, respectively. The join of connecting rod
about its centre of gravity is 150 mm. The distance of centre of gravity from small
end is 180 mm. Find the magnitude and sense of inertia torque on the crank shaft
when the crank has turned 30o from the inner-dead centre.
Solution
Given data :
Crank radius, ‘r’ = 90 mm = 0.09 m
Length of connecting rod, ‘l’ = 450 m = 0.45 m
Mass of reciprocating parts, ‘mr’ = 120 kg
Mass of connecting rod, ‘mc’ = 90 kg
Radius of gyration, ‘k’ = 150 mm = 0.15 m
N = 600 rpm
17
Static and Dynamic 2π N 2π × 60
Force Analysis and ∴ ω= = = 62.83 r/s
Mechanical Vibration 60 60
The configuration diagram of the reciprocating engine mechanism has been drawn
in Figure 13.14 to a suitable scale. Let one mass of the equivalent dynamical
system is at small end and the other at point D

BG × GD = k 2

k2 (150)2
∴ GD = = = 125 mm
BG 180
Graphical construction can be drawn as explained in Section 13.5. It is shown in
Figure 13.14.
Y
I
FT

FR P

A M
Q θ = 30
0
d
D
Fc g O
X G E
Fp L
B
w = mc g

Figure 13.14

From Figure 13.14

I Y = 0.179 m, I X = 0.215 m

I A = 0.517 m, I B = 0.303 m

Acceleration of connecting rod = 0.0854 m/s2

Acceleration of reciprocating parts, ‘ap’ = 0.0871
Inertia force of the connecting rod.

FC = mc w2 ac = 90 × (62.83)2 × 0.0854 = 30341.32 N

W = 90 × g = 882.9 N

Inertia force of reciprocating parts

Fp = mr w2 a p = 120 × (62.83)2 × 0.0871 = 41260.4 N

IX × FC + Fp × IB + W × IY
∴ FT =
IA
0.215 × 30341.32 + 0.303 × 41260.4 + 882.9 × 0.179
=
0.517
= 37152.22 N
Torque required on crank shaft = 37152.22 × 0.09 = 3343.7 Nm
(counterclockwise).
18
 Static and Dynamic
13.6 SUMMARY Force Analysis and
Equivalent Dynamical
The static force analysis can be done by drawing free body diagrams of different links System
and then by drawing force polygons or analytically unknown forces can be determined.
The assumption made in static force analysis that the mass of connecting rod or couple is
neglected. The mass of the crank is also neglected.
Sometimes it is better to represent a moving link by a two mass system which is
equivalent dynamically to the link concerned.
The effect of the friction may be considered or it may be neglected. Friction acts at the
sliding pair and the turning pairs. The friction force at the sliding pair may be considered
along with the gas force. The compression or tension force in the connecting rod or
coupler does not pass through the centres of hinges but acts along the friction axis which
is tangential to the friction circles at the hinges.
If mass of different links is considered, it results in dead loads and the inertia forces on
the links.
The magnitude of inertia force is given by the product of mass and acceleration having its
direction opposite to the direction of acceleration. Therefore, accelerations are to be
determined before dynamic analysis of a mechanism. The dynamic analysis may be done
graphically or analytically.

13.7 KEY WORDS

Free Body Diagram : When a body or link is isolated, the forces (active
and reactive) are also shown on it. This is called
free body diagram of the body. The necessary
condition for this is that the body should be in
equilibrium.
Friction Circle : It is a circle which drawn with hinge centre as the
centre and radius equal to the product of
coefficient of friction and radius of the pin.
Friction Axis : It is a line which is tangential to the friction circles
and along which the tension or compression in the
link acts.
Inertia Force : The magnitude of the inertia force is equal to the
product of mass and acceleration and its direction
is opposite to the direction of acceleration.

13.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the preceding text for all the Answers to SAQs.

19