Circuit Theory

(ECEG-1081)

Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT)
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Instructor: Awraris Getachew
 Chapter Four
First and Second Order Circuits
Outlines
 Capacitors and Inductors
Series and Parallel Connection
First Order Circuit
Source Free RC and RL Circuits
Step Response of RC and RL circuits
Second Order Circuits
Source Free Series RLC and Parallel RLC Circuits
Step responses of series and parallel RLC Circuits

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Capacitors
 A capacitor is a passive element designed to
store energy in its electric field.

Fig. A typical capacitor  Fig. A capacitor with applied voltage

 A capacitor consists of two conducting plates

separated by an insulator (or dielectric).
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Capacitors…
 Capacitance C is the ratio of the charge q on
one plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference
v between the two plates, measured in farads
(F).

qC v  A
and C
d

Where  is the permittivity of the dielectric material

between the plates, A is the surface area of each plate, d is
the distance between the plates.
Unit of Capacitance is Farad(F): F, pF (10–12), nF (10–9), and
F (10–6)
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Capacitors…

Circuit symbols for capacitors:

(a) Fixed capacitor, (b) Variable capacitor

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 Capacitors…
If i is flowing into the +ve terminal of C
 Charging => i is +ve
 Discharging => i is –ve

The current-voltage relationship of capacitor according

to above convention is:

dq dv 1
i iC t

dt dt
v
C 
t0
i d t  v(t0 )

 Where is the voltage across the capacitor at time

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Capacitors…
 The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is

 • The energy, , stored in the capacitor is therefore

1  
𝑞 2
w  C v2
2 𝑊=
 A capacitor is 2𝐶
‒ an open circuit to dc (dv/dt = 0).
‒ its voltage cannot change abruptly.
Voltage across a capacitor:
(a) allowed,
(b) not allowable; an abrupt
change is not possible. 7
Capacitors…
Example
   1

The current through a 100-F capacitor is

Calculate the voltage across it at .

Assume that the initial capacitor voltage is zero.

i.e

Answers
 

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Capacitors…
Example
   2
An initially uncharged 1-mF capacitor has the
current shown below across it.
Calculate the voltage across it at and

Answers
 

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Series and Parallel Capacitors
 The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-
connected capacitors is the sum of the individual
capacitances.
Note that the capacitors have the same voltage across
them. Applying KCL the figure given below.

But Hence ,
+ …+
Where

Ceq  C1  C2  C3  ...  C N

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Series and Parallel Capacitors
The
  equivalent capacitance of N series-
connected capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances
 Note that the same current i flows through the capacitors. Applying
KVL to the loop

𝑡
 
1
𝑣= ∫ 𝑖 (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡+¿ 𝑣 (𝑡 𝑜)¿
𝐶 𝑒𝑞 𝑡𝑜

1 1 1 1
   ... 
C eq C1 C 2 CN
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Series and Parallel Capacitors
Example 3
Find the equivalent capacitance seen at the
terminals of the circuit in the circuit shown below:

Answer
 

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Series and Parallel Capacitors
Example 4
Find the voltage across each of the capacitors in the
circuit shown below:

 Answers ,

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Inductors
 An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy
in its magnetic field.
 Any conductor of electric current has inductive properties and may
be regarded as an inductor

Fig. Typical form of an

inductor.
Fig. Various types of Inductors

 An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.

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Inductors
 Inductance(L) is the property whereby an inductor
exhibits opposition to the change of current flowing
through it, measured in henrys (H).

di N2  A
vL and L
dt l
 
where N is the number of turns, is the
length, A is the cross-sectional area,
and is the permeability of the core.

The unit of inductors is Henry (H), mH (10–3) and H

(10–6).
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Inductors
 The current-voltage relationship of an inductor:

1 t
i
L t0
v (t ) d t  i (t 0 )

• The Energy stored by an inductor:

1
w  L i2
2 Circuit Symbol for
an Inductor
• An inductor acts like a short circuit to dc (di/dt = 0)
and its current cannot change abruptly.
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Inductors
Example
   5
The terminal voltage of a 2H inductor is

Find the current flowing through it at

t = 4 s and the energy stored in it
within 0 < t < 4 s.

Assume

 Answers ,

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 Inductors…
Example
   6

Determine and the energy stored in the capacitor

and inductor in the circuit shown below under dc
conditions.

Answers
 
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Series and Parallel Inductors
 The equivalent inductance of series-connected
inductors is the sum of the individual inductances.
The inductors have the same current through
them. Applying KVL to the loop for the fig. 1:

 𝑣 =𝑣 1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣 3 + …+𝑣 𝑁
 Substituting results in
Fig. 1
(a) A series connection of N inductors

(b) equivalent circuit for the series

inductors 19
Series and Parallel Inductors
 The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the
individual inductances.
 The inductors have the same voltage across
them. Using KCL,

But

Therefore

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Current and Voltage relationship for R, L, C

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First-Order Circuits
 A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order
differential equation.

Two ways to excite the first order circuits:-

 Using source-free circuits
 By independent sources

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The Source-Free RC Circuit
• A source-free RC circuit occurs when its dc source is
suddenly disconnected.
• The energy already stored in the capacitor is released
to the resistors

By KCL
v dv
iR  iC  0 C 0
R dt

Ohms law Capacitor law

• Apply Kirchhoff’s laws to purely resistive circuit results in

algebraic equations.
• Apply the laws to RC and RL circuits produces differential
equations.
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The Source-Free RC Circuit…
 

Solving for we get;

 Voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential

decay of the initial voltage

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The Source-Free RC Circuit…
 The natural response of a circuit refers to the behavior (in
terms of voltages and currents) of the circuit itself, with no
external sources of excitation.

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for the

response to decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
• v decays faster for small t and slower for large t.

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The Source-Free RC Circuit…
 With the voltage we can find the current

• The power dissipated in the resistor is

• The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is

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 The Source-Free RC Circuit…
Example 1
Refer to the circuit below, determine vC, vx, and io
for t ≥ 0.
Assume that vC(0) = 30 V.

Answers:
  = 30e–0.25t V ; = 10e–0.25t ; io = –2.5e–0.25t A

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The Source-Free RC Circuit…
Example 2
The switch in circuit below is opened at t = 0, find
v(t) for t ≥ 0.

Answer: V(t) = 8e–2t V

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The Source-Free RL Circuit
 A first-order RL circuit consists of a inductor L
(or its equivalent) and a resistor (or its
equivalent)
By KVL vL  vR  0
di
L  iR  0
dt

Inductors law Ohms law

di R
  dt i (t )  I 0 e  R t / L
i L
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The Source-Free RL Circuit…
A general form representing a RL
circuit is
t / 
i (t )  I e
0

L
where 
R

• The time constant  of a circuit is the time required for the response to
decay by a factor of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value.
• i(t) decays faster for small t and slower for large t.
• The general form is very similar to a RC source-free circuit.
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The Source-Free RL Circuit…

 The voltage across the resistor becomes

• The power dissipated in the resistor is

The energy absorbed by the resistor is ;

where
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The Source-Free RL Circuit…
Comparison between a RL and RC circuit

A RL source-free circuit A RC source-free circuit

L
i (t )  I 0 e  t /  where  v(t )  V0 e  t / where   RC
R

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The Source-Free RL Circuit
The key to working with a source-free RL
circuit is finding:

 t / L
i (t )  I 0 e where 
R

1. The initial current i(0) = I0 through the

inductor.
2. The time constant  = L/R.
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The Source-Free RL Circuit…
Example 3
Find i and vx in the circuit.

Assume that i(0) = 5 A.

Answer:
  i(t) = 5e–53t A,

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The Source-Free RL Circuit..
Example 4
For the circuit shown below, find i(t) for t > 0.

Answer: i(t) = 2e–2t A

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Unit-Step Function
Singularity functions are functions that either are
discontinuous or have discontinuous derivatives
The three most widely used singularity functions in
circuit analysis are the
unit step,
unit impulse, and
unit ramp functions

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Unit-Step Function
 The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative
values of t and 1 for positive values of t.

 0, t0
u(t )  
1, t0

 0, t  to
u (t  to )  
1, t  to

 0, t   to
u (t  t o )  
1, t   to 37
Unit-Step Function…
 The voltage
0 , 𝑡 <𝑡 0
 𝑢 ( 𝑡 ) =
{
¿ 𝑉 0 , 𝑡 >𝑡 0

May be expressed in terms of the unit step functions as:

If we let the then is simply the step voltage

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Unit-Step Function…
Represent an abrupt change for:

1. voltage source.

2. for current source:

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The Step-Response of a RC Circuit
When the dc source of an RC circuit is suddenly applied,
the voltage or current source can be modeled as a step
function, and the response is known as a step response

The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the

excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or a
current source

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The Step-Response of a RC Circuit
 The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or
a current source.
• Initial condition:
v(0-) = v(0+) = V0

• Applying KCL,
dv v  Vs u (t )
c  0
dt R
or
dv v  Vs
 u (t )
dt RC
• Where u(t) is the unit-step function 41
The Step-Response of a RC Circuit
 Integrating both sides and considering the initial
conditions, the solution of the equation is:

V0 t0
v(t )   t / 
V
 s  (V0  V s ) e t 0

Final value Initial value Source-free

at t -> ∞ at t = 0 Response

Complete Response = Natural response + Forced Response

(stored energy) (independent source)

= V0e–t/τ + Vs(1–e–t/τ)
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The Step-Response of a RC Circuit

Three steps to find out the step response of an RC

circuit:
1. The initial capacitor voltage v(0).
2. The final capacitor voltage (steady state
value) v() — DC voltage across C.
3. The time constant .

t /
v (t )  v ()  [v (0)  v ()] e
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The Step-Response of a RC Circuit
Example 5
Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit in below. Assume
the switch has been open for a long time and is
closed at t = 0.
Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.

 
Answer: and

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The Step-response of a RL Circuit
The step response of a circuit is its behavior
when the excitation is the step function, which
may be a voltage or a current source.
•  Initial current
i(0-) = i(0+) = Io

• Final inductor current

i(∞) = /R

• Time constant t = L/R

t
Vs Vs 
i (t )   ( I o  )e 
R R
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The Step-Response of a RL Circuit
Three steps to find out the step response
of an RL circuit:
1. The initial inductor current i(0) at t = 0+.
2. The final inductor current i().
3. The time constant .

i (t )  i ()  [i (0 )  i ()] e  t /

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The Step-Response of a RL Circuit
Example 6
The switch in the circuit shown below has been
closed for a long time. It opens at t = 0.
Find i(t) for t > 0.

Answer: i (t )  2  e 10t

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48
Thank
You!!!
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