Chapter 4

Chapter 4
Transient Analysis
Main Goals
• Write differential equations in standard form for circuit containing inductors and capacitors.
• Determine the steady state DC circuits containing inductors and capacitors.
• Determine the complete solution of first-order and second-corder circuits excited by switched DC
sources.
The response of a time-dependent circuit includes the steady-state response (Chapter 3) and the transient
response.
State variables: capacitor voltage and inductor current
Objectives of transient analysis

• What are the initial conditions on the state variables at the moment of the transient event?
• What is the manner of the transition from the initial conditions to the final steady state of any variable?
• How fast or slow is that transition?
• What is the final steady state of any variable?
Two types of circuits:
• First-order RC and RL circuit
• Second-order circuit
Pre Knowledge
• In a DC steady-state, a capacitor acts as
an inductor acts as
• Transient event: t = 0 (the throwing of a switch)
• The Initial Steady State: determined by the behavior of the circuit for the time interval t < 0 (assume
a DC steady-state)
• The Final Steady State/ Long-Term Steady State x(∞): t gets very large (t → ∞)
• Transient Response: In between the initial and final steady states
• Initial Conditions: Only the state variables are guaranteed to be continuous across a transient event.
vC (0+ ) = vC (0− ) and iL (0+ ) = iL (0− )
n.b. Only state variables should be used to express initial conditions due to a transient event.
L
• Time constant τ = RT C or τ = : a measure of the speed of response of the circuit to a transient
RN
event
• Complete Response: Transient response (natural response) + Long-term steady state (forced response)
x(t) = xN (t) + xF (t) = [x(0+ ) − x(∞)] e−t/τ + x(∞) = x(0+ )e−t/τ + x(∞)(1 − e−t/τ )
c 2024 I-Fan Lin. All Rights Reserved. 1

Differential Equation of an RC Circuit

Differential Equation of an RL Circuit

First-Order Transient Analysis
First-Order System
• single state variable
• system energy the square of the state variable

• transient response is a decaying exponential function of time
Circuit Simplification for t > 0

First-order differential equation
dx(t)
τ + x(t) = KS f (t)
dt
First-order transient response
Set F = 0
dxtr (t)
τ + xtr (t) = 0
dt
Assume a solution:
Characteristic equation:
Transient response:
Long-term steady-state response

dxss (t)
τ + xss (t) = KS F
dt
Complete first-order response: transient response + long-term steady-state response
x(t) = xtr (t) + xss (t) = αe−t/τ + x(∞)

Example 1.
Determine the state variable vC (t) as a function of time for all t. Assume the switch was open for a very
long time prior to closing, such that the circuit is in a DC steady-state prior to the transient event at t = 0.
STEP 1: Find vC for t < 0

n.b The switch is open and the circuit is in a DC steady-state
=⇒ Capacitor acts as
=⇒ No current through R2
By KVL,
STEP 2: Find the initial condition on vC

Since the voltage across a capacitor is always continuous,
STEP 3: Simplify the circuit for t > 0

Two Thévenin sources
STEP 4: Find the differential equation

STEP 5: Find the transient solution
STEP 6: Find the long-term steady-state solution
STEP 7: Complete solution

vC (t) = (vC )tr + (vC )ss = αe−t/τ + VT
Initial condition: vC (0+ ) = V2 =⇒
Example 2.
A DC motor can be modeled approximately as an equivalent first-order series RL circuit. Find the complete
solution for iL . Assume R = 4Ω, L = 0.1H, and VB = 50V.
STEP 2: Find the initial condition on iL

The current through an inductor is always continuous

Apply KVL =⇒

Set the right side of the differential equation to zero
After the switch has been closed for a very long time, say t ≥ 5τ
iL (t) = (iL )tr + (iL )ss = αe−40t + 12.5 A
Apply the initial condition to find the unknown constant α

Example 3.
The circuit includes a switch that can be used to connect and disconnect a battery. The switch has been open
for a very long time. At t = 0 the switch closes, and then at t = 50ms the switch opens again. Determine
the capacitor voltage vC (t) as a function of time. Assume VB = 15V, R1 = R2 = 1000Ω, R3 = 500Ω, and
C = 25µF.
Consider 0 ≤ t < 50ms: The switch is closed.

STEP 1: DC steady-state responses
Assume the capacitor has been completely discharged through resistors R3 and R2 such that vC (0− ) =
0V.
STEP 2: Initial condition on vC (t)
STEP 3: Differential equation
STEP 4: Time constant
Consider t ≥ 50ms: The switch is open.
The capacitor discharges through the series combination of R2 and R3 .

Example 4.
Determine an expression for the capacitor voltage in the circuit. Assume vC (t = 0− ) = 5V, R = 1kΩ, C =
470µF, and VB = 12V.
For t < 0, the capacitor is not part of a closed loop =⇒
STEP 2: Find the initial condition on vC

Apply KVL

The capacitor acts like an open-circuit

Drill 1.
For t > 0, find the Norton equivalent network seen by the inductor
in the circuit. Use that result to determine the associated time
constant. Assume V1 = 12V, V2 = 5V, L = 3H, R1 = R2 = 2Ω, and
R3 = 4Ω.
Drill 2.
For t > 0, find the Thévenin equivalent network seen by the capacitor
in the circuit. Use that result to determine the associated time
constant. Assume R1 = 3Ω, R2 = 1Ω, R3 = 4Ω, C = 0.2F, and
IS = 3A.

Drill 3.
The inductor L in the circuit is the coil of a relay. When the current
iL through the coil is equal to or greater than 2 mA, the relay is
activated. Assume DC steady-state conditions at t < 0 and assume
VS = 12V, L = 10.9mH, and R1 = 3.1kΩ. Determine R2 so that the
relay activates 2.3 seconds after the switch is thrown.

Drill 4.
Determine the value of resistors R1 and R2 , knowing that the time
constant before the switch opens is 1.5 ms, and it is 10 ma after the
switch opens. Assume RS = 15kΩ, R3 = 30kΩ, and C = 1µF.

Second-Order Transient Analysis
• two irreducible storage elements: two state variables (two capacitors,
two inductors, or one capacitor and one inductor)
• The capacitor and inductor should be treated as a unified load.
• General second-order differential equation
1 d2 x 2ζ dx
+ + x = KS f (t) (1)
ωn2 dt2 ωn dt
ωn : natural frequency
ζ: dimensionless damping ratio
KS : DC gain of a particular variable x(t)
• Three distinct possible responses
- overdamped
- critically damped
- underdamped
Parallel LC Circuit
• Two state variables: iL and vC

• Apply KCL to find an equation in terms of both state variables.
vC
IN − − iL − iC = 0
RN
RN : Norton equivalent resistance seen by the LC load
• Apply KVL −→ vC = vL
d2 iL L diL
• Second-order differential equation: LC + + iL = IN
dt2 RN dt
• Alternative second-order differential equation by differentiating the
KCL equation

d2 vC L dvC
LC 2
+ + vC = 0
dt RN dt
• Compared to (1), we have
• Type of transient response for iL and vC depends on ζ only.

ζ > 1: overdamped
ζ = 0: critically damped
ζ < 1: underdamped
• iL (t) = (iL )tr + (iL )ss =
• vC (t) = (vC )tr + (vC )ss =
Series LC Circuit
• Apply KVL to find an equation in terms of two state variables iL

and vC .
VT − iL RT − vC − vL = 0
RT : Thévenin equivalent resistance seen by the LC load

• apply KCL −→ iC = iL
d2 vC dvC
• Second-order differential equation: LC + RT C + vC = VT
dt2 dt

• Alternative second-order differential equation by differentiating the
KVL equation
d2 iL diL
LC + RT C + iL = 0
dt2 dt
• Compared to (1), we have
• vC (t) = (vC )tr + (vC )ss =
• iL (t) = (iL )tr + (iL )ss =
Transient Response
Let the right side of (1) equal to zero. Then,
1 d2 xtr 2ζ dxtr
2 2
+ + xtr = 0
ωn dt ωn dt
Characteristic equation:
1p p
The solutions are s = −ζωn ± (2ζωn )2 − 4ωn2 = −ωn ζ± ζ 2 − 1
2

À Overdamped Response (ζ > 1)
• Two distinct, negative, and real roots (s1 , s2 )
p
• s1, 2 = ωn − ζ ± ζ 2 − 1
√
ωn ζ 2 −1 t
• general solution: xtr (t) = α1 es1 t +α2 es2 t = e−ζωn t α1 e +
√ !
−ωn ζ 2 −1 t
α2 e
Á Critically Damped Response (ζ = 1)

• Two identical, negative, and real roots (s1 , s2 )
• s1, 2 = −ζωn = −ωn

• general solution: xtr (t) = α1 es1 t + α2 es2 t = e−ωn t (α1 + α2 t)
Â Underdamped Response (ζ < 1)

• Two complex conjugate roots (s1 , s2 )
p
• s1, 2 = ωn − ζ ± j 1 − ζ 2

• general solution: xtr (t) = e−ζωn t α1 sin(ωd t) + α2 cos(ωd t)
p
ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 : damped natural frequency
Long-Term Steady-State Response
1 d2 xSS 2ζ dxSS
+ + xSS = KS F
ωn2 dt2 ωn dt
Complete Response: transient + long-term steady-state response

Example 5. Underdamped Parallel LC Circuit
Find the natural frequency, ωn , the dimensionless damping coeffi-
cient, ζ, and the form of the transient response of iL (t) in the circuit.
Assume R1 = R2 = 8kΩ, C = 10µF, and L = 1H.

The inductor will act as short-circuit and capacitor will act as open-circuit as t −→ ∞.
The long-term DC steady-states for each state variable are

STEP 2: Differential equation
Applying KCL
Applying KVL
STEP 3: Solve for ωn and ζ
STEP 4: The transient response xtr (t)
STEP 5: The complete solution x(t)
STEP 6: Solve for the unknown constants α1 and α2

Example 6. Overdamped Series LC Circuit
Determine the complete response for the inductor current iL .
Assume VS = 25V, R = 5kΩ, C = 1µF, and L = 1H, and vC (0) = 5V.

For t < 0, the switch is open =⇒ iC = iL = 0A.
For t −→ ∞
STEP 2: Different equation for t > 0
Applying KVL
Applying KCL
STEP 3: Solve for ωn and ζ for t < 0

The initial conditions are vC (0+ ) = vC (0− ) = 5V and iL (0+ ) = iL (0− ) = 0A.

Example 7. Critically Damped Parallel LC Circuit
Determine the complete response for the voltage vC . Assume IS = 5A,
R = RS = 500Ω, C = 2µF, and L = 500mH. Assume that the network is
in a DC steady-state prior to t = 0.

For t < 0, the switch is open. =⇒ vC (0− ) = 0V and iL (0− ) = 0A.
For t −→ ∞, the switch is closed. =⇒ iL (∞) = IS and vC (∞) = 0.
Applying KCL
Applying KVL

Example 8. Underdamped Series LC Circuit
Determine the complete response for the current iL . Assume VS = 12V,
R = 200Ω, C = 10µF, L = 0.5H, and vC (0− ) = vc (0+ ) = 2V. Assume
that the capacitor has an initial charge such that vC (0− ) = vC (0+ ) = 2V.

For t < 0, the switch is open. =⇒ iC = iL = 0A, and vC = 2V.
For t −→ ∞, the switch is closed. =⇒ iC = iL = 0 and vL = 0.
By KVL,

Applying KVL
Applying KCL


Drill 5.
For t > 0, determine the current iL through the inductor and the
voltage vC across the capacitor in the circuit. Assume vS = −1V
for t < 0 but is reversed to vS = 1V for t > 0. Also assume R =
10Ω, L = 5mH, C = 100µF, and the circuit was in DC steady-state
prior to when the source was reversed.

Drill 6.
Determine whether the circuit is overdamped or underdamped for
t > 0. Assume VS = 15V, R = 200Ω, L = 20mH, and C = 0.1µF.
Determine the capacitance that results in critical damping.

Drill 7.
For t > 0, determine the time t at which i = 2.5A. Assume DC
steady-state for t < 0.

EXERCISES
*All the figures are from Principles and Applications of Electrical
Engineering, Giorgio Rizzoni.
Exercise 1.
For t > 0, find the Norton equivalent network seen by the inductor in the
circuit. Use that result to determine the associated time constant. Assume
VS1 = 9V, VS2 = 12V, L = 120mH, R1 = 2.2Ω, R2 = 4.7Ω, and R3 = 18kΩ.
Ans: RN = 18kΩ, IN = 0.66mA, τ = 6.67µs
Exercise 2.
For t > 0, find the Thévenin equivalent network seen by the capacitor in the
circuit. Use that result to determine the associated time constant. Assume
RS = 8kΩ, VS = 40V, C = 350µF, and R = 24kΩ.
Ans: RT = 6kΩ, τ = 2.1s
Exercise 3.
Determine the current iC through the capacitor in the circuit for all time.
Assume DC steady-state conditions for t < 0. Also assume V1 = 10V, C =
200µF, R1 = 300mΩ, and R2 = R3 = 1.2kΩ.
Ans: iC (t) = 0mA for t ≤ 0, 8.3e−t/0.24 mA for t > 0
Exercise 4.
Assume VS = 100V, RS = 4kΩ, R1 = 2kΩ, R2 = R3 = 6kΩ, C = 1µF, and the
circuit is in a steady-state condition before the switch opens. Find the value of
vC at t = 83 ms after the switch opens.
Ans: vC (t0 + 38 ) = 8.888V

Exercise 5.
The analogy between electrical and thermal systems can be used to analyze
the behavior of a pot heating on an electric stove. The heating element is
modeled as shown in the picture. Find the “heat capacity” of the burner, CS ,
if the burner reaches 90 percent of the desired temperature in 10s. Assume
RS = 1.5Ω.
Ans: CS = 2.9F
Exercise 6.
Determine the time constants when the switch is open and when it is closed.
Ans: τopen = 4.005m sec, τclosed = 5µ sec

Exercise 7.
Assume the switch in the circuit has been closed for a very long time. It is
suddenly opened at t = 0 and then reclosed at t = 5s. Determine the current
iL through the inductor, the voltage vC across the capacitor, and the voltage
v across the 2Ω resistor for t > 0.

Ans: iL (t) = 2 + e−0.042(t−5) − 3.64 cos(0.22(t − 5)) + 1.78 sin(0.22(t − 5)) A
Exercise 8.
For t < 0, assume the circuit is in DC steady-state. Assume VS = 15V,
R = 200Ω, L = 20mH, and C = 0.1µF. If the switch is thrown at t = 0, find
the initial capacitor voltage vC at t = 0+ , capacitor voltage vC at t = 20µs.
Ans:
vC = 15V, vC (t = 20µs) = e−0.1 15 cos(0.436) + 3.44 sin(0.436) = 13.6V

Exercise 9.
For t > 0, determine the time t at which i = 6A in the circuit, assuming DC
steady-state for t0 .
Ans: t0 = 694m sec

Exercise 10.
F ort > 0, determine v in the circuit, assuming DC steady-state for t < 0.

Ans: v(t) − e−1.01t 9.68 sin(1.66t) + 8 cos(1.66t)
Exercise 11.
The switch in the circuit closes at t = 0. Assume a DC steady-state for t < 0
and VS = 12V, R1 = 2.3kΩ, R2 = 7kΩ, C = 130µF, and L = 30mH. Determine
the current iL through the inductor and the voltage vC across the capacitor for
t > 0.
Ans: iL (∞) = 1.29mA, vC (∞) = 9.03V

Exercise 12.
The switch in the circuit closes at t = 0. Assume a DC steady-state for t < 0
and VS = 12V, RS = 100Ω, R1 = 31kΩ, R2 = 22kΩ, C = 0.5µF, and L =
0.9mH. Determine the current i1 through R1 and the voltage v2 across R2 for
t > 0.
Ans: i1 = 0A, v2 = 0V

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State variables: capacitor voltage and inductor current

Objectives of transient analysis

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• system energy the square of the state variable

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First-order transient response

Long-term steady-state response

Complete first-order response: transient response + long-term steady-state response

x(t) = xtr (t) + xss (t) = αe−t/τ + x(∞)

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STEP 1: Find vC for t < 0

STEP 2: Find the initial condition on vC

STEP 3: Simplify the circuit for t > 0

STEP 4: Find the differential equation

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STEP 6: Find the long-term steady-state solution

STEP 7: Complete solution

STEP 1: Find vC for t < 0

STEP 2: Find the initial condition on iL

STEP 3: Simplify the circuit for t > 0

STEP 4: Find the differential equation

STEP 5: Find the transient solution

STEP 6: Find the long-term steady-state solution

Apply the initial condition to find the unknown constant α

c 2024 I-Fan Lin. All Rights Reserved. 7

Consider 0 ≤ t < 50ms: The switch is closed.

STEP 2: Initial condition on vC (t)

STEP 3: Differential equation

STEP 4: Time constant

STEP 5: Complete solution

Consider t ≥ 50ms: The switch is open.

The capacitor discharges through the series combination of R2 and R3 .

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STEP 1: Find vC for t < 0

For t < 0, the capacitor is not part of a closed loop =⇒

STEP 2: Find the initial condition on vC

STEP 3: Simplify the circuit for t > 0

STEP 4: Find the differential equation

STEP 5: Find the transient solution

STEP 6: Find the long-term steady-state solution

STEP 7: Complete solution

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• Two state variables: iL and vC

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• Type of transient response for iL and vC depends on ζ only.

• vC (t) = (vC )tr + (vC )ss =

• Apply KVL to find an equation in terms of two state variables iL

RT : Thévenin equivalent resistance seen by the LC load

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• vC (t) = (vC )tr + (vC )ss =

• iL (t) = (iL )tr + (iL )ss =

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Á Critically Damped Response (ζ = 1)