Chapter 3

Chapter 3
AC Network Analysis
Main Goals
• Compute current, voltage, and energy of capacitors and inductors.
• Calculate the average and root-mean-square value of an arbitrary periodic waveform.
• Convert time-domain sinusoidal voltages and currents to phasor notation, and represent circuits using
impedances.
• Apply DC circuit analysis methods to AC circuits in phasor form.
Energy Storage Elements

• capacitors and inductors (require time to charge and discharge)
• AC circuits: Contain time-dependent sinusoidal voltage and current sources

• DC circuits: only constant sources
• Phasor analysis can convert differential equations into algebraic equations (easier to solve).
• Impedance elements: resistors, capacitors, and inductors
Apply KVL to obtain:
n.b. state variable
i − v relationships for the resistor and capacitor:
c 2024 I-Fan Lin. All Rights Reserved. 1

dvc 1 1
+ vc = vs
dt RC RC
n.b. First-order, linear, ODE.
The differential equation for vR :

dvR 1 dvs
+ vR =
dt RC dt
The solution has two parts:

• Steady-state solution: Euler’s formula
• Transient solution: Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems

n.b. In a linear circuit with a sinusoidal source, all voltages and currents sinusoids are at the same frequency
as the source.
The Ideal Capacitor

• Store energy in electric field between two conducting plates.
kε0 A
• Capacitance C = , where ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m, the permittivity constant of a vacuum
d
dvC (t)
• i − v relation for capacitor: iC (t) = C
dt
n.b. A capacitor in a DC circuit = an open-circuit.

• Equivalent capacitance:
C1 C2
- Two capacitors in series: Ceq =
C1 + C2

- Two capacitors in parallel: Ceq = C1 + C2
dvC (t)
• Power: PC (t) = iC (t)vC (t) = C vC (t) =
dt
Z
• Energy: WC (t) = PC (τ )dτ =
Example 1.
Find the energy stored in the capacitor for all time. Assume R = 2Ω and
C = 0.1F. Also, let 
0V,
 −∞ < t < 0,
v(t) = tV, 0 ≤ t < 10s,

10V, 10s ≤ t < ∞.


Drill 1.
Find the energy delivered by thesource for all time. Assume R = 2Ω

 0V, −∞ < t < 0,

and C = 0.1F. Also, let v(t) = tV, 0 ≤ t < 10s,


10V, 10s ≤ t < ∞.


The Ideal Inductor
• Store energy in magnetic field within and around a conducting coil.
NΦ
• Inductance L = , where Φ is the magnetic flux and iL is the current through the inductor coil.
iL
• Unit: Henrys (H)
1H = 1 V-s/A
diL (t)
• i − v relation for inductor: vL (t) = L
dt
n.b. An inductor in a DC circuit = a short-circuit.

• Equivalent inductance:
- Two inductors in series: Leq = L1 + L2
L1 L2
- Two inductors in parallel:Leq =
L1 + L2
diL (t)
• Power: PL (t) = iL (t)vL (t) = iL (t)L =
dt
Z
• Energy: WL (t) = PL (τ )dτ =

Example 2.
Find the energy stored in the inductor for all time. Assume R = 1Ω and
L = 2H. Also, let 
0A,
 −∞ < t < 0,
i(t) = tA, 0 ≤ t < 10s,

10A, 10s ≤ t < ∞.


Drill 2.
Find the energy delivered by the source in the inductor for all time. As-
sume R = 1Ω and L = 2H. Also, let

0A,
 −∞ < t < 0,
i(t) = tA, 0 ≤ t < 10s,

10A, 10s ≤ t < ∞.


Example 3.
Assume DC steady-state conditions and find the energy in each capacitor and inductor in the circuit.

Drill 3.
Assume DC steady-state conditions and find the energy stored in each capacitor and inductor in the circuit.

Time Dependent Waveform
Time-dependent periodic waveforms
x(t) = x(t + nT ) n = 1, 2, 3, · · · ,
where T is the period of x(t).
n.b. 60-Hz sinusoidal voltage waveform for households and streets power
A generalized sinusoid is defined as

x(t) = A cos(ωt + φ),
where A is the peak amplitude, ω the angular frequency, and φ the phase angle.
Z T
1
• Average or mean value: x(t) = x(τ )dτ
T 0
n.b. The average of a sinusoid is zero. A cos(ωt + φ) = 0.

s
1 T 2
Z
• Effective or Root-Mean-Square value: xrms = x (τ )dτ
T 0
2
2 Veff
• Average power: Pavg = Ieff R=
R
n.b. The rms value of an AC source is the DC value that produces the same average power dissipated by a
resistive load.

Phasor Solution of Circuits with Sinusoidal Sources
A sinusoidal signal can be represented as a real function in the time domain
v(t) = A cos(ωt + φ)
or as a complex function in the frequency domain
V (jω) = Aej(ωt+φ) = Aejφ ejωt ,
where A is the peak amplitude and φ is the phase shift relative to a reference sinusoid.
n.b. A phase shift in the frequency domain = A delay in the time domain
Euler’s Formula and Phasors

ejθ = cos θ + j sin θ
• |ejθ |2 = cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
π
• ej 2 = 1∠ π2 = j
• Aejθ = A∠θ = A cos θ + jA sin θ: Phasor notation
• A cos(ωt + θ) = Re(Aej(ωt+θ) )
V |V |
• =
I |I|

V
• ∠ = ∠V − ∠I
I

−1 Im(A)
• ∠A = tan
Re(A)

Impedance
Generalized Ohm’s Law
V = IZ,
where Z is impedance.
n.b. The impedance Z for a specific network of resistors, capacitors, and inductors is determined by the
V
definition of impedance: Z =
I
• Impedance of a Resistor
– Ohm’s law: vR (t) = iR (t)R

– In phasor form: V R ejωt = I R rjωt R, where V R = VR ejθV
and I R = IR ejθI
VR
– V R = I R R, so Z R ≡ =R
IR
n.b. The impedance of a resistor is a real number (magnitude R
and a zero phase).
– No time delay
• Impedance of an Inductor
diL (t)
– vL (t) = L
dt
– iL (t) = IL cos(ωt + θ)
d
– iL (t) = −IL ω sin(ωt + θ) = IL ω cos(ωt + θ + π/2)
dt

= Re IL ωejπ/2 ej(ωt+θ) =
VL
– V L = L(jω)I L , so Z L ≡ = jωL = ωL∠ π2
IL
n.b. At low frequencies =⇒ short circuit

At high frequencies =⇒ open circuit
• Impedance of a Capacitor
dvC (t)
– iC (t) = C
dt
– vC (t) = VC cos(ωt + θ)
d
– vC (t) = −VC ω sin(ωt + θ) = VC ω cos(ωt + θ + π/2)
dt

= Re VC ωejπ/2 ej(ωt+θ) =
VC 1 −j 1 −π
– I C = C(jω)V C , so Z C ≡ = = = ∠
IC jωC ωC ωC 2
n.b. At low frequencies =⇒ open circuit
At high frequencies =⇒ short circuit

Example 4.
Find the equivalent impedance of the circuit, where ω = 104 rad/s.
Example 5.
Determine the equivalent impedance seen by the voltage source vS . Assume vS (t) = 10 cos(4000t + 60◦ )V,
R1 = 800Ω, R2 = 500Ω, L = 200mH, and C = 70nF.

Drill 4.
Determine the equivalent impedance seen by the voltage source vS in Example 5.
Assume vS (t) = 5 cos(1000t + 30◦ )V, R1 = 300Ω, R2 = 300Ω, L = 100mH, and C = 50nF.

Example 6.
Use phasor techniques to solve for the current i(t) in the circuit.
Drill 5.
Use phasor techniques to solve for the voltage v(t) in the circuit.

Example 7.
Find vout shown in the circuit.
Drill 6.
Find the impedance Z shown in the circuit. Assume ω = 2 rad/s,
R1 = R2 = 2Ω, C = 0.25F, and L = 1H.

Example 8.
Find the sinusoidal steady-state output vout shown in the circuit.
Drill 7.
Drill 8.

Example 9.
Find the frequency that causes the equivalent impedance Z eq in the circuit to be purely resistive.
Drill 9.
Find the equivalent impedance Z o seen by the voltage source in the
circuit. Assume the frequency is 377 rad/s.

AC Circuit Analysis
• Phasors and impedance simplify AC circuit analysis.
• Allow use of same solution methods as DC circuits.
• Steps in AC circuit analysis

1. Convert all sources to phasor form.
2. Use the excitation frequency to determine the impedance of each circuit element.
3. Apply DC circuit analysis solution methods.
4. Convert phasor solution to its time-domain form.
AC Equivalent Circuit
• Thévenin’s or Norton’s theorem can be used to simplify the source network.
• Impedances in series:
• Impedances in parallel:

• Example of reduction of AC circuit to equivalent form

Example 10.
Apply the phasor analysis method to the circuit to determine the source current. Assume R1 = 50Ω, R2 =
200Ω, vS (t) = 10 cos(ωt)V, ω = 377 rad/s, and C = 100µF.

Example 11.
The fundamental electrical characteristics of electric motors can be approximated by a series RL circuit. In
this problem, a voltage source provides current to two different motors. Find the motor load currents i1 (t)
and i2 (t). Assume RS = 0.5Ω, R1 = 2Ω, R2 = 0.2Ω, L1 = 0.1H, L2 = 20mH, vS (t) = 155 cos(337t)V.

Example 12.
Compute the voltages v1 (t) and v2 (t) in the circuit, where iS (t) = 0.5 cos 2π(100t) A and vS (t) = 20 cos 2π(1000t) V.

Example 13.
Compute the Thévenin equivalent network seen by the load Z o in the circuit, where Z 1 = 5Ω, Z 2 = j20Ω,
and vs (t) = 110 cos(377t)V.

Example 14.
Determine the Thévenin equivalent network seen by the load Ro in the circuit when the input sinusoidal
voltage is at a frequency of 103 Hz, where RS = RO = 50Ω, C = 0.1µF, and L = 10mH.

Example 15.
Determine the currents i1 (t) and i2 (t) in the circuit, using the mesh current method. Assume R1 =
100Ω, R2 = 75Ω, C = 1µF, L = 0.5H, and vS (t) = 15 cos(1500t)V.

Drill 10.
Determine the voltage v2 (t) across R2 in the circuit. Assume i(t) =
20 cos(533.33t)A, R1 = 8Ω, R2 = 16Ω, L = 15mH, and C = 117µF.
Drill 11.
Solve for I 1 in the circuit. Assume I = 20∠ −π
4 A, R =
3Ω, Z 1 = −j3Ω, Z 2 = −j7Ω.

Drill 12.
Determine the voltage vL (t) across the inductor shown in the circuit.
Drill 13.
Use phasor techniques to solve for iL in the circuit. Assume R =
5Ω, C = 2mF, L = 2mH, and i1 (t) = i2 (t) = 5 cos(500t)A.

Drill 14.
Determine the Thévenin equivalent network seen by the load Ro .
Assume RS = Ro = 500Ω, L = 10mH, R = 1kΩ, and vS (t) = 10 cos(1000t).
Drill 15.
Use the node voltage method to determine the node voltage va (t)
and vb (t). Assume i(t) = 2 cos(300t)A, v(t) = 7 cos(300t + π/4)V,
R1 = 4Ω, R2 = 3Ω, R3 = 5Ω, L = 300mH, and C = 300µF.

Drill 16.
Determine the Norton equivalent network seen by the capacitor.
Use the result and current division to find iC (t). Assume vS (t) =
4 cos(100t)V, R1 = 7Ω, R2 = 8Ω, L = 30mH, and C = 10µF.

EXERCISES
*All the figures are from Principles and Applications of Electrical Engineering, Giorgio Rizzoni.
Exercise 1.
Find the energy stored in the capacitor for all time and the energy de-
livered by the source for all time. Assume R = 4Ω and C = 0.2F. Also,
let 

0 V, −∞ < t < 0,

4 + (t − 4) V, 0 ≤ t < 4 s,
v(t) =


1 − 0.5(t − 10) V, 4 ≤ t < 10 s,
1 V, t > 10 s.

Ans: wC (t) = 0 for −∞ < t < 0,

wC (t) = 0.05t2 J for 0 ≤ t < 10s, wC (t) = 5J for 10s ≤ t < ∞
Exercise 2.
Find the energy stored in the inductor for all time and the energy delivered by
the source for all time. Assume R = 2Ω and L = 4H. Also, let

0 A,
 −∞ < t < 0,

10 + 2(t − 5) A, 0 ≤ t < 5 s,
i(t) =
2 − 2(t − 9) A,
 5 ≤ t < 9 s,

2 A, 9 s ≤ t < ∞.

Ans: wL (t) = 0
for −∞ < t < 0, wL (t) = t2 J for 0 ≤ t < 10s, wL (t) = 100J for 10s ≤ t < ∞
Exercise 3.
Determine i2 (t) in the circuit. Assume i1 (t) = 100 cos(ωt + 4)mA, i3 (t) =
80 sin(ωt − 1.2)mA, i4 (t) = 150 sin(ωt + 2)mA, and ω = 377 rad/s.
Ans: i2 (t) = 100 cos(ωt + 4) − 80 sin(ωt − 1.2) − 150 sin(ωt + 2)

Exercise 4.
Find the sinusoidal steady-state output vout (t) for the circuit.
Ans: vout = 50 sin(100t)V

Exercise 5.
What capacitance should be placed between terminal a and b in the circuit to
make the equivalent impedance Z o purely resistive?
1 + j5
Ans: zL = , C = 510.1µF
1 − 1885C + J377C
Exercise 6.
Determine the frequency so that the current I i and the voltage V o in the
circuit are in phase. Assume Z S = 13000 + jω3Ω, R = 120Ω, L = 19mH, and
C = 220µF.
Ans: ω = 489.1k rad/s
Exercise 7.
Solve for V R . Assume ω = 3 rad/s, V S = 13∠0V, R = 15Ω, L1 = 7H, and
L2 = 2H.
Ans: VR = 6.31∠ − 63◦ V
Exercise 8.
Find the current iR (t) through the resistor.
Ans: iR (t) = 157 cos(200πt + 99.04◦ )mA

Exercise 9.
Determine the Norton equivalent network seen by the capacitor in the circuit.
Use the result and current division to find iC (t). Assume i(t) = 0.5 cos(300t)A,
R1 = R2 = 40Ω, L1 = L2 = 200mH, and C = 15µF.
Ans: ic (t) = 0.0934 cos(300t + 270.74)A

Exercise 10.
Use phasor techniques to solve for iL (t). Assume vS (t) = 2 cos(2t)V, R1 =
R2 = 4Ω, L = 2H, and C = 0.25F.
Ans: iL (t) = 0/2635 cos(2t − 71.6◦ )A

Exercise 11.
Use the mesh current method to determine the currents i1 (t) and i2 (t). Assume
V 1 = 10e−j40 V, V 2 = 12ej40 V, R1 = 8Ω, R2 = 4Ω, R3 = 6Ω, ZL = 10Ω, and
ZC = −j14Ω.
Ans: I1 = 0.4338 + j0.6525, I2 = −0.6280 + j0.1177

Exercise 12.
Find the Thévenin equivalent network seen by the capacitor C. Use the result
and voltage division to determine vC (t). Assume v(t) = cos(300t)V, i(t) =
2 cos(300t)A, R1 = R2 = 8Ω, L = 3µH, and C = 5µF.
Ans: vc (t) = 8.49 cos(300t − 0.34◦ )V

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Energy Storage Elements

• AC circuits: Contain time-dependent sinusoidal voltage and current sources

• Impedance elements: resistors, capacitors, and inductors

Apply KVL to obtain:

n.b. state variable

i − v relationships for the resistor and capacitor:

c 2024 I-Fan Lin. All Rights Reserved. 1

n.b. First-order, linear, ODE.

The differential equation for vR :

The solution has two parts:

• Transient solution: Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems

The Ideal Capacitor

n.b. A capacitor in a DC circuit = an open-circuit.

c 2024 I-Fan Lin. All Rights Reserved. 2

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n.b. An inductor in a DC circuit = a short-circuit.

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where T is the period of x(t).

A generalized sinusoid is defined as

n.b. The average of a sinusoid is zero. A cos(ωt + φ) = 0.

c 2024 I-Fan Lin. All Rights Reserved. 10

or as a complex function in the frequency domain

V (jω) = Aej(ωt+φ) = Aejφ ejωt ,

Euler’s Formula and Phasors

• |ejθ |2 = cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

• Aejθ = A∠θ = A cos θ + jA sin θ: Phasor notation

c 2024 I-Fan Lin. All Rights Reserved. 11

– Ohm’s law: vR (t) = iR (t)R

n.b. At low frequencies =⇒ short circuit

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• Steps in AC circuit analysis

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Ans: wC (t) = 0 for −∞ < t < 0,

Ans: i2 (t) = 100 cos(ωt + 4) − 80 sin(ωt − 1.2) − 150 sin(ωt + 2)

Ans: vout = 50 sin(100t)V

c 2024 I-Fan Lin. All Rights Reserved. 31