SQL Notes

SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is used for storing and managing data in
Relational Database Management System (RDBMS).

 It is a standard language for Relational Database System. It enables a user to create, read,
update and delete relational databases and tables.
 All the RDBMS like MySQL, Informix, Oracle, MS Access and SQL Server use SQL
as their standard database language.
 SQL allows users to query the database in a number of ways, using English-like
statements.

SQL follows the following rules:

• Structure query language is not case sensitive. Generally, keywords of SQL are written in
uppercase.

• Statements of SQL are dependent on text lines. We can use a single SQL statement on one or
multiple text line.

• Using the SQL statements, you can perform most of the actions in a database.

• SQL depends on tuple relational calculus and relational algebra.

Advantages of SQL:

 High speed
 No coding needed
 Well defined standards
 Portability
 Interactive language
 Multiple data view
SQL Datatypes:
 SQL Datatype is used to define the values that a column can contain.
 Every column is required to have a name and data type in the database table.
SQL Commands:

• SQL commands are instructions. It is used to communicate with the database. It is also used to

perform specific tasks, functions, and queries of data.

• SQL can perform various tasks like create a table, add data to tables, drop the table, modify
the table, set permission for users.

Types of SQL Commands:

There are five types of SQL commands: DDL, DML, DCL, TCL, and DQL.

Data Definition Language (DDL):

DDL changes the structure of the table like creating a table, deleting a table, altering a
table, etc.
All the command of DDL are auto-committed that means it permanently save all the changes
in the database.

Here are some commands that come under DDL:

 CREATE
 ALTER
 DROP
 TRUNCATE
Data Definition Language (DDL):

1.CREATE:It is used to create a new table in the database.

CREATE TABLE TABLE_NAME (COLUMN_NAME DATATYPES [,....]);

Example:
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE
(
Name VARCHAR (20),
Email VARCHAR (100),
DOB DATE
);

2.Drop: It is used to delete both the structure and record stored in the table.

Syntax:
DROP TABLE;

Example:
DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

3.ALTER: It is used to alter the structure of the database. This change could be either to modify
the characteristics of an existing attribute or probably to add a new attribute.

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name COLUMN-definition;
ALTER TABLE MODIFY(COLUMN DEFINITION....);

Example:
ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS ADD(ADDRESS VARCHAR(20));
ALTER TABLE STU_DETAILS MODIFY (NAME VARCHAR(20));

4.TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space containing the
table.

Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE EMPLOYEE;
Data Manipulation Language:
DML commands are used to modify the database. It is responsible for all form of CHANGES
in the database.
The command of DML is not auto-committed that means it can't permanently save all the
changes in the database. They can be rollback.

Here are some commands that come under DML:

 INSERT
 UPDATE
 DELETE

1.INSERT: The INSERT statement is a SQL query. It is used to insert data into the row of a
table.

Syntax:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (col1, col2, col3,.... col N)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);
OR
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1, value2, value3, .... valueN);

Example:
INSERT INTO XYZ (Author, Subject) VALUES ("Sonoo", "DBMS");

2.UPDATE: This command is used to update or modify the value of a column in the table.

Syntax:
UPDATE table_name
SET [column_name1= value1,...column_nameN = valueN] [WHERE CONDITION]

Example:
UPDATE students
SET User_Name = 'Sonoo'
WHERE Student_Id = '3'
Data Control Language:
DCL commands are used to GRANT and TAKE BACK authority from any database user.

Here are some commands that come under DCL:

 Grant
 Revoke

GRANT: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.

Example:
GRANT SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE TO SOME_USER, ANOTHER_USER;

REVOKE: It is used to take back permissions from the user.

Example:
REVOKE SELECT, UPDATE ON MY_TABLE FROM USER1, USER2;

Transaction Control Language:

TCL commands can only use with DML commands like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE
only.
These operations are automatically committed in the database that's why they cannot be used
while creating tables or dropping them.

Here are some commands that come under TCL:

 COMMIT
 ROLLBACK
 SAVEPOINT

COMMIT: Commit command is used to save all the transactions to the database.

Syntax:
COMMIT;

Example:
DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE = 25; COMMIT;

ROLLBACK: Rollback command is used to undo transactions that have not already been saved
to the database.

Syntax:
ROLLBACK;

Example:
DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE AGE = 25; ROLLBACK;
SAVEPOINT: It is used to roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling back the
entire transaction.

Syntax:
SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

Data Query Language:

DQL is used to fetch the data from the database. It uses only one command: SELECT

SELECT: This is the same as the projection operation of relational algebra. It is used to select
the attribute based on the condition described by WHERE clause.

Syntax:
SELECT expressions FROM TABLES WHERE conditions;

Example:
SELECT emp_name FROM employee WHERE age > 20;

ORDER BY:

The ORDER BY clause sorts the result-set in ascending or descending order.

It sorts the records in ascending order by default. DESC keyword is used to sort the records in
descending order.

Syntax
SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name WHERE condition
ORDER BY column1, column2... ASC|DESC;