Coordinate Geometry

One of the great skills in maths is the ability to connect different areas of study. One such connection
is between Algebra and Geometry. The Greeks had little of the former, but were still outstanding at
the latter; nevertheless, our modern approach to the subject has allowed us to solve problems that
they could not (some examples are in the appendix). Our specification is pretty algebra heavy, and
we will lean on this area substantially, solving many geometric problems by representing them
algebraically. We may, occasionally, use Geometry to inform our Algebra.

We consider the 2- D plane, representing points as ( x , y ) (and so connecting Geometry to Algebra).

Geometric shapes can then be described in terms of relationships between x and y : e.g.

y=mx+c
Let us define the terms carefully

y 2− y 1
m is the gradient: given two points ( x 1 , y 1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ), m= . This is constant for a given line.
x 2−x 1
c is the y -intercept, the value of y when the line crosses the y -axis (i.e. where x=0 ). Note that it is
not a point, but is constant for a given line.

x and y are the x and y coordinates for any point on the line. They are variables.
Note that there are other ways to write the equation of a line. Since ( x , y ) lies on the line,

y− y 1
m=
x−x 1

⇒ y − y 1=m ( x−x 1)

This probably corresponds to our geometric intuition, where a line can be specified between a
gradient and a point, or two points. If m ∈Q we can multiply up to clear the denominator(s) and
rearrange to get an equation of the form

ax +by + c=0
Parallel lines have the same gradient; there is also a result for perpendicular lines of non-zero
gradients m 1 and m 2 : m 1 × m 2=−1. This is proved in the appendix. Note that the case m 1 (or m 2)
equal to zero is trivial, since then one line is horizontal. The other must be vertical if it is
perpendicular.

Note that the midpoint of A ( x 1 , y 1 )and B ( x2 , y 2 ) is ( 2

,
2 )
x 1+ x 2 y 1+ y 2
. This is also proved in the

appendix.

e.g. (i) Find the equation of the line through ( 1 , 4 ) and ( 6 , 2 ) in the form
ax +by + c=0 , a , b , c ∈ Z
(ii) Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the points in (i).

Sol: (i)
Note that we could have used ( 6 , 2 ) as our point on the line, indeed, we should check that it satisfies
the equation we have found: LHS=2 ( 6 )+5 ( 2 ) −22=0=RHS.

We could also have reversed the two points when calculating the gradient, as long as we are
consistent.

(ii) The midpoint is ( 72 ,3)

Another example:

(i) Find the equation of the line which is parallel to the line 2 x+ y=5 and which passes through
the point ( 2 , 5 ).
(ii) Find the equation of the line l which is perpendicular to the line 2 x+ y=5 and which passes
through the point ( 1 , k ) ,where k is constant. Hence find the value of k for which the line l
passes through the origin.

Sol:

Now consider a line segment between ( x , y ) , ( x , y ).

1 1 2 2

Using Pythagoras, this has length

√ ( x −x ) + ( y − y ) .
1 2
2
1 2
2

e.g. Consider the points A ( 1 ,3 ) , B ( 5 ,7 ) C (2 , k ). Find the values of k for which ABC is a right-
angled triangle.

Sol: We have (at least) two approaches.

(i) Work out the gradients and use m 1 m2=−1

(ii) Work out the lengths of the sides and show that Pythagoras applies (technically using the
converse: if the squares behave as they should, then we have a right angle).

Circles
A circle may be defined as the set of points that are a fixed distance from a fixed point. If we let the
radius be r and the centre be ( a , b ), then applying the above to a general point ( x , y ) gives

( x−a )2+ ( y−b )2=r 2

We can expand the brackets to obtain an alternative form.
2 2 2 2 2
x −2 ax +a + y −2by +b =r
2 2 2 2 2
⇒ x + y −2 ax−2 by +a + b −r =0
We may express this as
2 2
x + y + mx+ny + p=0
but note that this does not work for all values of p; we require 4 p <m2+ n2 (to see this, compare
with the version above).

How do we reverse this? Complete the square in x and y .

e.g. Find the centre and radius of the circle with equation x 2+ y 2−2 x+6 y−6=0.

Sol: Completing the square gives ( x−1 )2−12 + ( y +3 )2−32−6=0

2 2
⇒ ( x−1 ) + ( y +3 ) =16

which has centre ( 1 ,−3 ) and radius 4 .

The distance formula also makes it easy to tell whether or not a point lies in, on or outside the circle.

e.g. Circle C has equation ( x +5 )2 + ( y−2 )2=25. Determine whether each of the point lies in on or
outside C .

(i) (−2 , 1)
(ii) (−1 , 5 )
(iii) ( 3 , 6)
Sol:
Recall that there are a number of Circle Theorems. We shall not need them all, but may use the
following:

(i) Angles in a semicircle are right angles (we actually need the converse too).
(ii) The perpendicular from the centre to a chord bisects the chord (this is an immediate
consequence of the RHS congruence condition).
(iii) The tangent and the radius at the point of contact are perpendicular.

The first can be used to find the equation of a circle through the vertices of a right-angle triangle; the
case of the vertices of any triangle is in the appendix.

The third can be used to find the equation of the tangent and the normal (a line perpendicular to a
tangent) at a given point on the circle.

e.g. Recall that points A ( 1 ,3 ) , B ( 5 ,7 ) C (2 , 2 ) form a right-angle triangle (example, above). We can
find the equation of the circle that passes through these points as follows. The converse to the first
theorem is true (you may wish to attempt a proof), so the circle will have diameter BC . The centre
1
will be the mid-point of BC , ( 3.5 , 4.5 ) and the radius will be the length of BC , i.e.
2
1 1
2
√ ( 5−2 )2 + ( 7−2 )2= √ 34.
2
This gives a not particularly aesthetic equation of

( x−3.5 )2 + ( y −4.5 )2 =8.5

This could be tidied to give

( 2 x−7 )2 + ( 2 y−9 )2=34

Tangents and Normals: Unusually, the normal equation is the easier of the two. Since the radius and
the normal at a point are both perpendicular to the tangent, we can find the normal equation by
finding the equation of the line through the centre and the point of contact of the tangent. The
tangent gradient is then the “negative reciprocal” of the normal gradient.

4−2 −1
e.g. ( x +2 )2+ ( y−4 )2=40at ( 4 , 2 ). This has centre (−2 , 4 ) ,∴ m normal = =
−2−4 3
−1
⇒ y −2= ( x−4 )
3
⇒ 3 y−6=−x + 4
⇒ 3 y + x=10
For the tangent, m=3 ⇒ y −2=3 ( x−4 )

⇒ y =3 x −10
Note that for the normal, you could also use the centre as the point on the line, but not for the
tangent; for this reason, it is probably best to always use the point of contact.

Intersections: We can use algebra to find the intersection points (if they exist) for a line and a circle,
or, indeed, two circles (we have, in fact, already see the first case in our quadratics work: see the
simultaneous equations example). Let us consider a harder example.
Consider the circle with equation ( x−4 )2 + ( y +2 )2=17 and the line with equation y=4 x +k . These
intersect for ( x−4 )2 + ( 4 x+ k +2 )2=17
2 2 2
⇒ x −8 x +16+16 x +8 ( k +2 ) x + ( k +2 ) −17=0
2 2
⇒ 17 x + ( 8 k +8 ) x + ( k + 2 ) −1=0
The solutions will depend on k . The discriminant is given by

Δ=( 8 k + 8 )2−4 ( 17 ) ( ( k + 2 )2−1 )

¿ 4 ( 16 k 2 +32 k +16−17 k 2−68 k−51 )

¿−4 ( k 2 +36 k +35 )

¿−4 ( k +35 ) ( k +1 )
This gives the usual three cases:

k ←35 or k >−1, no solutions, so no intersections.

k =−1 ,−35 , one solution, one intersection: the line is a tangent.
−35< k ←1, two solutions, so two intersections.
This is similar to the intersection of a line and a quadratic.

Intersecting two circles is rather more work. We have two equations and two unknowns, so use
simultaneous equations. The difference between this and other examples is that we have no linear
equations; substitution is not convenient. In this case, however, we can do a combination of
elimination and substitution. This is best seen through an example.

Consider the circles with equations

( x−4 )2 + ( y +1 )2=40 and ( x +3 )2 + ( y−6 )2=26

The coefficients of x 2 and y 2 are 1 in each equation, so we can eliminate these terms by subtraction.
We can expand first or use the difference of two squares.
 ( x−4 )2− ( x +3 )2 + ( y +1 )2− ( y−6 )2 =14
⇒−7 ( 2 x−1 ) +7 ( 2 y−5 )=14
⇒−14 x +7+14 y−35=14
⇒ y =x+3
Now sub in: ( x +3 )2 + ( x+ 3−6 )2=26
2 2
⇒ x +6 x+ 9+ x −6 x +9=26
2
⇒ 2 x =8
⇒ x=2 ,−2 , y =5 ,1respectively. Note that the algebra was simpler in this example than can
sometimes be the case; the essential method is the same, however.

As before, circles may intersect twice, once (so that they have a common tangent) or not at all.

Appendix
Classical Construction: The Greeks were much concerned with determining what figures could be
constructed using just compass and straight edge. Two general problems that they could not solve
were trisecting angles and duplicating the cube (i.e. given one cube, constructing a cube of exactly
double volume.

Modern algebra links constructions to the solution of equations (constructing points is equivalent to
intersect some combination of lines and circles), then uses abstract theory to show that the above
constructions are impossible (see Field Theory). Roughly speaking, to duplicate the cube is
equivalent to solving x 3−2=0; this cannot be done using only quadratic or linear equations (not in
the ways we want).

Proof of Perpendicular Lines Condition:

Note that we may translate the lines without changing the gradient, so wlog (“without loss of
generality” – i.e. we aren’t making any assumptions that mean that we are considering a special
case). Since neither line is horizontal, one line ( L1) passes through quadrants 1 and 3, and the other
through 2 and 4 ( L2). This leads to the following diagram.

We can see that L has gradient m =tanθ , and L

1 1 2

gradient m 2=−tan ϕ .

Now, m m =−1⇔−tan ϕ tan θ=−1

1 2
 1
⇔ tan θ=
tan ϕ
1
But the diagram also shows that tan ( 90−ϕ ) =
tan ϕ
∴ tan θ=tan ( 90−ϕ )
Since all the angles are acute, θ=90−ϕ , which implies
that the lines are perpendicular iff m 1 m2=−1.

Could we “wlog” further? Rotation won’t change the angle, so can we choose θ ? If so, θ=45 °
makes the gradients particularly simple!

Splitting a Line Segment in the Ratio a :b :

We prove the midpoint result by proving a stronger result. Consider A ( x 1 , y 1 ) , B ( x 2 , y2 ) and C lying
on AB splitting it in the ratio a :b . The diagram is below.

Triangles ABE and ACD are clearly similar. Since C

splits AB in the ration a :b , D splits AE in the ratio
a
a :b . Thus, x=x 1 + ( x −x )
a+b 2 1

1
¿
a+b
( ( a+ b ) x 1−a x 1+ a x2 )

¿ ( a+ba x + a+bb x ).
2 1

Similarly, y= ( a+ba y + a+bb y ).

1 2

If we are dealing with midpoints, a=b=1 , which gives the result.

Equation of a Circle through 3 Points: We could simply solve 3 non-linear simultaneous equations.
Alternatively, we can use some geometry. The centre of the circle is the same distance from each
point, so will lie on the perpendicular bisector of any pair. We take two such bisectors and solve
linear simultaneous equations. This should be easier.

Note that, from a construction point of view, the second method is pretty straightforward.