Module 1:

Introduction to SQL

SQL
o SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is used for storing and managing data in
relational database management system (RDMS).
o It is a standard language for Relational Database System. It enables a user to create, read,
update and delete relational databases and tables.
o All the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MS Access and SQL Server use SQL as their
standard database language.
o SQL allows users to query the database in a number of ways, using English-like
statements.

Rules:
SQL follows the following rules:

o Structure query language is not case sensitive. Generally, keywords of SQL are written in
uppercase.
o Statements of SQL are dependent on text lines. We can use a single SQL statement on one
or multiple text line.
o Using the SQL statements, you can perform most of the actions in a database.
o SQL depends on tuple relational calculus and relational algebra.

SQL process:
o When an SQL command is executing for any RDBMS, then the system figure out the best
way to carry out the request and the SQL engine determines that how to interpret the task.
o In the process, various components are included. These components can be optimization
Engine, Query engine, Query dispatcher, classic, etc.
o All the non-SQL queries are handled by the classic query engine, but SQL query engine
won't handle logical files.
Characteristics of SQL
o SQL is easy to learn.
o SQL is used to access data from relational database management systems.
o SQL can execute queries against the database.
o SQL is used to describe the data.
o SQL is used to define the data in the database and manipulate it when needed.
o SQL is used to create and drop the database and table.
o SQL is used to create a view, stored procedure, function in a database.
o SQL allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views.

Advantages of SQL
There are the following advantages of SQL:

High speed
Using the SQL queries, the user can quickly and efficiently retrieve a large amount of records from
a database.

No coding needed
In the standard SQL, it is very easy to manage the database system. It doesn't require a
substantial amount of code to manage the database system.
Well defined standards
Long established are used by the SQL databases that are being used by ISO and ANSI.

Portability
SQL can be used in laptop, PCs, server and even some mobile phones.

Interactive language
SQL is a domain language used to communicate with the database. It is also used to receive
answers to the complex questions in seconds.

Multiple data view

Using the SQL language, the users can make different views of the database structure.

SQL Datatype
o SQL Datatype is used to define the values that a column can contain.
o Every column is required to have a name and data type in the database table.

SQL Commands
o SQL commands are instructions. It is used to communicate with the database. It is also
used to perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of data.
o SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add data to tables, drop the table,
modify the table, set permission for users.

Types of SQL Commands

There are five types of SQL commands: DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.
 1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
o DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a table, deleting a table, altering a
table, etc.
o All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save all the
changes in the database.

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

o CREATE
o ALTER
o DROP
o TRUNCATE

a. CREATE It is used to create a new table in the database.

Syntax:

1. CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES[,....]);

Example:

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Name VARCHAR2(20), Email VARCHAR2(100), DOB DATE);

b. DROP: It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the table.

Syntax
1. DROP TABLE table_name;

Example

1. DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

c. ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This change could be either to modify
the characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.

Syntax:

To add a new column in the table

1. ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition;

To modify existing column in the table:

1. ALTER TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN DEFINITION....);

EXAMPLE

1. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR2(20));

2. ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR2(20));

d. TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space containing the
table.

Syntax:

1. TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:

1. TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;

2. Data Manipulation Language

o DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form of changes in
the database.
o The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently save all the
changes in the database. They can be rollback.

Here are some commands that come under DML:

o INSERT
o UPDATE
o DELETE
 a. INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data into the
row of a table.

Syntax:

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. (col1, col2, col3,.... col N)
3. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

Or

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

For example:

1. INSERT INTO stud (Author, Subject) VALUES ("David", "DBMS");

b. UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in the table.

Syntax:

1.

UPDATE table_name SET [column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE CONDITI

ON]

For example:

1. UPDATE students
2. SET User_Name = 'David'
3. WHERE Student_Id = '3'

c. DELETE: It is used to remove one or more row from a table.

Syntax:

1. DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

For example:

1. DELETE FROM emp

2. WHERE Author="David";

3. Data Control Language

DCL commands are used to grant and take back authority from any database user.
 Here are some commands that come under DCL:

o Grant
o Revoke

a. Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

Example

1. GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

b. Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Example

1. REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;

4. Transaction Control Language

TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE only.

These operations are automatically committed in the database that's why they cannot be used
while creating tables or dropping them.

Here are some commands that come under TCL:

o COMMIT
o ROLLBACK
o SAVEPOINT

a. Commit: Commit command is used to save all the transactions to the database.

Syntax:

1. COMMIT;

Example:

1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

2. WHERE AGE = 25;
3. COMMIT;

b. Rollback: Rollback command is used to undo transactions that have not already been saved to
the database.

Syntax:

1. ROLLBACK;
 Example:

1. DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

2. WHERE AGE = 25;
3. ROLLBACK;

c. SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling back the
entire transaction.

Syntax:

1. SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

5. Data Query Language

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database.

It uses only one command:

o SELECT

a. SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational algebra. It is used to select
the attribute based on the condition described by WHERE clause.

Syntax:

1. SELECT expressions
2. FROM TABLES
3. WHERE conditions;

For example:

1. SELECT emp_name
2. FROM employee
3. WHERE age > 20;
SQL Operator
There are various types of SQL operator:

SQL Arithmetic Operators

Let's assume 'variable a' and 'variable b'. Here, 'a' contains 20 and 'b' contains 10.

Select * from emp, where salary+1000;

Operator Description Example

+ It adds the value of both operands. a+b will give

30

- It is used to subtract the right-hand operand from the left-hand a-b will give
operand. 10

* It is used to multiply the value of both operands. a*b will give

200

/ It is used to divide the left-hand operand by the right-hand operand. a/b will give 2

% It is used to divide the left-hand operand by the right-hand operand a%b will give
and returns reminder. 0

SQL Comparison Operators:

Let's assume 'variable a' and 'variable b'. Here, 'a' contains 20 and 'b' contains 10.

Operator Description Example

= It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if the values are (a=b) is not
queal then condition becomes true. true

!= It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if values are not (a!=b) is true
equal, then condition becomes true.

<> It checks if two operands values are equal or not, if values are not (a<>b) is
equal then condition becomes true. true

> It checks if the left operand value is greater than right operand value, (a>b) is not
if yes then condition becomes true. true

< It checks if the left operand value is less than right operand value, if (a<b) is true
yes then condition becomes true.

>= It checks if the left operand value is greater than or equal to the right (a>=b) is not
operand value, if yes then condition becomes true. true

<= It checks if the left operand value is less than or equal to the right (a<=b) is
operand value, if yes then condition becomes true. true

!< It checks if the left operand value is not less than the right operand (a!=b) is not
value, if yes then condition becomes true. true

!> It checks if the left operand value is not greater than the right operand (a!>b) is true
value, if yes then condition becomes true.

SQL Logical Operators

There is the list of logical operator used in SQL:

Operator Description
ALL It compares a value to all values in another value set.

AND It allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement.

ANY It compares the values in the list according to the condition.

BETWEEN It is used to search for values that are within a set of values.

IN It compares a value to that specified list value.

NOT It reverses the meaning of any logical operator.

OR It combines multiple conditions in SQL statements.

EXISTS It is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified table.

LIKE It compares a value to similar values using wildcard operator.

SQL Table
o SQL Table is a collection of data which is organized in terms of rows and columns. In
DBMS, the table is known as relation and row as a tuple.
o Table is a simple form of data storage. A table is also considered as a convenient
representation of relations.

Let's see an example of the EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO

1 Kristen Washington 7289201223

2 Anna Franklin 9378282882

3 Jackson Bristol 9264783838

4 Kellan California 7254728346

5 Ashley Hawaii 9638482678

In the above table, "EMPLOYEE" is the table name, "EMP_ID", "EMP_NAME", "CITY", "PHONE_NO"
are the column names. The combination of data of multiple columns forms a row, e.g., 1,
"Kristen", "Washington" and 7289201223 are the data of one row.

Operation on Table
1. Create table
 2. Drop table

3. Delete table

4. Rename table

SQL Create Table

SQL create table is used to create a table in the database. To define the table, you should define
the name of the table and also define its columns and column's data type.

Syntax

1. create table "table_name"

2. ("column1" "data type",
3. "column2" "data type",
4. "column3" "data type",
5. ...
6. "columnN" "data type");

Example

1. SQL> CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (

2. EMP_ID INT NOT NULL,
3. EMP_NAME VARCHAR (25) NOT NULL,
4. PHONE_NO INT NOT NULL,
5. ADDRESS CHAR (30),
6. PRIMARY KEY (ID)
7. );

If you create the table successfully, you can verify the table by looking at the message by the SQL
server. Else you can use DESC command as follows:

SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;

Field Type Null Key Default Extra

EMP_ID int(11) NO PRI NULL

EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO NULL

PHONE_NO NO int(11) NULL

ADDRESS YES NULL char(30)

o 4 rows in set (0.35 sec)

Now you have an EMPLOYEE table in the database, and you can use the stored information related
to the employees.
 Drop table
A SQL drop table is used to delete a table definition and all the data from a table. When this
command is executed, all the information available in the table is lost forever, so you have to very
careful while using this command.

Syntax

1. DROP TABLE "table_name";

Firstly, you need to verify the EMPLOYEE table using the following command:

1. SQL> DESC EMPLOYEE;

Field Type Null Key Default Extra

EMP_ID int(11) NO PRI NULL

EMP_NAME varchar(25) NO NULL

PHONE_NO NO int(11) NULL

ADDRESS YES NULL char(30)

o 4 rows in set (0.35 sec)

This table shows that EMPLOYEE table is available in the database, so we can drop it as follows:

1. SQL>DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

Now, we can check whether the table exists or not using the following command:

1. Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)

As this shows that the table is dropped, so it doesn't display it.

SQL DELETE table

In SQL, DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. We can use WHERE condition to
delete a specific row from a table. If you want to delete all the records from the table, then you
don't need to use the WHERE clause

Syntax

1. DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Example
 Suppose, the EMPLOYEE table having the following records:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

3 Denzel Boston 7353662627 100000

4 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

5 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

6 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

The following query will DELETE an employee whose ID is 2.

1. SQL> DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

2. WHERE EMP_ID = 3;

Now, the EMPLOYEE table would have the following records.

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

4 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

5 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

6 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

If you don't specify the WHERE condition, it will remove all the rows from the table.

1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;

Now, the EMPLOYEE table would not have any records.

SQL SELECT Statement

 In SQL, the SELECT statement is used to query or retrieve data from a table in the database. The
returns data is stored in a table, and the result table is known as result-set.

Syntax

1. SELECT column1, column2, ...

2. FROM table_name;

Here, the expression is the field name of the table that you want to select data from.

Use the following syntax to select all the fields available in the table:

1. SELECT * FROM table_name;

Example:

EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

3 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

4 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

5 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

To fetch the EMP_ID of all the employees, use the following query:

1. SELECT EMP_ID FROM EMPLOYEE;

Output

EMP_ID

To fetch the EMP_NAME and SALARY, use the following query:

1. SELECT EMP_NAME, SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE;

EMP_NAME SALARY

Kristen 150000

Russell 200000

Angelina 600000

Robert 350000

Christian 260000

To fetch all the fields from the EMPLOYEE table, use the following query:

1. SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE

Output

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY PHONE_NO SALARY

1 Kristen Chicago 9737287378 150000

2 Russell Austin 9262738271 200000

3 Angelina Denver 9232673822 600000

4 Robert Washington 9367238263 350000

5 Christian Los angels 7253847382 260000

SQL INSERT Statement

The SQL INSERT statement is used to insert a single or multiple data in a table. In SQL, You can
insert the data in two ways:

1. Without specifying column name

2. By specifying column name

Sample Table
EMPLOYEE
 EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

1. Without specifying column name

If you want to specify all column values, you can specify or ignore the column values.

Syntax

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .... Value N);

Query

1. INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES (6, 'Marry', 'Canada', 600000, 48);

2. Select * from employee;

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

 6 Marry Canada 600000 48

2. By specifying column name

To insert partial column values, you must have to specify the column names.

Syntax

1. INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME

2. [(col1, col2, col3,.... col N)]
3. VALUES (value1, value2, value 3, .... Value N);

Query

1. INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, AGE) VALUES (7, 'Jack', 40);

Output: After executing this query, the table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

7 Jack null null 40

SQL Update Statement

The SQL UPDATE statement is used to modify the data that is already in the database. The
condition in the WHERE clause decides that which row is to be updated.

Syntax

1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
3. WHERE condition;

Sample Table
EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Updating single record

Update the column EMP_NAME and set the value to 'Emma' in the row where SALARY is 500000.

Syntax

1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column_name = value
3. WHERE condition;

Query

1. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
2. SET EMP_NAME = 'Emma'
3. WHERE SALARY = 500000;

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

 1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Emma Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Updating multiple records

If you want to update multiple columns, you should separate each field assigned with a comma.
In the EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME to 'Kevin' and CITY to 'Boston' where
EMP_ID is 5.

Syntax

1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column_name = value1, column_name2 = value2
3. WHERE condition;

Query

1. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
2. SET EMP_NAME = 'Kevin', City = 'Boston'
3. WHERE EMP_ID = 5;
4. Output

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Kevin Boston 200000 36

 6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Without use of WHERE clause

If you want to update all row from a table, then you don't need to use the WHERE clause. In the
EMPLOYEE table, update the column EMP_NAME as 'Harry'.

Syntax

1. UPDATE table_name
2. SET column_name = value1;

Query

1. UPDATE EMPLOYEE
2. SET EMP_NAME = 'Harry';

Output

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Harry Chicago 200000 30

2 Harry Austin 300000 26

3 Harry Denver 100000 42

4 Harry Washington 500000 29

5 Harry Los angels 200000 36

6 Harry Canada 600000 48

SQL DELETE Statement

The SQL DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table. Generally, DELETE statement
removes one or more records form a table.

Syntax

1. DELETE FROM table_name WHERE some_condition;

 EMPLOYEE

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

4 Kristen Washington 500000 29

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Deleting Single Record

Delete the row from the table EMPLOYEE where EMP_NAME = 'Kristen'. This will delete only the
fourth row.

Query

1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

2. WHERE EMP_NAME = 'Kristen';

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

1 Angelina Chicago 200000 30

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

 Deleting Multiple Record
Delete the row from the EMPLOYEE table where AGE is 30. This will delete two rows(first and third
row).

Query

1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE AGE= 30;

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

2 Robert Austin 300000 26

3 Christian Denver 100000 42

5 Russell Los angels 200000 36

6 Marry Canada 600000 48

Delete all of the records

Delete all the row from the EMPLOYEE table. After this, no records left to display. The EMPLOYEE
table will become empty.

Syntax

1. DELETE * FROM table_name;

2. or
3. DELETE FROM table_name;

Query

1. DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;

Output: After executing this query, the EMPLOYEE table will look like:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY AGE

Views in SQL
 o Views in SQL are considered as a virtual table. A view also contains rows and columns.
o To create the view, we can select the fields from one or more tables present in the
database.
o A view can either have specific rows based on certain condition or all the rows of a table.

Student_Detail

STU_ID NAME ADDRESS

1 Stephan Delhi

2 Kathrin Noida

3 David Ghaziabad

4 Alina Gurugram

Student_Marks

STU_ID NAME MARKS AGE

1 Stephan 97 19

2 Kathrin 86 21

3 David 74 18

4 Alina 90 20

5 John 96 18

1. Creating view
A view can be created using the CREATE VIEW statement. We can create a view from a single
table or multiple tables.

Syntax:
1. CREATE VIEW view_name AS
2. SELECT column1, column2.....
3. FROM table_name
4. WHERE condition;

2. Creating View from a single table

In this example, we create a View named DetailsView from the table Student_Detail.

Query:

1. CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS

2. SELECT NAME, ADDRESS
3. FROM Student_Details
4. WHERE STU_ID < 4;

Just like table query, we can query the view to view the data.

1. SELECT * FROM DetailsView;

Output:

NAME ADDRESS

Stephan Delhi

Kathrin Noida

David Ghaziabad

3. Creating View from multiple tables

View from multiple tables can be created by simply include multiple tables in the SELECT
statement.

In the given example, a view is created named MarksView from two tables Student_Detail and
Student_Marks.

Query:

1. CREATE VIEW MarksView AS

2. SELECT Student_Detail.NAME, Student_Detail.ADDRESS, Student_Marks.MARKS
3. FROM Student_Detail, Student_Mark
4. WHERE Student_Detail.NAME = Student_Marks.NAME;
 To display data of View MarksView:

1. SELECT * FROM MarksView;

NAME ADDRESS MARKS

Stephan Delhi 97

Kathrin Noida 86

David Ghaziabad 74

Alina Gurugram 90

4. Deleting View
A view can be deleted using the Drop View statement.

Syntax

1. DROP VIEW view_name;

Example:

If we want to delete the View MarksView, we can do this as:

DROP VIEW MarksView;

SQL Index
o Indexes are special lookup tables. It is used to retrieve data from the database very fast.
o An Index is used to speed up select queries and where clauses. But it shows down the data
input with insert and update statements. Indexes can be created or dropped without
affecting the data.
o An index in a database is just like an index in the back of a book.
 o For example: When you reference all pages in a book that discusses a certain topic, you
first have to refer to the index, which alphabetically lists all the topics and then referred to
one or more specific page numbers.

1. Create Index statement

It is used to create an index on a table. It allows duplicate value.

Syntax

1. CREATE INDEX index_name

2. ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

Example

CREATE INDEX idx_name

ON Persons (LastName, FirstName);

2. Unique Index statement

It is used to create a unique index on a table. It does not allow duplicate value.

Syntax

1. CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

2. ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

Example

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX websites_idx

ON websites (site_name);

3. Drop Index Statement

It is used to delete an index in a table.

Syntax

1. DROP INDEX index_name;

Example

DROP INDEX websites_idx;

NULL
The SQL NULL is the term used to represent a missing value. A NULL value in a table is a value
in a field that appears to be blank.
A field with a NULL value is a field with no value. It is very important to understand that a NULL
value is different than a zero value or a field that contains spaces.

Syntax
The basic syntax of NULL while creating a table.
SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

Here, NOT NULL signifies that column should always accept an explicit value of the given data
type. There are two columns where we did not use NOT NULL, which means these columns
could be NULL.
A field with a NULL value is the one that has been left blank during the record creation.

Example
The NULL value can cause problems when selecting data. However, because when comparing
an unknown value to any other value, the result is always unknown and not included in the
results. You must use the IS NULL or IS NOT NULL operators to check for a NULL value.
Consider the following CUSTOMERS table having the records as shown below.
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Now, following is the usage of the IS NOT NULLoperator.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NOT NULL;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now, following is the usage of the IS NULL operator.
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NULL;

This would produce the following result −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+