PRINCIPLESOFFLIGHT

HIGH-LIFT DEVICES

FLAPS
– increase the lifting efficiency of the wing and decrease stall speed – fly at a reduced speed while
maintaining sufficient control and lift for sustained flight.

a. Plain flap: attached to the wing by a hinge, increases the effective camber and changes the
wing's chord line
b. Split flap: only to the lower portion of the wing, produces greater drag
c. Slotted flap: similar to the plain flap, allows a portion of the higher pressure air beneath the
wing to travel through a slot.
d. Fowler flap: track and roller system. When extended, the Fowler flap moves rearward as well
as down. This rearward motion increases the total wing area, as well as the camber and chord
line

III. STABILITY
*an airplane said to be inherently stable will require less effort to control

a. Stability – characteristic of an
airplane in flight that causes it to return to a condition of equilibrium, or steady flight, after it
is disturbed.
b. Positive Static Stability – initial tendency to return to the position from which it was
displaced.
c. Positive Dynamic Stability –
Series of successively smaller oscillations
a. Maneuverability – permits you to maneuver it easily and withstand the stress resulting
from it.
size, weight, flight control system, structural strength, and thrust: determine the
plane’s maneuverability.
b. Controllability – ability of the aircraft to respond to your control inputs, especially with
regard to attitude and flight path.

!!! Stability, maneuverability, and controllability refer to movement of the aircraft about one or more
of three axes rotation.

THREE AXES OF FLIGHT

1. Longitudinal
 - roll // ailerons
2. Lateral
- pitching // elevator
3. Vertical Axes
- yaw // rudder

Center of Gravity (CG) – The common

reference point for the three axes – theoretical point where the entire weight of the airplane is
considered to be concentrated.

a. Longitudinal Axis [ailerons] – roll movement. roll to the left means UP ang ailerons sa
LEFT, DOWN sa RIGHT. Naka-up kung san papunta yung direction Neutralizing the
Controls – relax control pressure and return to their original or neutral position.
b. Lateral Axis [elevator] – pitch movement. when you push FORWARD, the elevator goes

DOWN. Producing MORE LIFT

c. Vertical Axis [rudder pedals] – Yaw: movement in the Vert. Axis. that is produced by the
rudders. Left rudder, turns left
A. Longitudinal Stability
– involves the pitching of an aircraft to its lateral axis.
– an aircraft that is longitudinal stable will return to its trimmed angle attack after
displacement
a. Balance – in designing, there should be a balance between the center of the gravity and the
center pressure of the wing.
b. Center of Pressure or Center of Lift – point along the wing chord line where lift is
considered to be concentrated.
c. Position of Center of Gravity – distribution of weight either by design or by the pilot, can
also affect the longitudinal stability of an airplane. achieve longitudinal stability, most
airplanes are designed so they're slightly nose heavy. The CG must be located within a
reasonable distance forward or aft of an optimum position.
d. Horizontal Stabilizer
- Designed with negative a angle of attack
- Force that HS uses, Tail Down
Force

e. Power Effects
- Moves about the lateral axis
B. LATERAL STABILITY
- Stability about an airplane's longitudinal axis, which extends nose to tail
- Moves about the longitudinal axis
 - one wing is lower than the opposite
wing, lateral stability helps return the wings to a level attitude.
- no control over the design
- can control the distribution of weight and improve lateral stability
a. Dihedral – upward angle of the wings w/ respect to the horizontal – angle between the
horizon and the inclination of wind
b. Sweepback – same w/ dihedral. Angled backward from the wing root to the wingtips
c. Keel Effect – the steadying influence
exerted by the side area of the fuselage and vertical stabilizer – like the ship, the fuselage acts
as the keel.
– Like the Pendulum Effect

C. Directional Stability
– Stability about the vertical axis – primary contributor to directional stability is the vertical tail
– position of the CG
– aircraft must have more surface area behind CG than it has in front. – the greater surface area
behind CG, the more it helps the aircraft align w/ the relative wind.
– the more forward the gravity, the less force.
– primary source is the vertical tail

!!! NOTES !!!

- lift = center of lift = center of pressure
D. Interaction of Lateral and
Directional Stability
a. Dutch Roll – combination of
rolling/yawing oscillations caused by either your control input or by wind gusts
– will occur when your dihedral effects are more powerful than the directional
stability
– aka, falling lift

Lateral Stability > directional stability

b. Spiral Instability – associated with airplanes that have strong directional stability in
comparison with lateral stability

Strong directional stability > lateral stability

STALLS

– occurs when the Maximum Coefficient of Lift (CLmax) is exceeded.

– the distribution of weight increases more stall speed.

– the more forward of CG, the more stall speed.

Types of Stalls

● Power–On: approaching in take-off. takeoff, climb-out, and go-arounds when the pilot fails to
maintain proper control due to premature flap retraction or excessive nose- high trim.
● Power–Off: approaching to land
● Accelerated: relative wind, u should slowly accelerate
● Crossed-control: approaching land.
When trying to return to base.

Stall Recognition
1. Stall warning
2. Mushy feeling in flight controls 3. Decrease in control effectiveness
4. Loss of r.p.m.
5. Reduction in the sound of airflow along the fuselage
6. Buffeting, uncontrollable pitching or vibrations in the flight controls

Stall Recovery
1. Decrease Angle of Attack (let go of the yolk) (for cessna 152)
2. Smoothly apply maximum allowable power
3. Gain airspeed and adjust the power as required
!!! do NOT use AILERONS, only RUDDERS

SPINS
–most complex of all flight maneuvers
– aggravated stall

PRIMARY CAUSES
– stalled aircraft is a prerequisite of spin.
– exceeding critical angle of attack. Either too much or not enough rudder control.

TYPES OF SPINS
1. Erect Spin: slightly nose down, and yaw and spin on the same direction
2. Inverted Spin: spinning upside down with yaw and
3. Flat Spin

Incipient Spin: lasts about 4-6 seconds

 : approx. 2 turns Fully Developed Spin: Airspeed, vertical speed, and rate of
rotation are stabilized.
: Small, training aircraft lose approximately 500 feet per 3 second turn.

RECOVERY
P – ower Idle
A – ilerons Neutral
R – udder Pedals fully opposite
E – levator, briskly forward

SPIN PHASES (erected spin)

AERODYNAMICS OF
MANEUVERING FLIGHT
A. Climbing Flight
– Steady slate
– If you attempt to climb just by pulling back on the control wheel to raise the nose of the
airplane, momentum will cause a brief increase in altitude, but airspeed
will soon decrease.
– EXCESS THRUST not lift, is needed to SUSTAIN A CLIMB – when the angle of the climb
steepens, thrust will not only oppose drag, but also increasingly REPLACE LIFT
as force opposing weight
– at the point where the climb becomes exactly vertical, weight and drag are opposed solely by
thrust, and lift no longer acts to support the
aircraft in flight
– to recover, 10% of VSI, you should
level-off
Left-turning Tendencies These all work to create a left turning tendency during high
power
● Torque
● Gyroscopic Precession
● Asymmetrical Thrust
● Spiraling Slipstream

a. Torque – “for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.”

– is the opposite reaction created by the turning propeller
– for every single-engine, the propeller rotates clockwise. This
spinning reaction causes a torque reaction which tends to
rotate the airplane counterclockwise about its longitudinal axis.
b. Gyroscopic Precession – resultant reaction when a force is applied to the rim of a rotating
disc. 90* of your rotation.
c. Asymmetrical Thrust – descending blade of the propeller takes a greater
"bite" of air than the ascending blade on the other side. P-factor. P-factor causes an airplane
to yaw to the left when it is at high angles of attack. P-factor results from the descending
propeller blade on the right producing more thrust than the ascending blade on the left.
d. Spiraling Slipstream – causes a
change in airflow around the vertical stabilizer
– backward flow of air which wraps around the plane.

Counteract left-turning tendencies and make the airplane easier to control.

Descending Flight
– Force of Weight is comprised of two
components during a descent
a. One component of weight acts perpendicular to the flight path;
b. while the other component of weight acts forward along the flight path
● When the nose of the aircraft is in the lowered descent, the component of weight acting forward
along the flight path increases, and assuming power remains the same, and increase in speed
occurs

a. Emergency Descent
- Maneuver for descending as rapidly as possible to a lower altitude or to the ground for
an emergency landing.
 - We need to execute this because:
a. Put out engine fire
b. Sudden loss in cabin pressurization
c. Or ant sit. That needs
an immediate and rapid descent

1. Simulated engine descents should be made in a turn to check for air traffic below and to look
for possible landing area
2. A RADIO CALL announcing your
descent is appropriate to alert other aircraft
3. When initiating the descent, a bank of 30* to 45* should be established to maintain positive
load factors on the airplane
4. Power should be reduced to idle
a. If equipped: set propeller doe low pitch
5. The goal is to generate maximum
DRAG to facilitate the descent
a. Use maximum allowable speed
b. Extend landing gear and flaps
as recommended by the manufacturer
6. Recovery should be made with enough altitude for safe recovery back to level flight or a
precautionary landing

Emergency Descent Warnings:

- Never fly past never-exceed speed
(Vne)
- Never fly past maximum landing gear extended speed (Vle)
- Never fly past maximum flaps extended speed (Vfe)
- If in turbulent conditions, stay below design maneuvering speed (Va)
- If practicing, terminating descent AS SOON As descent is established and
stabilized
- Piston engines will experience excessive cooling in engine cylinders with emergency descents

L/Dmax
– specific angle of attack that generates the greatest lift with the least amount of
corresponding drag

Lift-to-Drag Ratio (L/D) – can be used to measure the gliding efficiency of your airplane.
Glide Speed
– the best glide speed is normally achieved at L/Dmax
– best glide speed: at a given weight, L/Dmax will correspond to a certain airspeed.
– Any deviation from best glide speed will increase drag and reduce the
distance you can glide.
– in the event of engine failure, maintain best glide speed is extremely important
– any speed other than best glide speed creates more drag. If your airspeed is too high,
parasite drag increases; if you descend with too slow of an airspeed, induced drag increases

Glide Ratio
– represents the distance an airplane will travel forward, w/o power, in relation to altitude loss.

[Altitude : Horizontal Distance]

→ 1:9 (1,000ft : 9,000Ft) → 1:1.4 (1,000ft : 1.4Nm)
→ 1:1.2 or 1:1 (actual flight)

Glide Angle
– (during a descent) angle between the actual glide path of the airplane and the horizon – your glide
angle increases as drag increases, it decreases as it decreases

FACTORS THAT AFFECT GLIDE

1. Weight – affects how fast u glide
2. Configuration – flaps and landing gear (how far you glide)
3. Wind –
4. *Altitude

Strong head wind, increased airspeed

Strong Tail wind, decrease airspeed Turning Flight
– in a turn, it comprised of two
components
 a. Vertical component of lift
b. Horizontal
component of lift – the steeper you turn, the more drop you drop down
Horizontal component of lift – causes the plane to turn
Centripetal Force – The horizontal component of lift creates a force directed inward toward
the center of rotation
Centrifugal force – centripetal force works against the tendency of the aircraft to continue in
a straight line, inertia tends to oppose centripetal force toward the outside of the turn strin
Slip → rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank, and the ball moves to the inside of
the turn.
→ decrease bank and/or increase the rate of turn.

Skid → rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank, and the ball moves to the
outside of the turn → increase the bank and/or decrease the rate of turn. → stronger
centrifugal,
weaker centripetal

Adverse Yaw
– yawing tendency outside of the turn. – caused by a higher induced drag on the outside wing which
produces more lift

Overbanking Tendency
– caused by additional lift on the outside, or raised, wing even though you neutralized
ailerons
– to correct for overbanking tendency, you can use a small amount of opposite
aileron away from the turn.
Rate and Radiusof Turn (this is inversely proportional)
– 2 major components that define airplane performance during turning flight.

Radius of Turn
– amount of horizontal distance an aircraft uses to complete turn

Rate of Turn
– refers to the amount of time it takes for an airplane to turn a specified no. of degrees

Load Factor
– ratio of the load supported by the airplane's wings to the actual weight of the aircraft
and its contents.
– load factor of 1 or One-G: the wings is supported by the actual weight of the airplane
 – G-forces: flight loads caused by aircraft maneuvering – Pulling G’s: referring to an
increase in load factor

Constant Airspeed greater > Bank Angle = smaller radius of

turn
= greater rate of turn

Smaller < Bank Angle = greater radius

= smaller rate

Constant Angle of Bank greater > Airspeed = greater radius = smaller rate
Slower < Airspeed = smaller radius
= greater rate
Load Factor in Turns
– G-Forces
– the steeper the bank, the greater the load factor (G’s) – the greater the bank angle, the faster
you stall
– The load factor imposed on an airplane will increase as the angle of bank is increased.
– to compensate for the apparent weight and loss by increasing the angle of attack with back
pressure on the control wheel.

Load Factor = θ (𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑘1 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)

Load Factor and Stall Speed

– stall speed increases in proportion to the square root of the load factor.

– additional load factor incurred during constant altitude turns will also increase
stall speed.

Maneuvering Speed (VA) – how can aircraft can maneuver and handle stress
VA
– defined as the design maneuvering speed
– max. Speed at which u can use full, abrupt control movement w/o overstressing the
airframe.
Additional Key Terms:

Thrust: aerodynamic force that opposes the rearward component of weight in a climb.
Low airspeed, high power settings, and high angles of attack: relative airspeed, power, and
angle of attack conditions produce the most noticeable left-turning tendencies common to single-
engine, propeller-driven aircraft?

Left turning tendencies can be corrected for, in part, through the employment of an
offset vertical stabilizer and/or a rudder trim tab: Name at least three design elements that
can be used to help offset left-turning tendencies.

Decrease Airspeed: If angle of bank and altitude are held constant, what can be done to increase
the rate of turn?

False: Maneuvering speed increases with a

decrease in weight.

Higher aspect ratio produces less drag for the same amount of lift.

FLAPS: the most common high-lift devices to increase the LIFTING efficacy and decrease stalls in airfoils

configuration: normally refers to the position of the landing gear and flaps.

When gear and flaps are up: considered

clean configuration

If the gear is fixed rather than retractable, the airplane is considered to be in a clean configuration
when the flaps are in the up position.

Increasing Flaps (downward): increase lift (and drag)

Vortices: Prevent air separation

Leading-edge flaps: used to increase the wing camber which provides additional lift.

- You increase thrust by using the throttle to increase power. When you increase power, thrust
exceeds drag
- The airplane continues to accelerate only while the force of thrust exceeds the force of drag.
- Reducing thrusts causes the plane to decelerate
● Effect on ice on the airfoil: reduction of lift, the increase of drag, and the reduction of control
efficiency. Icing will also affect the stall characteristics of the aircraft and reduce the stall angle
of attack.

https://quizlet.com/415099503/commercialpilot-airplanes-and-aerodynamics-flash-card s/
Part of Controls in an Aircraft ● Elevons
● Ailerons
● Elevator ● Rudders
 ● Flap
● Throttle

● cowling is NOT part of the controls

● [high-lifting devices] Fixed slots and movable slats conduct the flow of high energy air
beneath the wing into the airflow on the upper surface of the wing which delays airflow
separation to a higher angle of attack.
● During ground effect, induced drag abruptly/dramatically DECREASES
● Powerplant is the ENGINE and
PROPELLER
● The tendency to stall first at the wingtips and then stall inward toward the root.
● What causes the airplane to lift off lower than normal speed (thrust is produced)
● Angle of Attack and Coefficient of Lift is NOT related. CLpresents your angle of attack but they
are not the same thing.
● Leading-edge flaps are used to increase the wing camber which provides additional lift.
● Tail down force: Balancing force in most flight conditions
● What will happen when the thrust is below the CG. Because the nose will pitch up, and the
thrust is decreased.
● High induced drag on outside wing
● LONGITUDINAL STABILITY —
Stability about the lateral axis.

Longitudinal Stability → Lateral Axis

● LATERAL STABILITY — Stability about the longitudinal axis.

Lateral Stability → Longitudinal Axis

● Drag is a by product of lift

● Extension of Flaps increase drag and reduces stall speed

● Parasite drag normally is divided into three types; form drag, interference drag, and skin friction drag.
Streamlining decreases form drag, and design features, such as wheel fairings and retractable landing
gear, can reduce both form and interference drag. Skin friction drag can
be minimized by eliminating protruding rivet heads, and employing a glossy flat finish to air- plane
surfaces.
● Induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of the speed.
● Form drag results from the turbulent wake caused by the separation of airflow from the surface of a
structure.
 ● If you attempt to maintain altitude during a turn by increasing the angle of attack, the stall speed increases
as the angle of bank increases.
● Increasing load factor will stall at a higher speed. Load factor is the weight or load can withstand.
● Force that counteracts weight is lift.
● If airspeed is increased during a level turn, what is necessary to maintain altitude? decreased Angle of
attack and/or increased angle of bank.
- Which statement is true relative to changing angle of attack? An increase in angle of attack will increase
drag.
- The faster the aircraft, the less drag it produces. And increases parasite drag
- Upon entering ground effect, there will be a sudden decrease in induced drag
- Ground effect decreases drag
- Parasite drag is directly proportional by the airspeed
- By increasing the load factor you also increase stall speed.
- Upon entering a ground effect, there will be a sudden decrease of induced drag
- If ice has accumulated an airfoil, the stalling speed will increase in all flight conditions. Bc the ice altering
the basic form of the wing. More drag, less lift.
- Airplane that goes to a smooth level turn depends on the angle of attack
- You generate the same amount of lift as the attitude is increased and an airplane must be flown at a
higher true airspeed at any given angle of attack. Because the air at a higher altitude is more dense
- Dihedral angle of the wind provides stability along the longitudinal axis.
- Stall speed in increasing altitude. As you climb, the air becomes less dense, and your wings need more
airflow to generate the same amount of lift. So, as you climb, your true stall speed increases.
- In IAS stall speed never changes, but stall speed will increase in
- Increase in altitude increases your true airspeed. This is because as you increase altitude, the air is less
dense
- Ground effect is more felt at the equal to the half of wingspan. Or one wingspan.
- When the engine turns off mid-flight, the nose pitches down and tries to go back to the same altitude as
it was in the cruising phase of flight.
- The stalling speed of an airplane is most affected by: variations in airplane loading

-Which is true regarding the force of lift in steady, unaccelerated flight?

- There is a corresponding indicated airspeed required for every angle of attack to generate sufficient
lift to maintain altitude

- Increased airspeed = decreased induced drag. BUT increase in parasite drag (fourfold). decreased
Airspeed = decrease
 in parasite drag. but increase in induced drag
- To produce the same lift while in ground effect as when out of ground effect, the airplane requires: lower
angle of attack
- Load factor directly affects stall speed.
- For a given angle of bank, in any airplane, the load factor imposed in a coordinated constant-altitude turn:
Is constant and the stall speed increases
- To develop maximum power and thrust, a constant-speed propeller should be set to a blade angle that
will produce a: Small angle of attack and high RPM
- Remain the same regardless of altitude: As altitude increases, the indicated airspeed at which a given
airplane stalls in a particular configuration will
- yaw and roll axes: A turn coordinator provides an indicator of the
- Horizontal component: a force that makes an airplane turn
- When high angles of attack: What
P-factor causes the airplane to yaw to the left?
- Above the large aircraft’s final approach path and landing beyond the large aircraft’s touchdown
point. When landing behind a large aircraft, the pilot should avoid wake turbulence by staying?
- Angle of bank: Airplane wing load during a level coordinated turn in smooth air depends upon the.
- high power settings and low airspeeds, propwash increases the effectiveness of the inboard sections of
the wings which decreases the effect of dihedral, thereby reducing lateral stability.
- an airplane with a forward CG tends to be more stall and spin resistant than an aircraft with an aft CG.

Possible Questions:

1. Elliptical will stall at the back

2. Tapered stall at the wing tip
3. Rectangular stall at the root
4. Smaller aspect ratio increased drag and less lift
5. Higher aspect ratio more lift and decreased drag
6. Lowering flaps will increase lift, drag, and camber
7. Stall speed higher/increased than coordinated turn
8. Service ceiling will still fly at max range 100 ft/min. But once you reach your absolute ceiling, you can’t
climb (0 ft/min)
9. Angle of attack is the angle between your camber wing and relative wind
10. When you are in a ground effect, it will decrease your induced drag.
11. Frost will disrupt your airflow and increase parasite drag and, decreasing your wing performance
12. Force of Lift is perpendicular to your flight path and/or relative wind
13. If the AC is higher than the __altititude,